however, made no answer to it. Fearing, however, that she might make away
with herself he exhorted her again to be of good cheer, did not remove
any of her attendants, and kept a careful watch upon her, that she might
add brilliance to his triumph. Suspecting this, and regarding it as worse
than innumerable deaths, she began to desire really to die and begged
Caesar frequently that she might be allowed to perish in some way, and
devised many plans by herself. When she could accomplish nothing, she
feigned to change her mind and to repose great hope in him, as well as
great hope in Livia. She said she would sail voluntarily and made ready
many treasured adornments as gifts. In this way she hoped to inspire
confidence that she had no designs upon herself, and so be more free from
scrutiny and bring about her destruction. This also took place. The other
officials and Epaphroditus, to whom she had been committed, believed
that her state of mind was really as it seemed, and neglected to keep
a careful watch. She, meanwhile, was making preparations to die as
painlessly as possible. First she gave a sealed paper, in which she
begged Caesar to order that she be buried beside Antony, to Epaphroditus
himself to deliver, pretending that it contained some other matter.
Having by this excuse freed herself of his presence, she set to her task.
She put on her most beauteous apparel and after choosing a most becoming
pose, assumed all the royal robes and appurtenances, and so died.
[-14-] No one knows clearly in what manner she perished, for there were
found merely slight indentations on her arm. Some say that she applied
an asp which had been brought in to her in a water-jar or among some
flowers. Others declare that she had smeared a needle, with which she was
wont to braid her hair, with some poison possessed of such properties
that it would not injure the surface of the body at all, but if it
touched the least drop of blood it caused death very quickly and
painlessly. The supposition is, then, that previously it had been her
custom to wear it in her hair, and on this occasion after first making a
small scratch on her arm with some instrument, she dipped the needle in
the blood. In this or some very similar way she perished with her two
handmaidens. The eunuch, at the moment her body was taken up, presented
himself voluntarily to the serpents, and after being bitten by them
leaped into a coffin which had been prepared by him. Caesar on hearing of
her demise was shocked, and both viewed her body and applied drugs to
it and sent for Psylli,[71] in the hope that she might possibly revive.
These Psylli, who are male, for there is no woman born in their tribe,
have the power of sucking out before a person dies all the poison of
every reptile and are not harmed themselves when bitten by any such
creature. They are propagated from one another and they test their
offspring, the latter being thrown among serpents at once or having
serpents laid upon their swaddling-clothes. In such cases the poisonous
creatures do not harm the child and are benumbed by its clothing. This
is the nature of their function. But Caesar, when he could not in any way
resuscitate Cleopatra, felt admiration and pity for her and was himself
excessively grieved, as much as if he had been deprived of all the glory
of the victory.
[-15-] So Antony and Cleopatra, who had been the authors of many evils
to the Egyptians and to the Romans, thus fought and thus met death. They
were embalmed in the same fashion and buried in the same tomb. Their
spiritual qualities and the fortunes of their lives deserve a word of
comment.
Antony had no superior in comprehending his duty, yet he committed many
acts of folly. He was distinguished for his bravery in some cases, yet he
often failed through cowardice. He was characterized equally by greatness
of soul and a servile disposition of mind. He would plunder the property
of others, and still relinquish his own. He pitied many without cause and
chastised even a greater number unjustly.
Consequently, though he rose from weakness to great strength, and from
the depths of poverty to great riches, he drew no profit from either
circumstance, but whereas he had hoped to hold the Roman power alone, he
actually killed himself.
Cleopatra was of insatiable passion and insatiable avarice, was ambitious
for renown, and most scornfully bold. By the influence of love she won
dominion over the Egyptians, and hoped to attain a similar position over
the Romans, but being disappointed of this she destroyed herself also.
She captivated two of the men who were the greatest Romans of her day,
and because of the third she committed suicide.
Such were these two persons, and in this way did they pass from the
scene. Of their children Antyllus was slain immediately, though he was
betrothed to the daughter of Caesar, and had taken refuge in his father's
hero-shrine which Cleopatra had built. Caesarion was fleeing to Ethiopia,
but was overtaken on the road and murdered. Cleopatra was married to Juba
the son of Juba. To this man, who had been brought up in Italy and
had been with him on campaigns, Caesar gave the maid and her ancestral
kingdom, and he granted them the lives of Alexander and Ptolemy. To his
nieces, children of Antony by Octavia and reared by her, he assigned
money from their father's estate. He also ordered his freedmen to give at
once to Iullus, the child of Antony and Fulvia, everything which by law
they were obliged to bequeath him at their death. [-16-] As for the rest
who had until then been connected with Antony's cause, he punished some
and released others, either from personal motives or to oblige his
friends. And since there were found at the court many children of
potentates and kings who were being supported, some as hostages and
others for the display of wanton power, he sent some back to their homes,
joined others in marriage with one another, and kept possession of still
others. I shall omit most of these cases and mention only two. He freely
restored Iotape to the Median king, who had found an asylum with him
after the defeat, but refused the request of Artaxes that his brothers be
sent him, because this prince had put to death the Romans left behind in
Armenia. This was the disposition he made of such captives.
The Egyptians and Alexandrians were all spared, and Caesar did not injure
one of them. The truth was that he did not see fit to visit any extreme
vengeance upon so great a people, who might prove very useful to the
Romans in many ways. He nevertheless offered the pretext that he wished
to please their god Serapis, Alexander their founder, and, third, Areus
a citizen, who was a philosopher and enjoyed his society. The speech in
which he proclaimed to them his pardon he spoke in Greek, so that they
might understand him. After this he viewed the body of Alexander and also
touched it, at which a piece of the nose, it is said, was crushed. But he
would not go to see the remains of the Ptolemies, though the Alexandrians
were extremely anxious to show them, for he said: "I wanted to see a
king, and not corpses." For the same reason he would not enter the
presence of Apis, declaring that he was "accustomed to worship gods and
not cattle." [-17-] Soon after he made Egypt tributary and gave it in
charge of Cornelius Gallus. In view of the populousness of both cities
and country, and the facile, fickle character of the inhabitants, and the
importance of grain supplies and revenue, so far from daring to entrust
the land to any senator he would not even grant one permission to live in
it, unless he made the concession to some one _nominatim_. On the other
hand, he did not allow the Egyptians to be senators in Rome, but
after considering individual cases on their merits he commanded the
Alexandrians to conduct their government without senators; with such
capacity for revolution did he credit them. And of the system then
imposed upon them most details are rigorously preserved to the present
day, but there are senators in Alexandria, beginning first under the
emperor Severus, and they also may serve in Rome, having first been
enrolled in the senate in the reign of his son Antoninus.
Thus was Egypt enslaved. All of the inhabitants who resisted were subdued
after a time, as, indeed, Heaven very clearly indicated to them would
occur. For it rained not only water, where previously no drop had ever
fallen, but also blood. At the same time that this was falling from the
clouds glimpses were caught of armor. Elsewhere there was the clashing of
drums and cymbals and the notes of flutes and trumpets. A serpent of huge
size was suddenly seen and gave a hiss incredibly loud. Meanwhile comet
stars came frequently into view and ghosts of the dead took shape. The
statues frowned: Apis bellowed a lament and shed tears. Such was the
status of things in that respect.
In the palace quantities of money were found. Cleopatra had taken
practically all the offerings from even the holiest shrines and so helped
to swell the spoils of the Romans, while the latter on their own part
incurred no defilement. Large sums were also obtained from every man
under accusation. More than that, all the rest against whom no personal
complaint could be brought had two-thirds of their property demanded of
them. Out of this all the soldiers got what was still owing to them, and
those who were with Caesar at that time secured in addition two hundred
and fifty denarii apiece for not plundering the city. All was made good
to those who had previously loaned anything, and to both senators and
knights who had taken part in the war great sums were given. In fine, the
Roman empire was enriched and its temples adorned.
[-18-] After attending to the matters before mentioned Caesar founded
there also on the site of the battle a city and gave to it likewise a
name and dedicatory games, as in the previous instance. In regard to the
canals he cleared out some of them and dug others over again, and he also
settled important questions. Then he went through Syria into the province
of Asia and passed the winter there attending to the business of the
subject nations in detail and likewise to that of the Parthians. There
had been disputes among them and a certain Tiridates had risen against
Phraates; as long as Antony's opposition lasted, even after the naval
battle, Caesar had not only not attached himself to either side, though
they sought his alliance, but made no other answer than that he would
think it over. His excuse was that he was busy with Egypt, but in reality
he wanted them meantime to exhaust themselves by fighting against each
other. Now that Antony was dead and of the two combatants Tiridates,
defeated, had taken refuge in Syria, and Phraates, victorious, had sent
envoys, he negotiated with the latter in a friendly manner: and without
promising to aid Tiridates, he allowed him to live in Syria. He received
a son of Phraates as a mark of friendliness, and took the youth to Rome,
where he kept him as a hostage.
[-19-] Meanwhile, and still earlier, the Romans at home had passed many
resolutions respecting the victory at sea. They granted Caesar a triumph
(over Cleopatra) and granted him an arch bearing a trophy at Brundusium,
and another one in the Roman Forum. Moreover, the lower part of the
Julian hero-shrine was to be adorned with the beaks of the captive ships
and a festival every five years to be celebrated in his honor. There
should be a thanksgiving on his birthday and on the anniversary of the
announcement of the victory: when he entered the city the (vestal virgin)
priestesses, the senate and the people, with their wives and children,
were to meet him. It is quite superfluous to mention the prayers, the
images, the privileges of front seats, and everything else of the sort.
At the very first they both voted him these honors, and either tore down
or erased the memorials that had lent Antony distinction. They declared
the day on which the latter had been born accursed and forbade the
employment of the surname Marcus by any one of his kin. His death was
announced during a part of the year when Cicero, the son of Cicero, was
consul; and on ascertaining this some believed it had come to pass not
without divine direction, since the consul's father had owed his death
chiefly to Antony. Then they voted to Caesar additional crowns and many
thanksgivings, and granted him among other rights authority to conduct a
triumph over the Egyptians also. For neither previously nor at that time
did they mention by name Antony and the rest of the Romans who had
been vanquished with him, and so imply that it was proper to hold a
celebration over them. The day on which Alexandria was captured they
declared fortunate and directed that for the years to come it should be
taken as the starting-point of enumeration by the inhabitants of that
town.[72] Also Caesar was to hold the tribunician power for life, to have
the right to defend such as called upon him for help both within the
pomerium and outside to the distance of eight half-stadia (a privilege
possessed by none of the tribunes), as also to judge appealed cases; and
a vote of his, like the vote of Athena,[73] was to be cast in all the
courts. In the prayers in behalf of the people and the senate petitions
should be offered for him alike by the priests and by the priestesses.
They also ordered that at all banquets, not only public but private also,
all should pour a libation to him. These were the resolutions passed at
that time.
[B.C. 29 (_a. u._ 725)]
[-20-] When he was consul for the fifth time with Sextus Apuleius, they
ratified all his acts by oath on the very first day of January. And when
the letter came regarding the Parthians, they decreed that he should
have a place in hymns along with the gods, that a tribe should be named
"Julian" after him, that he should wear the triumphal crown during the
progress of all the festivals, that the senators who had participated in
his victory should take part in the procession wearing purple-bordered
togas, and that the day on which he should enter the city should be
glorified by sacrifices by the entire population and be held ever sacred.
They further agreed that he might choose priests beyond the specified
number, as many and as often as he should wish. This custom was handed
down from that decision and the numbers have increased till they are
boundless: hence I need go into no particulars about the multitude of
such officials. Caesar accepted most of the honors (save only a few):
but that all the population of the city should meet him he particularly
requested might not occur. Yet he was pleased most of all and more than
at all the other decrees by the fact that the senators closed the gates
of Janus, implying that all their wars had ceased,--and took the "augury
of health," [74] which had all this period been omitted for reasons I have
mentioned. For there were still under arms the Treveri, who had brought
the Celts to help them, the Cantabri, Vaccaei, and Astures. These last
were subjugated by Statilius Taurus, and those first mentioned by Nonius
Gallus. There were numerous other disturbances going on in the isolated
districts. Since, however, nothing of importance resulted from any of
them, the Romans of that time did not consider that war was in progress
and I have nothing notable to record about them. Caesar meanwhile was
giving his attention to various business, and granted permission that
precincts dedicated to Rome and to Caesar his father,--calling him "the
Julian hero,"--should be set apart in Ephesus and in Nicaea. These
cities had at that time attained chief place in Asia and in Bithynia
respectively. To these two divinities he ordered the Romans who dwelt
near them to pay honor. He allowed the foreigners (under the name of
"Hellenes") to establish a precinct to himself,--the Asians having
theirs in Pergamum and the Bithynians theirs in Nicomedea. This custom,
beginning with him, has continued in the case of other emperors, and
imperial precincts have been hallowed not only among Hellenic nations
but in all the rest which yield obedience to the Romans. In the capital
itself and in the rest of Italy there is no one, however, no matter how
great renown he has achieved, that has dared to do this. Still, even
there, after their death, honors as to gods are bestowed upon those who
have ruled uprightly, and hero-shrines are built.
[-21-] All this took place in the winter, during which the Pergamenians
also received authority to celebrate the so-called "Sacred" contest in
honor of his temple. In the course of the summer Caesar crossed over to
Greece and on to Italy. Among the others who offered sacrifice, as
has been mentioned, when he entered the City, was the consul Valerius
Potitus. Caesar was consul all the year, as the two previous, but Potitus
was the successor of Sextus. It was he who publicly and in person
sacrificed oxen in behalf of the senate and of the people at Caesar's
arrival, something that had never before been done in the case of any
single man. After this his newly returned colleague praised and honored
his lieutenants, as had been the custom. Among the many marks of favor by
which Caesar distinguished Agrippa was the dark blue symbol[75] of naval
supremacy. To his soldiers also he made certain presents: to the people
he distributed a hundred denarii each, first to those ranking as adults,
and afterward to the children as a mark of his affection for his nephew
Marcellus. Further let it be noted that he would not accept from the
cities of Italy the gold to be used for the crowns. Moreover he paid
everything which he himself owed to any one and, as has been said, he did
not exact what the others were owing to him. All this caused the Romans
to forget every unpleasantness, and they viewed his triumph with
pleasure, quite as if the defeated parties had all been foreigners. So
vast an amount of money circulated through all the city alike that the
price of goods rose and loans which had previously been in demand at
twelve per cent. were now made at one-third that rate. The celebration
on the first day was in honor of the wars against the Pannonians and
Dalmatians, Iapudia and adjoining territory, and a few Celts and Gauls.
Graius Carrinas had subdued the Morini and some others who had risen
against Roman dominion, and had repulsed the Suevi, who had crossed the
Rhine to wage war. Therefore he too held a triumph, in spite of the fact
that his father had been put to death by Sulla and he himself had once
been prevented from holding office with the rest of his peers. Caesar
also held one since the credit of this victory properly pertained to his
position as imperator.
These were the celebrations on the first day. On the second came the
commemoration of the naval victory at Actium; on the third that of the
subjugation of Egypt. All the processions proved notable by reason of the
spoils from this land,--so many had been gathered that they sufficed for
all the occasions,--but this Egyptian celebration was especially costly
and magnificent. Among other features a representation of Cleopatra upon
the bed of death was carried by, so that in a way she too was seen with
the other captives, and with Alexander, otherwise Helios, and Cleopatra,
otherwise Selene, her children, and helped to grace the triumph. Behind
them all Caesar came driving and did everything according to custom except
that he allowed his fellow-consul and the other magistrates, contrary
to custom, to follow him with the senators who had participated in the
victory. It had been usual for such dignitaries to lead and for only the
senators to follow.[76]
[-22-] After completing this, he dedicated the temple of Minerva, called
also the Chalcidicum, and the Julian senate-house, which had been built
in honor of his father.[77] In it he set up the statue of Victory which
is still in existence, probably signifying that it was from her that he
had received his dominion. It belonged to the Tarentini, and had been
brought from there to Rome, where it was placed in the senate-chamber and
decked with the spoils of Egypt. The spoils were also employed at this
time for adorning the Julian hero-shrine, when it was consecrated. Many
of them were placed as offerings in it and others were dedicated to
Capitoline Jupiter and Juno and Minerva, while all the votive gifts that
were thought to have previously reposed there or were still reposing were
now by decree taken down as defiled. Thus Cleopatra, although defeated
and captured, was nevertheless glorified, because her adornments repose
in our temples and she herself is seen in gold in the shrine of Venus.
At the consecration of the hero-shrine there were all sorts of contests,
and the children of the nobles performed the Troy equestrian exercise.
Men who were their peers also contended on chargers and pairs and
three-horse teams. A certain Quintus Vitellius, a senator, fought as a
gladiator. All kinds of wild beasts and kine were slain by the wholesale,
among them a rhinoceros and a hippopotamus, then seen for the first time
in Rome. Many have described the appearance of the hippo and it has been
seen by many more. As for the rhinoceros, it is in most respects like
an elephant, but has a projecting horn at the very tip of its nose and
through this fact has received its name. Besides the introduction of
these beasts Dacians and Suebi fought in throngs with each other. The
latter are Celts, the former a species of Scythian. The Suebi, to be
exact, dwell across the Rhine (though many cities elsewhere claim their
name), and the Dacians on both sides of the Ister. Such of them, however,
as live on this side of it and near the Triballic country are reckoned in
with the district of Moesia and are called Moesi save among those who
are in the very neighborhood. Such as are on the other side are called
Dacians, and are either a branch of the Getae or Thracians belonging to
the Dacian race that once inhabited Rhodope. Now these Dacians had before
this time sent envoys to Caesar: but when they obtained none of their
requests, they turned away to follow Antony. To him, however, they were
of no great assistance, owing to disputes among themselves. Some were
consequently captured and later set to fight the Suebi.
The whole spectacle lasted naturally a number of days. There was no
intermission in spite of a sickness of Caesar's, but it was carried on
in his absence, under the direction of others. During its course the
senators on one day severally held banquets in the entrance to their
homes. Of what moved them to this I have no knowledge, for it has not
been recorded. Such was the progress of the events of those days.
[-23-] While Caesar was yet in his fourth consulship Statilius Taurus had
both constructed at his own expense and dedicated with armed combat a
hunting-theatre of stone on the Campus Martius. On this account he was
permitted by the people to choose one of the praetors year after year.
During this same period Marcus Crassus was sent into Macedonia and Greece
and carried on war with the Dacians and Bastarnae. It has already been
stated who the former were and how they had been made hostile. The
Bastarnae are properly classed as Scythians and at this time had crossed
the Ister and subdued the part of Moesia opposite them, then the Triballi
who live near it, and the Dardani who inhabit the Triballian country.
While they were so engaged they had no trouble with the Romans. But when
they crossed the Haemus and overran the portion of Thrace belonging to the
Dentheleti who had a compact with Rome, then Crassus, partly to defend
Sitas king of the Dentheleti, who was blind, but chiefly because of fear
for Macedonia, came out to meet them. By his mere approach, he threw them
into a panic and drove them from the land without a conflict. Next he
pursued them, as they were retiring homeward, gained possession of the
district called Segetica, and invading Moesia damaged that territory. He
made an assault upon a strong fortification, also, and though his advance
line met with a rebuff,--the Moesians making a sally against it, because
they thought these were all of the enemy,--still, when he came to the
rescue with his whole remaining army he both cut his opponents down in
open fight and annihilated them by an ambuscade.