[102] _Vide_ ‘Proceedings of the Institu_The Municipal and Sanitary Engineer's Handbook

i. p. 6.

[103] Trinidad bitumen is best, but it has to be refined before it can

be used. This is done by cooking it with shale oil, then straining it

and decanting it, which is a troublesome and tedious process, and

there is great danger of fraud being practised. Good bitumen can be

detected by its elasticity and softness when rolled between the finger

and thumb, and also by its smell.

[104] _Vide_ ‘Proceedings of the Institution of Civil Engineers,’ vol.

xliii. p. 293.

[105] _Ibid_, vol. xliii. p. 293.

[106] A rule is sometimes made that York flags should be ¹⁄₂-inch

thick for every square foot of surface, but they should never be less

than 2 inches thick.

[107] _Vide_ ‘Roads, Streets, and Pavements,’ by Q. A. Gillmore, p.

208.

[108] Sawdust 2 feet in thickness has sometimes been used, well rammed

and rolled.

[109] The town of Brighton is an instance of this. Ordinary red bricks

used to be laid as a footpath, no doubt to give a rural appearance for

the eye of the jaded Londoner, but these are giving place to more

modern materials.

CHAPTER XII.

KERBING AND CHANNELLING, ETC.

For all footpaths both urban and sub-urban a kerb of some description is

necessary to be fixed on the outside of the footpath, for the following

reasons:

(1.) It acts as a sill against which the material of which the footpath

is paved may butt.

(2.) It retains both the foundation and surface of the footpath.

(3.) Whether there is a paved channel gutter or not, a kerb is necessary

in order to finish the haunches of the roadway.

(4.) The appearance of a footpath without kerbing is very unsightly.

(5.) Unless a footpath is raised above the roadway it is liable to be

flooded.

Many materials are used for kerb, of which granite being the best is

generally used in streets where there is much traffic, as the kerb is

often subjected to severe blows from the passing vehicular traffic as

well as a grinding action from the wheels of waggons and other heavy

vehicles, especially on gradients where “hugging” the kerb acts as a

drag or break. In such cases granite, although the most expensive in the

first case, is certainly the most economical, and no other material

should ever be used.

Granite kerb varies in dimensions considerably in different localities

and according to the width of the footpaths, the wider the path the

wider should be the kerb. It should however never be of less depth than

9 inches, nor narrower than 4 inches; depth is necessary to prevent the

kerb turning over towards the channel gutter, or water table as it is

sometimes termed, and the filling in on the gutter side must also be

well rammed with a bar to prevent this. Kerb should never be in less

lengths than 3 feet, and when 8 inches and broader it is better that the

top surface should be bevelled off to conform with the slope of the

footpath, but in narrower kerbing such a practice is unnecessary, and if

carried to an extreme may even be dangerous.

The kerb should be drafted about 1 inch along both top edges and hammer

dressed about 5 inches on the face, in addition to the whole surface of

the top and for 3 inches at the back, in order that there may be a

smooth surface visible against the channel gutter, and also for the

flagging or other paving to butt fair against, besides giving a clean

appearance to the aris of kerb both inside and out.

The following section of an 8-inch granite kerb will explain this:

[Illustration]

The top surface should always be tooled or axed whenever it has worn

smooth and slippery, as a slip from a kerbstone often causes a very bad

fall to a pedestrian.

Setting kerb requires a very experienced hand, for as it is set dry

great care must be shown, or it will sink, turn slightly over, or move

even months after it has been set. In addition to this it is heavy stuff

to handle, but unless the line is accurate both as regards level and

contour, the appearance will be exceedingly bad. Of course the skillet

line and boning rods are freely used in setting kerb, but even with

these helps one mason will set kerb in a pleasing manner, whilst

another, with even more care, does not seem able to make it appear

graceful.

Deep and narrow kerb should be bedded on good clean river gravel, and

beaten into its place with hard blows from a heavy wooden setting maul

or beetle weighing not less than 50 lbs.

Broader and shallower kerb should be bedded on concrete.

In addition to granite, kerbing is also made of Endon or Yorkshire

stone, limestone, and for brick pavements a kerb specially made of the

same material is generally used; it is also, though not often in this

country, constructed of wood, old railway sleepers being used for the

purpose. In the more rural districts grass sods are used with good

effect for gravel paths.

It is difficult to estimate the cost of kerbing, as local questions must

interfere, carriage of the material and value of labour entering so

largely into the question.

Mr. Codrington[110] states that “A limestone kerb about 1 foot deep and

4 inches wide costs from 2_s._ 6_d._ to 3_s._ 6_d._ per lineal yard, and

a channel 10 inches wide by 6 inches thick rather more.

“Granite kerbs 12 inches wide by 9 inches deep, 6_s._ 6_d._ to 7_s._ per

yard run.

“Granite channel 12 inches wide by 6 inches deep, 4_s._ 6_d._ per lineal

yard.

“A channel 12 inches wide, formed of granite cubes 4 inches by 7 inches,

costs about the same.”

I have found that granite kerb 6 by 12 inches could be fixed “_in situ_”

at 3_s._ 3_d._ per yard run, and 8 by 12 inches at 4_s._ 6_d._ per

lineal yard.

Granite channelling composed of 3 courses of granite pitchers 6 by 8

inches, costing 5_s._ 6_d._ per lineal yard.

Limestone channelling 15 inches in width by 3 inches in depth, costing

3_s._ per lineal yard.

A paved channel, gutter, or water table is of the greatest use to a

roadway, besides adding greatly to its appearance. Without such a

channel the haunches of a road become sadly damaged by the wash of the

surface water, which is sometimes so extreme as to undermine the kerb

and cause it to fall out.

These channel gutters are made of different materials for macadamised

roads, granite setts laid in the direction of the gutter being the best.

A channel gutter should not be less than 18 inches wide, so that if made

with ordinary 3-inch setts, 6 courses will be necessary; they should be

bedded on gravel and well grouted in with lime or cement grouting.

Sometimes granite slabs 18 inches wide by 3 or 4 inches thick are used

and make an excellent gutter, they are however liable to tip under heavy

loads. Limestone slabs can also be used in roads of light traffic with

advantage.

In streets paved with granite setts, wood blocks or asphalte, the same

material is used for the channelling, the setts or blocks being however

bedded in line with the channel instead of transversely as in the street

itself.

The channel gutter should take the slope of the roadway and the granite

kerb should show from 3 to 5 inches above it. At paved crossings it is

well to keep them level with the kerb so that pedestrians may step off

the path on to the crossing without any drop, or if there is any water

in them at such points, it is a good plan to let the edge of the

crossing drop rather suddenly towards the kerb, so that the ordinary

stride of the pedestrian carries him on to the level.

Gulley gratings or buddle holes should be placed along the line of

channel at such intervals as may be found necessary. A great number of

different forms have been from time to time introduced for this purpose,

the objects to be considered being:

(1.) Sufficient area to carry off all the water.

(2.) Not easily choked on surface by leaves or other debris.

(3.) Sufficiency of pit to retain all sand or road detritus and prevent

it being washed into the sewer.

(4.) The least possible obstruction to the traffic.

(5.) Constructed so that the pit may easily be cleaned out.

(6.) Trapped so as to prevent the escape of sewer gas.[111]

(7.) The drain from it should be easily freed of any obstruction.

One of the best forms of gully pit is that manufactured by Messrs. Oates

and Green of Halifax, as it meets nearly all the requirements which I

have summarised as being necessary for this description of work. The

following drawing will explain itself:

[Illustration]

What is called a “buddle hole,” which is an opening under the kerb, has

much to recommend it as giving a free unobstructed waterway and at the

same time avoiding the necessity of a grating in the street itself. The

following drawing will explain the general features of this

“buddle-hole:”

[Illustration]

A great number of different descriptions and forms of gully pits are

shown in Mr. Baldwin Latham’s excellent book on sanitary engineering, to

which I refer my readers for any further information upon this subject.

[110] ‘The Maintenance of Macadamised Roads,’ by Thomas Codrington, p.

18.

[111] In many towns the gully gratings are purposely in direct

communication with the sewers, so as to act as ventilators.

CHAPTER XIII.

LIGHTING STREETS.

At the present moment the question of lighting streets by electricity is

gaining so much attention, that it must necessarily be first considered

in connection with the subject of lighting streets: but to enter fully

into all the details and comparative merits of electricity and gas as

applied to street lighting would entail more space than can be afforded

in this work. It may however be of some use, even under the present

state of uncertainty, if I attempt to condense as much information upon

this necessary part of a surveyor’s duty into as small a compass as

possible. Nor must it be forgotten that electric lighting will not

easily be adapted in old cities and towns, where, in addition to the

main streets being narrow and crooked, there are few large open spaces

suitable for intense lights, and there are numerous small courts and

alleys which require lighting, and this for a long time to come will

probably be effected with gas.[112]

Section 161 of the Public Health Act 1875 enacts as follows:

“Any urban authority may contract with any person for the supply of gas

or other means of lighting the streets, markets, and public buildings in

their district, and may provide such lamps, lamp-posts and other

materials and apparatus as they may think necessary for lighting the

same. . . .” (38 and 39 Vic. c. 55, s. 161.)

I do not propose to entertain the question of lighting where the gas

works are the property of the corporation, but only to give information

that may be of use where a contract has to be entered into between the

corporation and a company. These contracts are based nearly always upon

the length of time at which the public lamps are to be kept lighted, and

may be summarised as follows:

(1.) The public lamps are lighted from sunset to sunrise every night

throughout the year; this averages 12 hours per diem, or about 4000

hours per annum.

(2.) The public lamps are not lighted on the nights of full moon, nor

for two or three nights before and after this period; the rest of the

year they are lighted at sunset.

(3.) Similar to the preceding, except that the public lamps are not

lighted during the five nights of full moon, the night after they are

lighted for one hour and extinguished on the rising of the moon; this

lighting increases from night to night about three quarters of an hour

until the moon has entirely disappeared, when the lamps are lighted

during the whole of the night for five consecutive nights. Then again on

the appearance of the new moon the lamps are extinguished the first

night for about an hour that the moon is visible, and this extension

increases nightly about three quarters of an hour according as the moon

appears until the period of full moon, the intention being to profit by

every hour of the moon’s light.

By this arrangement the lighting is about 2000 hours per annum, instead

of 4000 hours, when it is continued throughout the night during the

whole of the year.

(4.) Sometimes, in addition to the foregoing, the lamps are not lighted

at all during the summer months.

(5.) Occasionally the public lamps are extinguished at midnight all the

year round, if not for the whole, for some portions of the district, it

being assumed that all respectable citizens being in bed, no light is

required.

(6.) In some cases every other lamp only is lighted in the summer

months, and many other similar variations for the sake of economy may be

practised.

(7.) The public lamps are sometimes supplied by gas through meters,

which is then paid for at so much per 1000 cubic feet consumed.

Of all the above methods the first is undoubtedly the most satisfactory

to the inhabitants, the urban authority, their officers, and the gas

company; it is the least likely to introduce disputes, and although

something may be saved by adopting the more parsimonious methods

enumerated, it is found in practice that the first is the best.

In drawing up an agreement with the gas company to light the public

street lamps for any length of time, the following points must be

considered.

_Hints for a Contract with a Gas Company._

The company to provide a sufficient supply of gas of the full

illuminating power and quality as provided by their Act.

Payment to be at so much per lamp, or per 1000 cubic feet consumed, or

at per hour, or whatever may be determined on.

Payment to be made by urban authority for lighting, extinguishing,

cleaning, repairing, etc., as may be agreed, such payments to be made

quarterly, or at such times as may be agreed upon.

The hours or times throughout the year during which the lamps shall be

lighted to be determined by a table, every lamp to be fully lighted

within one hour of the time named, and not extinguished before that

named for extinguishing. The consumption of the gas to be regulated and

determined by Sugg’s or Borradaile’s street lamp governors, or such

other mode as is agreed upon.

The company to keep the governors and burners in repair, and also the

lanterns, at a fixed sum per lamp per annum.

The company to light and extinguish, and keep all lanterns clean, and

all pipes, valves, etc., in repair.

The company to keep the lamp posts etc., properly painted after they are

fixed by the urban authority. Lamps may be shifted or fresh lamps

erected by the urban authority, on their paying the cost.

The company not to be compelled to supply gas to lamps which are beyond

a certain distance of their existing mains, without compensation.

A certain pressure of gas must be maintained, to be ascertained by water

gauges fixed at certain public places, or at such points as may be

determined.

Any lamps burning under size or out, shall be immediately attended to by

the company. A deduction in payment for gas by the urban authority to be

made if neglect can be proved. An arbitration clause is necessary for

this or other matters that may be disputed, and also a clause for

determining the agreement upon notice being given.

In supplying gas to the public lamps by meter, either wet or dry meters

may be employed, and these are fixed either in the lamp posts themselves

or under the footpath. Sometimes each lamp has a separate meter, but in

the generality of cases one meter fixed to a lamp gives the average of

gas consumed by ten or a dozen of its fellows at the same level, and in

the same neighbourhood. The difficulties arising from this system are:

(1.) The liability of the meters to get out of repair, especially in

times of severe frost, or by vibration of traffic.

(2.) The first cost of providing and fixing the meters, and subsequent

cost of repairs.

(3.) The trouble and cost of inspection and keeping the accounts.

And it is found that by employing either “Borradaile’s,” “Sugg’s,” or

other regulators the consumption of the gas can be readily adjusted to

consume from 3 to 6 cubic feet per hour, according to the requirements

of the situation of the lamp.[113]

Lamp posts and lanterns are of innumerable sizes, shapes, and patterns,

but the following hints in connection with them may be of some service.

The lamp must not only be ornamental by day, but useful by night.

The light must not be placed either too high or too low.

The post must not be too clumsy so as to interfere with the pedestrian

traffic, nor too fragile so as to be easily broken if driven against.

Bracket lamps have advantages in these respects, and also in the very

important one of throwing no downward shadow,[114] as well as being

cheaper.

The lantern should be made with the lightest possible amount of metal

frame compatible with sufficient strength, the angle bars should be very

narrow to avoid shadow, trap doors of perforated zinc or glass should be

provided at the bottom for the admission of the torch, and a good outlet

at the top is essential for the escape of the heated air. Flat glass is

much cheaper and easier of repair than curved. The top of the lantern

should be furnished with a reflector cover, otherwise a large percentage

of the light is lost: this is very observable on approaching a large

city, by the glare which is thrown upwards. Some hundreds of different

patterns of lanterns for street lamps have been designed from time to

time, and it is not necessary, nor have I space, to describe them.

The burners should have steatite tips and be of varying size to suit the

requirements of the locality, the regulators which I have previously

mentioned must be kept in good repair. A lever tap is indispensable with

the torch for lighting, as well as the trap door or opening in the

bottom of the lantern through which the torch is inserted.

Each public lamp post should be legibly numbered, and the surveyor

should keep a register in his office of all the public lamps in his

town.

In order to determine the distance apart of the public lamps in a

street, it must be remembered that the intensity of light is directly

proportional to the illuminating power of the light, and inversely

proportional to the square of the distance of the light, if unreflected.

For instance, the illumination of any point between lamps may be arrived

at by adding all the quotients obtained by dividing the illuminating

power in standard sperm candles of each lamp, by the square of its

distance in yards from the point.

Thus a point midway between two lamps of 15 candles each, 20 yards

apart, would be reckoned thus:

15 15

X = --- + --- = ·30

100 100

In this country, the rule has generally been adopted that public street

lamps burning 5 cube feet per hour of 15 candle gas should not be placed

at a greater distance than 60 yards apart, the average distance in most

English towns being about 40 yards.

On this question, the following interesting particulars by Monsieur

Servier will be of special interest.[115]

It appears to M. Servier that up to the present there has been too much

straining after intensity, with insufficient care for the object of

obtaining a proper quantity of light uniformly spread over the surface

of the ground. The paper in question is therefore intended in the first

place to elucidate this latter subject, so as to determine beforehand

the necessary intensity for luminous centres, gas or electric, and also

their height from the ground and distance from each other required to

produce a certain effect. With this purpose M. Servier proposes to

determine for any point of the road-surface, by the law of the squares

of the distances, the intensity of light, in terms of the Carcel

standard, which is spread at that point by one or more lights of given

power. Representing these intensities by proportional ordinates, the

extremities of these ordinates form an irregular surface, and the volume

contained between this surface and that of the roadway represents a

specific value equivalent to the total luminous intensity distributed

over the soil. In default of a better term, M. Servier calls this a

volume of _cubic Carcels_, a cubic Carcel being the intensity of a

Carcel (9·5 standard candles) multiplied by a square mètre of surface.

The different cases capable of being valued in this manner are as

follows:

1. A burner consuming 140 litres (5 cubic feet nearly), and of 1·1

Carcels (10·45 candles) illuminating power, placed at the height of 3

mètres (9 feet 6 inches). This burner gives at the foot of the

lamp-pillar a maximum intensity of 0·122 Carcel (1·159 candles), and at

10 mètres (32·8 feet) away the illuminating power is reduced to 0·01

Carcel (0·095 candle). The distance of 20 to 30 mètres kept between the

street lamps, even in the best-lighted towns, is therefore excessive,

for these should not be more than 13 mètres (14 yards) apart in order to

obtain between them the minimum illuminating power of 0·05 Carcel (0·475

candle), sufficient for enabling passengers to read.

2. The second case is that of a burner consuming 1400 litres (50 cubic

feet nearly) of gas, with an illuminating intensity of 14 Carcels (133

candles), placed at the height of 3·20 mètres; this being the class of

burner fixed in the Rue du Quatre Septembre. The intensity of light at

the foot of the lamp-pillar is 1·367 Carcels (13 candles nearly), and to

obtain the light of 0·05 Carcel (0·475 candle) already mentioned as the

least intensity enabling one to read, a point must be fixed in a circle

of 16 mètres radius from the lamp as a centre. Taking now a group of six

lamp-columns, three on each side of the street, and overlapping, as in

the Rue du Quatre Septembre, it will be found that the distribution of

light is defective. The most brilliantly lighted point at the foot of

the column has an intensity of 1·367 Carcels (13 candles), or more than

triple that of the darkest point, which has an intensity of 0·5 Carcel

(4·75 candles) at 4·58 mètres distance.

3. A lamp of 50-Carcel (475-candle) power, gas or electric, fixed at the

height of 8 mètres (26·24 feet). The illuminating intensity at the point

vertically under the light is reduced to 0·7 Carcel (6·65 candles); but

the light of 0·5 Carcel (4·75 candles) is to be found in a circle of 6

mètres radius from this point. It will therefore be observed that _the

distribution of light over the ground is better in proportion as the

luminous centre is higher_; but conversely also, _the amount of light

thrown on the ground is greater as the luminous centre is lower_. It

consequently results that the power of the light and its height should

be determined in every case with reference to the effect desired. The

method shortly described shows that, in the case of the lighting of the

Rue du Quatre Septembre, the mean amount of light per square mètre of

the roadway is 855 _décicarcel-cubes_, the best lighted parts having an

intensity of 1·62 cubic Carcels, and the darkest portions an intensity

of 0·50 cubic Carcel.

M. Servier has examined the question of lighting a street 20 mètres wide

and one or more kilomètres long, with the condition that the

illumination of the ground shall present a mean determinate quantity of

light per square mètre, or a given intensity at the darkest points. Some

interesting results are thus obtained. Thus, by substituting for the

14-Carcel (133-candle) lamps in the Rue du Quatre Septembre, burners of

50-Carcel (475-candle) power, with the condition of giving the same

intensity of 0·5 Carcel (4·75 candles) to the darkest points, a quantity

of light more considerable than before will be required. That is, a

greater number of Carcels (3000 as against 1848 per kilomètre in length)

will be necessary in the larger burners than were required in the

original smaller lamps. It is therefore imperative, in order that the

lighting shall be equally economical, that the unit of intensity--the

Carcel or candle power--shall be less costly in a lamp of 50 Carcel (or

475-candle power) than in the smaller lamps. By fixing lamps of

50-Carcel (475-candle) power in the centre of the street, instead of

along the side walks, maintaining the condition of giving the light of

0·5 Carcel (4·75 candles) in the darkest parts of the thoroughfares, it

is found that the pillars must be 8 mètres high and 20 mètres apart. The

best-lighted part of the road would then have the intensity of 1 Carcel

(9·5 candles), and would therefore be only twice as brilliantly lighted

as the darkest corner; the mean quantity light per square mètre would be

755 _décicarcel-cubes_.

Lastly, the same method of lighting has been applied to the “ordinary,”

as distinguished from the “luxurious” lighting of the public

thoroughfares, assumed to be 20 mètres wide, giving a light of 0·05

Carcel (0·475 candle) at the darkest points. With ordinary street

burners consuming 200 litres (7 cubic feet) of gas per hour, and giving

1·72-Carcel (16·34-candle) power, it is found that the lamps should be

18 mètres (20 yards nearly) apart, the burners being 3 mètres (9 feet 10

inches) high. With burners of 14-Carcel (133-candle) power placed at the

height of 3·20 mètres (10 feet 6 inches), the lamp-pillars would be 106

mètres (115 yards) apart. Or with lamps of 50-Carcel (475-candle) power

placed at a height of 8 mètres (26·24 feet), the distance between the

pillars may be increased to 270 mètres (494 yards).

In the case of electric lighting M. Servier has studied two

examples--the Jablochkoff candle, and an arc light (system not stated).

The former is credited with the illuminating power of 16 Carcels (152

candles), and is fixed at the height of 5 mètres (16 feet 3 inches), on

pillars 110 mètres (120 yards) apart. This would give a light of 0·65

Carcel (6·27 candles) at the foot of the pillar, and a minimum intensity

of 0·05 Carcel (0·475 candle) midway between the lights. The arc light

is purposely made exactly equal in computed efficiency to the larger

Siemens burner of 50 Carcels (475 candles). In the matter of expense,

however, using the data applicable to Paris, with 12-candle gas at 6_s._

6_d._ per 1000 cubic feet, M. Servier makes a striking comparison. The

cost of lighting a kilomètre of road in the “ordinary” manner last

described varies very little for the three classes of gas lamps--small,

large, and very powerful--included in the calculation, and ranges from

3·33 frs. to 3·96 frs. per hour. The cost of the same work done by the

Jablochkoff candle is estimated at about double, or 6·91 frs. per hour;

and with the arc light the cost would be 4 frs., or still higher than

with the most costly system of gas lighting, although less than the

expense of the Jablochkoff electric light.

The following table will show the particulars of different lights so

placed that persons may see to read ordinary print in any part of the

street, which may be taken as then being a well-lighted street.

----------------------+------------+---------+--------+---------+

| | | of |Number of|

----------------------+------------+---------+--------+---------+

Batswing, 7 cubic feet| 16·34 | 9 10 | 20 | 176 |

Cluster, 50 „ „ | 133·00 | 10 6 | 115 | 29 |

Siemens, 100 „ „ | 475·00 | 26 3 | 294 | 10 |

| | | | |

Jablochkoff candle | 152·00 | 16 3 | 120 | 29 |

Arc light | 475·00 | 26 3 | 294 | 10 |

----------------------+------------+---------+--------+---------+

----------------------+------------+-----------+----------+----------

| | | Greatest | Least

| Total |Consumption|Intensity |Intensity

|Illuminating|of Gas per | of Light | of Light

Description of Light. | Power. | Mile. |on Ground.|on Ground.

----------------------+------------+-----------+----------+----------

_Gas._ | candles. | cub. ft. | candles. | candles.

Batswing, 7 cubic feet| 2876 | 1232 | 2·15 | 0·47

Cluster, 50 „ „ | 3857 | 1450 | 13·10 | 0·47

Siemens, 100 „ „ | 4750 | 1000 | 7·46 | 0·47

| | | |

_Electricity_ | | | |

Jablochkoff candle | 4408 | .. | 6·18 | 0·47

Arc light | 4750 | .. | 7·46 | 0·47

----------------------+------------+-----------+----------+----------

It must not be lost sight of, that the illuminating power of the gas in

Paris is very low, and is thus fixed. Under a pressure of 12 hundredths

of an inch, gas burning at the rate of 4·05 cubic feet per hour (or 115

litres) shall give a light of 9·5 standard sperm candles (or a “Carcel”

lamp burning 42 grammes of pure colza oil) per hour.

The competition which has been started by the electric lighting

companies has given a great impetus to gas lighting. A large number of

improved street gas lamp burners and lanterns having been invented and

brought into general use, the following particulars with reference to

some of those which were tried in the City of Exeter may be of use as a

comparison.

--------------------+------------+-----------+------------------

| |Consumption| Cost per Hour,

| | of gas in |gas being supplied

|Candle Power| cubic feet|at 3_s._ per 1000

Description of Lamp.| of Light. | per hour. | cubic feet.

--------------------+------------+-----------+------------------

| | | pence.

Ordinary street lamp| 15 | 5 | ³⁄₁₆

with batswing burner| | |

Siemens’ | 330 | 50 | 1³⁄₄

Ditto | 130 | 25 | ⁷⁄₈

Ditto | 45 | 10 | ³⁄₈

Sugg’s | 50 | 16 | ⁵⁄₈

Ditto | 30 | 10 | ³⁄₈

Bray’s | 80 | 20 | ³⁄₄

--------------------+------------+-----------+------------------

Having thus far given a few facts upon lighting streets with coal gas, I

will now turn to the question of lighting them by means of electricity,

and in doing this the following points will be considered:

(1.) The motive-power to be employed in producing electricity and its

applicability for the purpose.

(2.) The description of machinery to be employed.

(3.) The value of the light produced, and its adaptability to the

requirements of any town.

(4.) The comparative cost of the electric light as compared with gas.

(1.) Whatever motive power is employed, whether water-power, steam or

gas, it is essential that it should be steady and unfailing; steady,

because the regularity and uniformity of the light depends upon the

evenness of the speed with which the power works, and unfailing, because

a stoppage means the immediate extinguishment of the lights:

electricity, unlike gas, is not stored after manufacture, but is used as

fast as it emanates from the producing power.[116]

Sensitive governors and careful bedding of the machinery greatly tend to

lessen unsteadiness, and are points of considerable importance.

(2.) The machinery consists of the dynamo machines, the conducting wires

and the lamps.

I will not here enter into the question of which is the best dynamo

machine to employ, as to discuss the merits of them all would involve a

large amount of space; but for this and other valuable information upon

the subject of electric lighting I will refer my readers to Mr. Hedges’

excellent little book entitled ‘Useful Information on Electric

Lighting,’[117] but the following points should be attended to. The

dynamo machine should be fixed in a dry place, and not be exposed to

dust or flyings, it should be kept perfectly clean, and its bearings

well oiled, its coils and conductors should be perfectly insulated, and

it should, where practicable, be fixed on an insulated bed. With regard

to the wires, the following ‘Regulations for the prevention of Fire

Risks arising from Electric Lighting,’ published by the Society of

Telegraph Engineers and of Electricians, are given in full, as they

leave nothing to be desired in the way of their careful selection and

fixing:

“(7.) Every switch or commutator used for turning the current on or off

should be constructed so that when it is moved and left to itself it

cannot permit of a permanent arc or of heating, and its stand should be

made of slate, stoneware, or some other incombustible substance.

“(8.) There should be in connection with the main circuit a safety fuse

constructed of easily fusible metal which would be melted if the current

attain any undue magnitude, and would thus cause the circuit to be

broken.

“(9.) Every part of the circuit should be so determined that the gauge

of wire to be used is properly proportioned to the currents it will have

to carry, and changes of circuit, from a larger to a smaller conductor,

should be sufficiently protected with suitable safety fuses, so that no

portion of the conductor should ever be allowed to attain a temperature

exceeding 150° F.

“N.B.--These fuses are of the very essence of safety. They should always

be enclosed in incombustible cases. Even if wires become perceptibly

warmed by the ordinary current, it is a proof that they are too small

for the work they have to do and that they ought to be replaced by

larger wires.

“(10.) Under ordinary circumstances complete metallic circuits should be

used, and the employment of gas or water pipes should in no case be

allowed.

“(11.) Where bare wire out of doors rests on insulating supports, it

should be coated with insulating material, such as india-rubber tape or

tube, for at least two feet on each side of the support.

“(12.) Bare wires passing over the tops of houses should never be less

than seven feet clear of any part of the roof, and they should

invariably be high enough, when crossing thoroughfares, to allow

fire-escapes to pass under them.

“(13.) It is most essential that the joints should be electrically and

mechanically perfect. One of the best joints is that shown in the

annexed sketches. The joint is whipped around with small wire, and the

whole mechanically united by solder.

[Illustration]

“(14.) The position of wires when underground should be efficiently

indicated, and they should be laid down so as to be easily inspected and

repaired.

“(15.) All wires used for indoor purposes should be efficiently

insulated.

“(16.) When these wires pass through roofs, floors, walls, or

partitions, or where they cross or are liable to touch metallic masses,

like iron girders or pipes, they should be thoroughly protected from

abrasion with each other, or with the metallic masses, by suitable

additional covering; and where they are liable to abrasion from any

cause or to the depredations of rats or mice, they should be efficiently

encased in some hard material.

“(17.) Where wires are put out of sight, as beneath flooring, they

should be thoroughly protected from mechanical injury, and their

position should be indicated.

“N.B.--The value of frequently testing the wires cannot be too strongly

urged. It is an operation skill in which is easily acquired and applied.

The escape of electricity cannot be detected by the sense of smell as

can gas, but it can be detected by apparatus far more certain and

delicate. Leakage not only means waste, but in the presence of moisture

it means destruction of the conductor and its insulating covering by

electric action.”

The lamps may take either the “arc” form, or the “incandescent.” The

former is produced by the electric current passing between carbon

points, and requires considerable electrical pressure; they give a light

of from 1500 to 4000 candle power; the mechanism of arc lamps has to be

of the most delicate kind to ensure the proper distance of the carbon

points being maintained. The lamps should be guarded by globes of

frosted glass, not only to prevent incandescent pieces of carbon from

falling, but to lessen the glare of the light. “Incandescent” lamps are

of small size, giving a light of from 8 to 50-candle power, which is

produced by the heating of a filament of carbon in a vacuum owing to the

resistance caused to the electric current by this contraction of the

conductor.

(3.) With regard to the value of the light produced, and its

adaptability to the requirements of any town, it will be seen on

reference to the opening of this chapter that at present considerable

doubt exists as to its adaptability for general public lighting, and as

each town varies in the length, straightness, and width of its streets,

the number of its large squares or confined courts and alleys, the

surveyor must use his own judgment as to the suitability of the light

before recommending his corporation to adopt it.

As to the value of the electric light, there can be no doubt that a most

brilliant and powerful light is produced by the voltaic arc: so

brilliant indeed, as to render it necessary to screen it nearly always

behind frosted or opalescent glass globes, the former being found to be

much the best for many reasons.

As to the photometrical value of the light, some considerable difficulty

has hitherto been experienced in obtaining accurate observations,

principally owing to the peculiar colour of the electric light, and also

from its fluctuating character; but these difficulties are being

steadily overcome, and with a photometer mounted on a light frame with

wheels, some excellent experiments have been made in the public streets

upon the comparative values of different lights.

(4.) The last and really one of the most important questions remaining

to be discussed is that of the cost of the electric light as compared

with gas.

With reference to the cost of the electric light, the following table

may be of use; it is compiled from an excellent paper on electric

lighting, by Mr. James N. Shoolbred:[118]

TABLE OF COMPARATIVE ESTIMATES OF FIRST OUTLAY AND OF WORKING EXPENSES

OF SOME SYSTEMS OF ELECTRIC LIGHTING.

----------------+------------------------------+

| First Cost, including Engine |

| to drive it. |

+------+-------+-------+-------+

| One | Two | Three | Five |

----------------+------+-------+-------+-------+

| £ | £ | £ | £ |

light “A” with| 330 | 535 | 725 | 935 |

| | | | |

Cost per light | -- | -- | -- | -- |

| | | | |

with Siemens | 365 | 611 | 835 | 1185 |

| | | | |

Cost per light | -- | -- | -- | -- |

----------------+------+-------+-------+-------+

| Six lights. | Twenty lights.|

+--------------+---------------+

| £ | £ |

Gramme “many | | |

light” machine| 576 | 1155 |

with candles | | |

| | |

Cost per light | -- | -- |

per hour | | |

----------------+--------------+---------------+

----------------+-----------------------------------------

| Working Expenses per hour.

+-----------+---------+---------+---------

| One | Two | Three | Five

Name of Machine.| light. | lights. | lights. | lights.

----------------+-----------+---------+---------+---------

|_s._ _d._ |_s._ _d._|_s._ _d._|_s._ _d._

Gramme single | | | |

light “A” with| 1 6 | 2 1 | 2 7 | 3 0

Siemens lamp | | | |

| | | |

Cost per light | 1 11·4 | 1 4·8 | 1 2·2 | 0 10·2

per hour | | | |

| | | |

Siemens single | | | |

light “medium”| | | |

with Siemens | 1 7¹⁄₂[119]| 2 4 | 2 10 | 3 9

small-sized | | | |

lamp | | | |

| | | |

Cost per light | 2 1·4 | 1 6·8 | 1 3·84| 1 0·8

per hour | | | |

----------------+-----------+---------+---------+---------

| Six lights. | Twenty lights.

+---------------------+-------------------

| _s._ _d._ | _s._ _d._

Gramme “many | |

light” machine| 2 8 | 6 3

with candles | |

| |

Cost per light | 0 6·4 | 0 4·2

per hour | |

----------------+---------------------+-------------------

Mr. Shoolbred has also given another table[120] of street lighting

which partly deals with the question of cost, it is as follows:

-------------+--------+------+-------+------+--------+---------------

| ipal | of | per | No. |each (on|

-------------+--------+------+-------+------+--------+---------------

| | line-| | | can- |

| £ | al. | £ | | dles. |

CITY OF LONDON.

_District No. 1._ (Ludgate Hill, &c.).--“Brush” Electric Light Co.

Mar. 31, 1881| 660[A]| 1750 | 660 |32 arc| 9506 |1 40-light Brush

to | | | | | |machine.

Mar. 30, 1882| | | | | |[A] Add £750 to

_District No. 2._ (King William Street, &c.).

--Siemens Bros. & Co., Ld.

Mar. 31, 1881| 2270[B]| 1960 | 2026 | 6 arc| 4000 |6 continuous

to | | | |23 arc| 330 |current ma-

Mar. 30, 1882| | | | | |chines.

_Metropolitan Board of Works_ (Thames Embankment).--“Jablochkoff” Co.

Dec. 13, 1878|2¹⁄₂_d._| 2540 | 1131 | 60 | 380 |3 Gramme double-

to | per | | | can- | |machine (“A” and

| per | | | | |1 Ransome’s

July 1, 1881 |1¹⁄₂_d._| .. | 753 | | |

to | per | | | | |

| per | | | | |

CITY OF NORWICH (Prince of Wales’ Road, &c.).--R. E. Crompton & Co.

Aug. 15, 1881| 710 | 1700 | 531 | 5 arc| 2000 |4 Bürgin

to | | | | 9 arc| 500 |machines.

Jan. 31, 1883| | | | | |1 Ransome’s

_Chesterfield_ (Market Place, &c.).

--Brush (Hammond) Electric Light Co.

Nov. 1, 1881 | 855 | 3500 | |22 arc| 950 |2 40-Light

to | | | .. |100 | 16 |“Brush” ma-

| | | |des- | |2 Fowler’s semi-

-------------+--------+------+-------+------+--------+----------------

As to the comparison of cost between the electric light and gas, this

has only, I believe, been properly estimated on the Thames Embankment,

London, by Sir Joseph Bazalgette, the results of whose investigations

upon this important point I shall give presently; it has, however, been

stated generally, and without contradiction, that arc lights can be

produced of about 2000 candle power, with 1 HP at a cost of from 3_d._

to 6_d._ per candle per annum of 4000 hours, gas costing from 1_s._

9_d._ to 3_s._ 6_d._ per candle according to the price of the gas.

Incandescent lamps cost 3_s._ to 4_s._ per candle per annum, as their

life is short, and only 200 candle power can be got from 1 HP.[121]

The latest investigations into the comparative cost of lighting by gas

and electricity upon the Victoria Embankment and Waterloo Bridge in

London, show that the lighting as effected by 96 gas burners for an

average of 12 hours burning all night, and 121 gas burners for 6 hours

lighted after the electric lights are put out, together with the

electric lighting 40 lights on the parapet of Embankment, and 10 on the

bridge, costs 834_l._ for the gas and 663_l._ for the electric light per

annum. Gas costing 3_s._ 2_d._ per 1000 cubic feet showed a cost of

nearly 1_s._ per hour for every 1000 candle power of light. The electric

lights cost 1¹⁄₂_d._ per light per hour, which is stated to represent

5·66 pence per 1000 candle power of light; each electric light as now

used, it is said, gives a photometric light of 265 candles, frosted

glass globes being found to pass much more light than the opalescent

globes.

These are by far the most important and reliable comparisons that have

hitherto been made, and it will be seen that the cost is in favour of

the electric light.

There is no doubt that the acme of all artificial lighting is the

prolongation of the light of day, and whether this is proposed to be

effected by electricity or gas, it should be the goal aimed at by all

who make this question their study.

[112] Since writing these lines the following letter has appeared in

the Standard and has never been refuted, which shows that electric

lighting for streets is not yet all that can be desired:

ELECTRIC LIGHTING.

_To the Editor of the_ STANDARD.

SIR,--At this time, when the question of lighting by means of

electricity is receiving so much attention, and as Chesterfield is the

only town in England whose lighting is done throughout by electricity,

it may be interesting to your readers to know what our experience has

been.

I need not detail the stages which led to our abandoning gas, and

taking up the electric light after being in darkness some months. I

may briefly state that, after going carefully into the question, we

decided to adopt the system whose praise was in everyone’s mouth a

year ago, namely, “The Brush,” and, though we were applied to by other

companies, we placed the execution of the work in the hands of the one

that we considered the most suitable--the Hammond Company. During the

negotiations of the contract, Mr. Hammond particularly pressed us not

to stipulate for incandescent lamps, as he acknowledged that their

Company were not in a position to cope with incandescent lighting for

public purposes. We, however, decided upon the town being lighted with

the Lane-Fox Incandescent Lamps, as well as the Brush Arc Lights.

After waiting many weary months for the completion of the incandescent

lighting, it is now, when declared by the contractors complete, in my

opinion a decided failure. The Lane-Fox lamps, which have been

supplied by the Brush Company, are most variable in their lighting

power; whilst some are good, others only give a feeble light instead

of a light equal to that of fifteen candles, as expected. The arc

lights are doing good service in some of the large streets, but as a

whole I think it has been fully demonstrated in a year’s trial in

Chesterfield, that the field for arc lighting is very limited indeed.

Though the tradesmen have been canvassed by the Hammond Company with a

view to introducing the arc lights into their shops and hotels, in not

one single case has the light been adopted. Indeed, it is evident to

us who have them under our eyes every night, that they are only fit

for lighting works and large, open spaces. The experience that has

been thus gained at Chesterfield at the present juncture must be of

value to all towns intending to adopt the electric light, and is my

reason for troubling you with this letter, although I believe the time

will shortly come when lighting by electricity may be advantageously

adopted, both for public and private purposes.

I am, Sir, your obedient servant,

GEO. EDWD. GEE,

_Alderman of the Borough of Chesterfield_.

HIGH STREET, CHESTERFIELD, _October 10, 1882_.

[113] The Surveyor of Folkestone says: “Sugg’s self-acting regulator

is used, adjusted as nearly as may be practicable to consume 4 feet

per hour, and so very satisfactory is this apparatus that for the last

two years, after burning 7294 hours, it is found by the average meter

to have consumed 29,227 feet, as against 29,176 feet as per regulator,

being only 51 feet in excess of that which the apparatus is adjusted

to consume.” _Vide_ Ellice Clark on gas in Public Streets,

‘Proceedings of the Association of Municipal and Sanitary Engineers

and Surveyors,’ vol. ii. P. 193.

[114] Bracket lamps may not be fixed by an urban authority to houses

within their district without the previous consent of the owners of

such houses. _Vide_ ‘Fitzgerald’s Public Health Act,’ third edition,

p. 182.

[115] Meeting of the ‘Société Technique de l’lndustrie du Gaz en

France’ in 1882.

[116] “Faure’s” batteries can store electricity, but at present this

cannot be manipulated on a very large scale.

[117] Published by Messrs. Spon, 16 Charing Cross, London.

[118] _Vide_ ‘Proceedings of the Association of Municipal and Sanitary

Engineers and Surveyors,’ vol. vi. p. 9 _et seq._

[119] Siemens’ light at Blackburn cost 2_s._ per hour per lamp of 6000

candle power.

[120] _Vide_ ‘Proceedings of the Association of Municipal and Sanitary

Engineers and Surveyors,’ vol. viii. p. 171, &c.

[121] On this point Mr. W. G. Laws, Borough Engineer,

Newcastle-upon-Tyne, says: “Taking as an example a street a mile long,

lighted by the arc system, the arrangement would probably be lamps 60

yards apart, placed alternately on either side, giving 30 lamps or

60,000 candles at a cost of about 800_l._ per annum. If lighted by

‘incandescent lamps’ we should have them placed about 30 yards apart

on both sides: that is, 120 lamps giving 2400 candles at a cost of

about 420_l._ per annum. The number of gas lamps for the same distance

might be 150, giving about 2250 candles at a cost of 300_l._ per

annum.” (‘Proceedings of the Association of Municipal and Sanitary

Engineers and Surveyors,’ vol. viii. p. 65.)

CHAPTER XIV.

STREET NAMING AND NUMBERING.

It was not until the commencement of the present century that

inconvenience was apparently felt from the want of any distinguishing

names of streets, or numbers to houses, either in London or provincial

towns; the first Act of Parliament on the subject being one passed in

the year 1819, which gave powers to vestries and district boards to put

up the names of streets, and even then for some considerable period

afterwards houses or premises were not marked with numbers, but with

distinguishing trade signs or names.

The Towns Improvement Clauses Act 1847, however, contains the following

clauses which are incorporated with the Public Health Act 1875, by the

160th section of that act:

“The commissioners shall from time to time cause the houses and

buildings in all or any of the streets[122] to be marked with numbers as

they think fit, and shall cause to be put up or painted on a conspicuous

part of some house, building or place at or near each end, corner, or

entrance of every such street the name by which such street is to be

known; and every person who destroys, pulls down, or defaces any such

number or name, or puts up any number or name different from the number

or name put up by the commissioners, shall be liable to a penalty not

exceeding 40_s._ for every such offence” (10 & 11 Vic. c. 34, sec. 64).

“The occupiers of houses and other buildings in the streets shall mark

their houses with such numbers as the commissioners approve of, and

shall renew such numbers as often as they become obliterated, or

defaced; and every such occupier who fails within one week after notice

for that purpose from the commissioners to mark his house with a number

approved of by the commissioners, or to renew such number when

obliterated, shall be liable to a penalty not exceeding 40_s._; and the

commissioners shall cause such numbers to be marked or to be renewed as

the case may require, and the expense thereof shall be repaid to them by

such occupier, and shall be recoverable as damages” (10 & 11 Vic. c. 34,

s. 65).

Some difference even now exists as to the manner in which streets are

named, there being considerable diversity in the sizes, colours, and

materials of the name plates, as well as in the spaces allowed for the

letters. The following list is given to show how this diversity existed

in the metropolis even so late as the year 1870.

Table taken from a “Memorandum by the Superintending Architect of the

Metropolitan Board of Works, relative to the enforcement of the Law

regulating the naming of Streets and numbering of Houses in the

Metropolis” (1871):

Parish A. Parish B.

Names on houses at corners of streets 237 281

„ on piers of railings 24 36

„ on iron plates 6 44

„ on wooden boards 18 36

„ on enamelled plates 1 2

„ impressed in terra cotta 2 3

„ in cement letters 14 9

„ in Minton’s china letters 2 1

„ engraved on stone 5 13

„ on porcelain plates 1 1

„ with raised letters on iron girder 1

„ on board on posts 11

„ on zinc 2

And to this table are added the words “Some names are completely hidden

by vines, names given for ‘streets’ are put up as ‘roads.’” Since this

table was prepared however, the confusion has been rectified by the

energetic action of the Metropolitan Board of Works.

It is no doubt essential that for postal, telegraphic, and social

reasons there should be uniformity in the manner in which the naming and

numbering of streets is carried out, and the following particulars and

suggestions may be of use.

Names of streets should be marked up in such a manner as to be legible

both by day and lamp light, and the materials of which the name-plates

are composed should be of sufficient strength to prevent any damage

accruing to them from stone-throwing or other wilful or accidental

injury, or from the action of changes of temperature or climatic

influences of any kind, and the following list is given descriptive of

some of the modern methods of effecting this:

_Minton’s China Tiles._--These are white glazed china tiles 6 inches

square, on which either blue or black letters are burnt in, one letter

on each tile (except in the case of St. which is on one tile); they are

fixed by chasing them into walls of buildings, and setting them in

cement. They are the best description of name-plate with which I am

acquainted, their cost being only 6_d._ each, with the additional

advantages of being not easily broken, they can be removed and re-used

with facility, weather has no effect upon them, and they require no

attention whatever after they are once fixed.

_Cast-iron Plates with Embossed Letters._--These are generally painted

with a white ground, and black letters; they are liable to become

broken, and as they are fixed with screws these rust through in course

of time, when the plate may suddenly fall in a dangerous manner into the

street; another disadvantage is that they require to be painted about

once every three years.

_Painted Names on Walls of Buildings._--This method requires no special

mention; it is an economical plan and is more adopted than any other,

but the letters must be painted every three years at least, and they

are apt to be defaced if the premises are painted by the owner or

occupier.

_Enamelled Iron Plates._--These look very well, but they are apt to get

loose, and a blow from a stone will shiver them.

_Wooden or Metal Figures cut out and fastened on to Boards or against

Walls._--The same objection holds good with this method as with others

of the same description, the fastenings fail in time, and the name

disappears.

_Enamelled Glass Tablets in Street Lamps._--This is an excellent method

of recent introduction, and has many advantages. The name can be seen

very plainly either by day or night, no private premises have to be

interfered with in fixing them,[123] a uniformity of position or “where

to look” for the name of the street is secured, and there is no limit to

the number of times the name may be repeated.

Where the names of streets are placed against buildings the letters

which compose the name should not be less than 4 inches in height by 2

inches in breadth, with a space between each letter of not less than 1

inch; a light colour should always where practicable be used for the

back ground, and black or blue for the letters. One great objection to

painted letters is that they must be frequently repainted, and in order

to do this, ladders have to be raised against the building, which the

occupiers naturally object to without previous notice: it is always very

annoying to any citizen to have the head of a painter appearing outside

his bed-room window at any time, and more especially at an inconvenient

hour in the morning.

In selecting names for streets it is very important that they should not

be duplicated in a town, and also that there should be some sense in

their nomenclature; generally some local association can be found with

a family or historical name which is suitable for the street. Nothing is

more ridiculous than to see such names as Bath Street or York Road given

to streets which have as much association with such places as with

Jericho.

The street having been properly and conspicuously named, the next point

to consider is that of the manner in which it shall be numbered, there

being three methods in vogue by which this can be effected.

(1.) By allotting even numbers on one side of the street and odd numbers

on the other side.

(2.) By allotting consecutive numbers up one side of the street, and

down the other side.

(3.) By allotting corresponding numbers to both sides of the street,

which are distinguished by a prefix of north and south, or east and

west, as the case may require.

The first is by far the best method to pursue, for the following

reasons:

If the street is ever extended after being numbered, the sequence is in

no way disturbed. By this method any house can be more easily found, as

on reference to a directory it will at once be seen at which end of the

street it is situated. If the second method had been adopted this would

be impossible, except for the first few numbers, and where a street is

of considerable length with branch streets running into it this is of

the greatest importance. It is the best method also for the Post-Office

officials, as it facilitates the district sorting of the letters.

Giving each side of the street distinctive prefixes to its name, such as

north and south, &c., is evidently a bad plan, and leads to much

confusion.

In allotting numbers to premises in a street, if it has been already

numbered care should be taken to disturb existing numbers as little as

possible, for an altered number involves considerable expense as well as

inconvenience to the occupier of business or trade premises, owing to

the necessity of altering bill heads, letter paper, &c., and sometimes

even considerable trouble and expense in order to secure the validity of

the title.

Avoid numbering from right to left, and take care to allot sufficient

numbers to vacant spaces which may eventually be built upon, and to do

this the length of frontage may be divided into such lengths as (in the

surveyor’s judgment) will represent the new frontages. In any case it is

better to have too many numbers in a street than too few, and large

premises, and any public or other buildings which may be removed, and

other buildings substituted should have numbers allotted to them,

although it will not be necessary to serve the notices to have them

affixed. Most large shops prefer to have more than one number, although

I have heard the rather far-fetched contention urged, that more than one

number means extra rating.

Considerable care must be exercised to ensure that no separate premises

are passed over in allotting the numbers, often only a door or side

passage denoting the existence of another claimant for a number. Nothing

looks worse in a freshly numbered street than to see such numbers as 37A

or 96¹⁄₂ placed upon premises that should have had a distinct numeral,

and thus showing that they must have been left out.

The manner in which streets are numbered is generally as follows:

The town surveyor or one of his assistants walks through the street, and

with a piece of chalk legibly marks each house with its correct number,

taking care to observe the precautions I have enumerated; having done

this throughout its entire length, these numbers must be entered in a

book with the name of the occupier written opposite to the number. Upon

returning to the office the surveyor must then fill up and serve the

necessary notice upon each of these occupiers, the following being given

as a specimen of such notice:

_Urban Sanitary Authority for the_ .

TOWN SURVEYOR’S OFFICE, 188 .

____________

I beg leave to give you notice, that the Town Council of , as

the Urban Sanitary Authority, have approved of the number for

the house in your occupation, in .

You are therefore required, within one week from the date of this

notice [to obliterate the present number, and][124] to mark the said

house with the number so approved of, and to renew the same from time

to time in the case of its becoming obliterated.

A penalty of 40_s._ will be incurred in the event of default in

compliance with this notice.

I am,

Your obedient Servant,

_________________________

_Town Surveyor_.

_To_ __________________

_No._ __________________

In the event of the old number with which any premises were marked not

being obliterated by the occupier, the following notice may be served:

_Urban Sanitary Authority for the_ .

TOWN SURVEYOR’S OFFICE, 188 .

________________

It has been reported to the Town Council that you have neglected to

obliterate the old number of your premises, No.

Street, after receiving notice of a new number being allotted to such

premises by the Town Council, whereby you have incurred a penalty of

40_s._

The duplication of numbers in the same street was found to be the

occasion of so much inconvenience, that the Council were obliged to

re-number the street in question, and it is manifest that if a number

allotted to another house is retained by you, the inconvenience sought

to be removed will still remain.

I am therefore instructed to inform you that unless the old number of

your premises is obliterated within seven days from the date of this

notice, proceedings will be taken against you for the recovery of the

penalty incurred.

Yours faithfully,

______________________

_Town Surveyor_.

Of course, if nothing is done after service of this second notice, it

only remains to summon the offender as provided by the sections of the

Act, which I have given in the early part of this chapter.

[122] “Street” includes any highway (not being a turnpike road), and

any public bridge (not being a county bridge), and any road, lane,

footway, square, court, alley, or passage, whether a thoroughfare or

not. (38 & 39 Vic. c. 55, s. 4.)

[123] The law apparently gives the Sanitary Authority power to fix

names of streets against any premises they may choose, without first

applying for or obtaining any consent from either the occupier or

owner of such premises. (_Vide_ 10 & 11 Vic. c. 34, s. 64.)

[124] If the premises have no existing number, these words can be left

out.

CHAPTER XV.

BREAKING UP STREETS.

In nearly every city and town of the United Kingdom, except those where

the gas and water undertakings are the property of the urban authority,

the town surveyor is constantly annoyed by having some portions of his

streets broken up and greatly damaged by the action of the gas or water

companies of the district.

With regard to the lasting character of the damage caused to the street

by this disturbance of its surface, I shall have something to say in

this chapter, but it is first necessary to see what legal powers the

companies have to break up the streets, and what powers the surveyor has

to enforce the work being properly carried out.

It will be found that the sections bearing upon this point are almost

precisely similar in their wording in the following Acts:

“The Gas Works Clauses Act 1847” (10 & 11 Vic. c. 15).

“The Water Works Clauses Act 1847” (10 & 11 Vic. c. 17).

“The Electric Lighting Act 1882” (45 & 46 Vic. c. 56).

but with regard to the powers of the Government to lay telegraph and

telephone wires, &c., the clauses are different, and are contained in,

“The Telegraphs Act 1863” (26 & 27 Vic. c. 112).

As the clauses on this subject of “the Water Works Clauses Act” are

those which are incorporated with the Public Health Act 1875, I shall

select the sections from that Act, the first of importance being as

follows:

“The undertakers, under such superintendence as is hereinafter

specified, may open and break up the soil and pavement of the several

streets and bridges within the limits of the special Act, and may open

and break up any sewers, drains, or tunnels, within or under such

streets or bridges, and lay down and place within the same limits pipes,

conduits, service pipes, and other works, and engines, and from time to

time repair, alter, or remove the same, and for the purposes aforesaid

remove and use all earth and materials in and under such streets and

bridges, and do all other acts which the undertakers shall from time to

time deem necessary for supplying _water_[125] to the inhabitants of the

district included within the said limits; doing as little damage as can

be[126] in the execution of the powers hereby or by the special Act

granted, and making compensation for any damage which may be done in the

execution of such powers” (10 & 11 Vic. c. 17 s. 28).

The next clause deals only with the powers of laying pipes, &c., in

private property, and here it will be well to remark that if the water

undertaking is in the hands of the urban authority they have much more

power of entry for these purposes than companies possess (_Vide_ ss. 16,

18, 32, and 54, 38 & 39 Vic. c. 55), but this is a matter which does not

affect the questions dealt with in this chapter.

The next clause is upon the subject of giving the necessary notices, and

is as follows:

“Before the undertakers[127] open or break up any street, bridge, sewer,

drain, or tunnel, they shall give to the persons under whose control or

management the same may be, or to their clerk, surveyor, or other

officer, notice in writing of their intention to open or break up the

same, not less than three clear days before beginning such work, except

in cases of emergency arising from defects in any of the pipes or other

works, and then so soon as is possible after the beginning of the work

or the necessity for the same shall have arisen” (10 & 11 Vic. c. 17, s.

30).

The next clause is of great importance, as it gives the surveyor the

necessary powers to dictate the manner in which the interference with

his streets is to be conducted.

“No such street, bridge, sewer, drain, or tunnel shall, except in the

cases of emergency aforesaid, be opened or broken up except under the

superintendence of the persons having the control or management thereof,

or of their officer, and according to such plan[128] as shall be

approved of by such persons or their officer, or in case of any

difference respecting such plan, as shall be determined by two justices;

and such justices may, on the application of the persons having the

control or management of any such sewer or drain, or their officer,

require the undertakers to make such temporary or other works as they

may think necessary for guarding against any interruption of the

drainage during the execution of any works which interfere with any such

sewer or drain. Provided always, that if the persons having such control

or management as aforesaid, and their officer fail to attend at the time

fixed for the opening of any such street, bridge, sewer, drain, or

tunnel, after having such notice of the intention of the undertakers as

aforesaid, or shall not propose any plan for breaking up or opening the

same, or shall refuse or neglect to superintend the operation, the

undertakers may perform the work specified in such notice without the

superintendence of such persons or their officer” (10 & 11 Vic. c. 17,

s. 31).

There are several points to which it is necessary to draw attention

whilst considering the above clause. I am afraid that the “attendance”

of the surveyor “at the time fixed for the opening” or even of one of

his assistants could not always be managed, nor would it be practicable

to prepare a “plan” for every opening that might be made by a gas or

water company for new services, leaks in mains, &c.; but where it is

proposed to carry out any extensive works, such as laying a considerable

length of new main or removing an old one, it is certainly necessary

that there should be some “plan” of the manner in which such work is

proposed to be carried out by the company.

On referring to the clause it is evident that the first “plan” mentioned

must be prepared by and on behalf of the company proposing to carry out

the work, and this plan must show the exact position on each street of

the proposed excavations, and their depth, &c., which “shall be approved

of by such persons (having the control of the streets) or their

officer,” their officer really being the surveyor.

Lower down in the clause another “plan” is referred to in the following

words: “or shall not propose any plan for breaking up or opening the

same.” This plan, or more correctly speaking, a specification of the

manner in which the company shall proceed with the work, must be

prepared by the surveyor, and if it meets with the approval of his

corporation it can be enforced.

In order to assist town surveyors who may be required to act under this

clause, I now give a verbatim copy of a “plan” or specification under

which I compelled a gas company to work after they had given me the

usual statutory notice of their intention to break up certain

macadamised streets for the purpose of removing some disused mains.

_Plan of the manner in which the Gas Light and Coke

Company shall take up and remove the old mains in street,

commencing at or near street._

A trench to be excavated of not greater width than inches and of no

greater length than feet at a time.

Great care must be taken to keep the top facing metal separate from the

lower formation of the roadway, so that they may not become mixed

together; no metal is on any account to be removed from the street.

The mains must be taken up with all possible speed and instantly

conveyed away, without being allowed to remain at the sides of the

streets.[129]

The trench to be then at once filled in, care being taken to replace all

the materials of which the roadway is formed in their proper positions.

All extra filling in that may be required owing to the removal of the

mains shall be done on the surface with the best stone, broken

so as to pass all ways through a ring of 2¹⁄₂ inches internal diameter,

the top of the trench being always kept flush with the surface contour

of the roadway. No earth, rubbish, or other material shall be allowed to

be brought on to the ground by the gas company for the purpose of

filling in, nor shall any material of any kind be allowed to be brought

from any other excavations that may be being made by the gas company in

other parts of the town for the purpose of laying or removing mains.

The filling in to be done in the proportion of one man filling to two

men ramming with punners of not less weight than lbs. each. During

dry weather a plentiful supply of water must be allowed to run into the

trench whilst the filling in is in progress, for the purpose of

consolidating the ground.

The traffic must not in any case be impeded, and planks must be placed

across the excavations, where necessary, for the convenience of foot

passengers.

The work shall if necessary be suspended on market days, or any other

days that the surveyor may deem proper for the convenience of the

public.

* * * * *

The next clause of the Act deals with the manner in which the companies

shall reinstate and make good the road or pavement, and is as follows:

“When the undertakers open or break up the road or pavement of any such

street, or bridge, or any sewer, drain, or tunnel, they shall with all

convenient speed complete the work for which the same shall be broken

up, and fill in the ground and reinstate and make good the road or

pavement, or the sewer, drain, or tunnel so opened or broken up, and

carry away the rubbish occasioned thereby; and shall at all times whilst

any road or pavement shall be so opened or broken up cause the same to

be fenced and guarded, and shall cause a light sufficient for the

warning of passengers to be set up, and kept there against every night

during which such road or pavement shall be continued open or broken up,

and shall after replacing and making good the road or pavement which

shall have been so broken up, keep the same in good repair for three

months thereafter, and such further time, if any, not being more than

twelve months in the whole, as the soil so broken up shall continue to

subside” (10 & 11 Vic. c. 17, s. 32).

The conditions embodied in the above clause are easier written than

carried out.

It is well known that a trench cut longitudinally through a street takes

a very long time to heal. Asphalte shows it the least if there is a good

backing of concrete, but all other pavements suffer considerably in the

process, as it is almost impossible to maintain their strict contour,

and with macadamised roadways the result is simply disastrous.

Opening a macadamised roadway does it more harm than the heaviest and

most persistent traffic, and it is surprising for what a length of time

the surface will show the treatment it has received.

It is unfortunately the practice generally for the men in the employ of

a gas or water company, after laying a pipe, to try and ram into the

trench all the material they have removed, without allowing for the

cubical contents taken up by the pipe, or if they do condescend to cart

anything away it is generally the metal, which they think will come in

nicely for the repairs of the trench during their liability for such

repairs. What ought to be done is that no filling of ordinary earth,

&c., should be allowed to come within at least six inches of the top of

the trench, which should then be filled in with good road metal, and as

this wears down it should be brought up to the proper level with more

metal. In the former plan a hump is seen over the trench, and this hump

is a mass of mixed dirt and road-metal for which there is no cure but

its entire removal to a depth of at least six inches, and the

substitution of good clean road-metal, which would have been the best

and most economical plan in the first place.

The clauses following those I have quoted are “penalty clauses” for

non-compliance with the provisions of the Act, and need not be here

given, but there is one more clause of the Water Works Clauses Act 1847,

dealing with the powers of private individuals to break up streets for

the purpose of laying service pipes, which it is necessary to give _in

extenso_.

On the question of similar powers to private individuals to break up

streets for drains, &c., I shall speak later on in this chapter:

“Any such owner or occupier may open or break up so much of the pavement

of any street as shall be between the pipe of the undertakers and his

house, building or premises, and any sewer or drain therein, for any

such purpose as aforesaid, doing as little damage as may be and making

compensation for any damage done in the execution of any such work;

provided always, that every such owner or occupier desiring to break up

the pavement of any street or any sewer or drain therein, shall be

subject to the same necessity of giving previous notice, and shall be

subject to the same control, restrictions, and obligations in and during

the time of breaking up the same, and also reinstating the same, and to

the same penalties for any delay in regard thereto, as the undertakers

are subject to by virtue of this or the special Act” (10 & 11 Vic. c.

17, s. 52).

It would also seem that the _consent_ of the urban authority must be

obtained (as well as notice given to them) before a street is broken up

(38 & 39 Vic. c. 55, s. 149).

Very often, however, the companies prefer to execute all this work

themselves, as they do not like anyone else to interfere with their

mains or put in services which may be unfitted for the purpose;

consequently they give the necessary notices, execute the work

themselves, and charge the owner or occupier with the expense.

The powers under which streets are broken up for telegraphic or

telephonic purposes are, as I have previously stated, contained in the

“Telegraphs Act 1863,” the following being the clauses which refer to

this subject:

“The company shall not place a telegraph under any street within the

limits of the district over which the authority of the Metropolitan

Board of Works extends, or of any city or municipal borough or town

corporate, or of any town having a population of thirty thousand

inhabitants or upwards (according to the latest census), except with the

consent of the bodies having the control of the streets within such

respective limits” (26 & 27 Vic. c. 112, s. 9).

“Where the company has obtained consent to the placing, or by virtue of

the powers of the company under this Act intends to proceed with the

placing of a telegraph under a street or public road, the depth, course

and position at and in which the same is to be placed shall be settled

between the company and the following bodies:

“The body having the control of the street or public road.

“The body having the control of the sewerage or drainage thereunder.

“But if such settlement is not come to with any such body, the following

provisions shall take effect:

“(1.) The company may give to such body a notice specifying the depth,

course and position which the company desires.

“(2.) If the body to whom such notice is given does not, within 28 days

after the giving of such notice, give to the company a counter-notice

objecting to the proposal of the company, and specifying the depth,

course and position which such body desires, they shall be deemed to

have agreed to the proposal of the company.

“(3.) In the event of ultimate difference between the company and such

body, the depth, course and position shall be determined in England or

Ireland by two Justices, and in Scotland by two Justices or the Sheriff”

(26 & 27 Vic. c. 112, s. 10).

“Subject to any special stipulations made with a company by the body

having the control of a street or public road, and to any

determinations, orders, or directions of the Justices, or Sheriff, as

aforesaid, where the company proceeds to open or break up a street or

public road, the following provisions shall take effect.

“(1.) The company shall give to the bodies between whom respectively and

the company the depth, course and position of a telegraph under such

street or public road are hereinbefore required to be settled or

determined, notice of their intention to open or break up such street or

public road, specifying the time at which they will begin to do so, such

notice to be given in the case of an underground work ten days at least,

and in the case of an above-ground work five days at least before the

commencement of the work, except in case of emergency, in which case

notice of the work proposed shall be given as soon as may be after the

commencement thereof.

“(2.) The company shall not (save in case of emergency) open or break up

any street or public road except under the superintendence of the bodies

to whom respectively notice is by the present section required to be

given, unless such bodies respectively refuse or neglect to give such

superintendence at the time specified in the notice for the commencement

of the work or discontinue the same during the work.

“(3.) The company shall pay all reasonable expenses to which such bodies

respectively may be put on account of such superintendence” (26 & 27

Vic. c. 112, s. 17).

It will be seen by the above section that the time required before the

work is commenced after service of the notice is considerably longer

than that for gas or water mains or for electric lighting wires, and

subsection 3 authorises a payment for the services of the surveyor or

other officer attending to superintend the work, which is not the case

in the other Acts.

The next clauses are as follows:

“Subject to any such special stipulations as aforesaid, after the

company has opened or broken up a street or public road they shall be

under the following further obligations:

“(1.) They shall with all convenient speed complete the work on account

of which they opened or broke up the same, and fill in the ground and

make good the surface, and generally restore the street or public road

to as good a condition as that in which it was before being opened or

broken up, and carry away all rubbish occasioned thereby:

“(2.) They shall in the meantime cause the place where the street or

public road is opened or broken up to be fenced and watched, and to be

properly lighted at night:

“(3.) They shall pay all reasonable expenses of keeping the street or

public road in good repair for six months after the same is restored,

so far as such expenses may be increased by such opening or breaking up”

. . . (26 & 27 Vic. c. 112, s. 18).

“Whenever the permanent surface or soil of any street or public road is

broken up or opened by the company it shall be lawful for the body

having the control of the street or road, in case they think it

expedient so to do, to fill in the ground, and to make good the pavement

or surface or soil so broken up or opened, and to carry away the rubbish

occasioned thereby, instead of permitting such work to be done by the

company; and the cost and expenses of filling in such ground and making

good the pavement or soil so broken up or opened, shall be repaid on

demand to the body having the control of the street or road by the

company, and in default thereof may be recovered by the body having the

control of the street or road from the company, as a penalty is or may

be recoverable from the company” (26 & 27 Vic. c. 112, s. 19).

“The company shall not stop or impede traffic in any street or public

road, or into or out of any street or public road, further than is

necessary for the proper execution of their works. They shall not close

against traffic more than one third in width of any street or public

road or of any way opening into any street or public road at one time;

and in case two-thirds of such street or road are not wide enough to

allow two carriages to pass each other, they shall not occupy with their

works at one time more than fifty yards in length of the one-third

thereof except with the special consent of the body having the control

thereof” (26 & 27 Vic. c. 112, s. 20).

It will be seen that these are much more elaborate clauses, restricting

the rights of the telegraph companies than those of the gas and water

companies, &c., and as the Telegraphs Act containing these strict

clauses was passed in the year 1863 and the Water Works Clauses Act in

1847, it is fair to assume that the clauses of the Telegraphs Act 1863

were framed to meet certain objections to these clauses and upon

experience of their working, and are consequently better and more

adapted for the case in point.

To obviate all the difficulties and complications arising out of this

constant breaking up of streets, with the attendant inconvenience to the

public and damage to the surfaces of the roadways, it was suggested many

years ago that subways should be constructed under the surface of the

principal streets, in which should be placed all the gas and water mains

then existing.

There is no doubt that there are many advantages in this plan as well as

some disadvantages. It must be recollected that probably the subways

would have been constructed of sufficient capability to carry all the

mains and wires then existing, with a margin for future extensions of

size, but when we see the enormous growth of many towns, notably that of

the metropolis, and the consequent increase necessary in the number and

diameters of the mains, it is to be feared that sufficient space would

not have been left, and competition between rival gas and water

companies might consequently have been crippled.

Still there would be great convenience in many respects if all water and

gas mains, telegraph and telephone wires could be carried in subways, as

they would be easily accessible for repairs, and hidden leaks would be

unknown. With regard to the one great objection so constantly urged,

that in the case of a leaky gas main or service a most terrible and

damaging explosion might take place, it is true that this is a very

grave and serious objection, but it must also be recollected that

although this danger may be enhanced by the necessarily solid masonry of

which the subway is constructed, still there would be every precaution

taken to prevent leakage of gas, and in the present system liability to

explosion is not altogether remote. In Percy Street, Tottenham Court

Road, only a year or two ago, there was a terrible explosion in

trenches and mains which had become full of gas and atmospheric air in

the proportions of one volume of gas to fifteen volumes of air, and if

gas mains were laid in subways greater precautions would no doubt be

taken.

There would be also great danger in conveying the wires used for

electric lighting purposes in these subways, as they might fuse and thus

cause danger, and at all events they would have some considerably

disturbing influence upon the wires of the telegraph and telephone

systems, if laid too near.

I will now pass on to consider the powers of individuals to break the

surface of public streets for the purpose of putting new drains to their

premises or of repairing existing drains.

With regard to the former question I have given full particulars with

regard to new drains or connections with sewers in the chapter upon

“house drainage,” but with regard to the latter question it will be

necessary to make a few remarks.

There is no doubt that the public streets vest in the urban authority,

and it is contended that the following clause of the Public Health Act

1875 prevents any person from breaking up any street without their

permission, although it is sometimes questioned whether the words

“wilfully displaces” do not mean the doing of an illegal act, such as

taking up a stone in a street to annoy or injure a neighbour or from

sheer mischief, rather than that of a legal act for a proper purpose;

the clause in question is as follows:

“All streets being or which at any time become highways repairable by

the inhabitants at large within any urban district, and the pavement

stones and other materials thereof and all building implements and other

things provided for the purposes thereof, shall vest in and be under the

control of the urban authority. . . . Any person who without the consent

of the urban authority wilfully displaces or takes up, or who injures

the pavement, stones, materials, fences or posts of or the trees in any

such street, shall be liable to a penalty not exceeding five shillings

for every square foot of pavement, stones or other materials so

displaced taken up or injured; he shall also be liable in the case of

any injury to trees to pay to the local authority such amount of

compensation as the court may award” (38 & 39 Vic. c. 55, s. 149).

Even, however, granting that application must be made before any

individual can break up a street, the urban authority would not be

likely to withhold their consent if it was for a legitimate purpose, and

having disturbed the street, a person must light and guard the opening,

and the “hole,” as it is called in the clauses following must be “filled

up or otherwise made secure;” but it is very doubtful if he can be

called upon to keep the surface of the road in repair for any length of

time, as can be done in the case of water and gas companies, &c.; the

following are the clauses in question:

“When any building materials, rubbish or other things are laid or any

hole made in any of the streets, whether the same be done by order of

the commissioners or not, the person causing such materials or other

things to be so laid or such hole to be made, shall at his own expense

cause a sufficient light to be fixed in a proper place upon or near the

same, and continue such light every night from sun-setting to sun-rising

while such materials or hole remain. And such person shall at his own

expense cause such materials or other things and such hole to be

sufficiently fenced and enclosed until such materials or other things

are removed or the hole filled up or otherwise made secure” . . . (10 &

11 Vic. c. 34, s. 81).

“In no case shall any such building materials or other things or such

hole be allowed to remain for any unnecessary time.” . . . (10 & 11 Vic.

c. 34, s. 82).

“If any building, or hole, or any other place near any street be for

want of sufficient repair, protection or inclosure, dangerous to the

passengers along such street, the commissioners shall cause the same to

be repaired, protected, or inclosed, so as to prevent danger therefrom,

and the expenses of such repair, protection, or inclosure shall be

repaid to the commissioners by the owner of the premises so repaired,

protected or inclosed, and shall be recoverable from him as damages” (10

& 11 Vic. c. 34, s. 83).

These three sections are incorporated in the Public Health Act 1875, by

38 & 39 Vic. c. 55, s. 160, and the last clause undoubtedly gives power

to the urban authority to repair a “hole” which for want of “sufficient

repair” is “dangerous to passengers” but not otherwise, in however

unsightly a manner the trench may have been repaired.

The result of this uncertainty has been that a great many towns have

inserted in their private improvement Acts, clauses making it compulsory

upon all persons to give them from 3 to 7 days’ notice of their

intention to break up the streets, specifying the manner in which the

work shall be done, and also compelling them to deposit a sum of money

in order to secure that the repairs of the street are properly

executed.[130] A better method than this is to insert in any private

improvement Act a clause giving powers to the urban authority to execute

all drain-work themselves and charge it upon the owners of the property,

thus ensuring that any interference with the surface of the street shall

be done in a proper manner by men accustomed to the work, and also that

the drain itself shall be of perfect workmanship.

Where the town surveyor has no private improvement Act dealing with this

question, it is well to frame some regulations as to the manner in which

the notice of intention to break up the surface of the street shall be

given to him by the person intending to do the work, and if possible to

obtain a deposit of a few shillings as a guarantee that the surface of

the street shall be kept in something like decent repair. Although this

may not be strictly legal, it is a very universal practice amongst town

surveyors.

The following forms of notices are given as specimens of the description

of notice now in use, and are copied verbatim from those which are now

enforced in a very large borough in this country:

_Borough of_ .

TO THE BOROUGH SURVEYOR,

I hereby apply for permission to break up the footway or roadway, and

make excavations in for the purpose of , and I

hereby undertake to light, watch and fence the place during the

progress of the works, to temporarily make good the surface of the

footway or roadway, to remove all rubbish, and to execute and complete

the work to the satisfaction of the borough surveyor. I also deposit

the sum of five shillings for the repair of the surface, and agree to

pay the balance if it should cost more than that sum.

(Signature)

(Address)

Witness and receiver .

Received by accountant 188 .

Surface repaired 188 .

At a cost of .

_Borough of_ .

188 .

To Mr.

This is to certify that you have paid a deposit of five shillings, and

that you are hereby permitted to take up the footway or roadway and

make excavations in for the purpose of on the

undertaking you have given to light, watch and fence the place during

the progress of the works, to temporarily make good the surface of the

footway or roadway, to remove all rubbish, and to execute and complete

the work to the satisfaction of the borough surveyor; also that you

will pay the balance if the surface repairs should cost more than the

aforesaid sum of five shillings.

______________________________

_Borough Surveyor._

NOTE.--If the surface repairs should cost less than the deposited sum,

the balance will be returned to you by the accountant, who will notify

you of the fact.

Notice must be given to the Building Inspector when the work is ready

for inspection, and no drainage work must be covered up until it has

been examined by the Inspector.

It may be well to add to this authority to break up the streets, the

following words--

“This authority may be revoked at any time if found necessary, and it

does not in any way relieve the person to whom it is granted from any

liabilities he may incur in respect of accidents from anything done in

pursuance thereof.”

In some towns the following custom prevails in regard to this question.

The person desirous of opening the street for the execution of any work

has to apply to the surveyor for a licence, and at the same time deposit

a sum sufficient to cover the expense of the work, such sum being

estimated and fixed by the surveyor. The corporation then supply one

labourer whilst the job is in hand, who, whilst working, takes care that

the soil is properly rammed and the surface made good; a mason is also

supplied to make any drainage or sewer connections. The deposit is kept

for about 3 months, and the cost of the labourer and mason, and of any

subsequent making good the surface of the street, is then deducted, and

the balance returned to the person who made the deposit.

This arrangement seems an excellent plan, and is said to work remarkably

well where it is in vogue, but whether it is strictly legal is open to

considerable question.

[125] Or gas or electricity, as the case may be.

[126] These words apply only to the manner of doing the work, not to

alternative ways of doing it. (_Vide_ ‘Fitzgerald’s Public Health and

Local Government Act, 1875,’ 3rd edition, p. 45.)

[127] In the “Electric Lighting Act 1882,” the words “proceed to” have

been inserted before the word open, which is an obvious improvement.

[128] It is incumbent upon the undertakers intending to break up a

road to communicate beforehand their proposed plan or method of

executing the work to the road authority, and this in a sufficient

manner to enable the road authority to judge whether what is proposed

ought to be done without modification. The plan should, therefore,

show the position on the road of the proposed excavation, and its

depth. (Edgware Highway Board _v._ Colne Valley Water Company, 46 L.

J. ch. 889.)

[129] This precaution was necessary, as the smell of the old mains was

naturally very offensive and a nuisance.

[130] In some towns it is the practice to give the builder a junction

pipe or block for nothing, thus ensuring his calling to give notice,

but this is only successful in the case of new attachments to sewers,

in which case the law is much more strict.

CHAPTER XVI.

OBSTRUCTIONS IN STREETS.

For convenience, I propose to treat in this chapter some subjects which,

strictly speaking, do not come under the head of “obstructions,” but

they are all questions which have to be considered by the town surveyor;

temporary obstructions and other offences with which it is the province

of the police to deal are omitted.

The following subjects will therefore be discussed:

(1.) Improving the line of frontages of streets.

(2.) Removing projections.

(3.) Doors and gates opening outwards.

(4.) Vault or cellar coverings.

(5.) Rain-water shutes and down-pipes.

(6.) Blinds or awnings over footpaths.

(7.) Trees over-hanging roadways.

(8.) Surface water from private premises running over footpaths.

(9.) Hoardings and scaffolds.

(10.) Dangerous buildings.

(1.) _Improving the Line of Frontages of Streets._--By the Towns

Improvement Clauses Act 1847, certain powers were granted which enabled

the commissioners to agree with owners of property to set back for the

purpose of widening any street,[131] but this was often found to be

difficult and wearisome of accomplishment, consequently in the Public

Health Act 1875, the following important clause bearing upon this point

was inserted.

“Where any house or building situated in any street in an urban

district, or the front thereof, has been taken down in order to be

rebuilt or altered, the urban authority may prescribe the line in which

any house or building, or the front thereof, to be built or rebuilt in

the same situation shall be erected, and such house or building or the

front thereof shall be erected in accordance therewith. The urban

authority shall pay or tender compensation to the owner or other person

immediately interested in such house or building for any loss or damage

he may sustain in consequence of his house or building being set back or

forward, the amount of such compensation in case of dispute to be

settled by arbitration in manner provided by this Act” (38 & 39 Vic. c.

55, s. 155).

This clause gives an excellent power to the sanitary authority,

especially in older towns, to lay down improved building lines upon the

plan of their town, and thus set back the line of buildings as

opportunity offers.

In assessing the value of compensation to be paid to the owner for

setting back his property, the following points should be considered:

(1.) The value of the area of the land given up to the public.

(2.) The loss of available and useful space to the premises.

(3.) If any use is made by the owner of the land given up to the public

by constructing cellars underneath, the amount of compensation should be

less.

(4.) The amount the owner will have to expend to make good the sides of

the neighbouring premises thus exposed by his setting back must be

considered.

A surveyor should be very careful to recollect if any building line has

been laid down in any street when the plans of new buildings are

deposited with him for approval. If these plans are approved without any

notice being given to the owner to set back, it is questionable whether

he can afterwards be called upon to do so.[132]

(2.) _Removing Projections of Buildings._--The Towns Improvement Clauses

Act 1847 made provision for setting back any house or building, or any

part which projected beyond the regular line of street when taken down,

on payment of compensation,[133] and this and the following sections

were incorporated in the general Public Health Act 1875.[134]

“The commissioners may give notice to the occupier[135] of any house or

building to remove or alter any porch, shed, projecting window, step,

cellar, cellar-door, or window, sign, sign-post, sign-iron, show-board,

window shutter, wall, gate, or fence, or any other obstruction or

projection erected or placed after the passing of the special Act,

against or in front of any house or building within the limits of the

special Act, and which is an obstruction to the safe and convenient

passage along any street, and such occupier shall within fourteen days

after the service of such notice upon him, remove such obstruction or

alter the same in such manner as shall have been directed by the

commissioners, and in default thereof shall be liable to a penalty not

exceeding forty shillings; and the commissioners in such case may remove

such obstruction or projection, and the expense of such removal shall be

paid by the occupier so making default, and shall be recoverable as

damages; provided always, that except in the case in which such

obstructions or projections were made or put up by the occupier, such

occupier shall be entitled to deduct the expense of removing the same

from the rent payable by him to the owner of the house or building.”

The wall of a garden in front of a house, and shrubs in the garden,

which encroach on the street, come within the words “any other

obstruction” in this section.[136]

It is doubtful, however, if trade signs projecting at such a height as

not to be “an obstruction to the safe and convenient passage along any

street” can be removed under this section, however unsightly they may

be, nor does it appear that flag poles or flags can be ordered to be

removed when at such a height as to cause no obstruction.

The following clause, however, of the Public Health Act 1875 affects the

question of new projections much more closely.

“It shall not be lawful in any urban district, without the written

consent of the urban authority, to bring forward any house or building

forming part of any street or any part thereof, beyond the front wall of

the house or building on either side thereof, nor to build any addition

thereto beyond the front of the house or building on either side of the

same. Any person offending against this enactment shall be liable to a

penalty not exceeding 40_s._ for every day during which the offence is

continued after written notice in this behalf from the urban authority”

(38 & 39 Vic. c. 55, s. 156).

Here some difficulty is frequently experienced as to the question if the

building has really been brought beyond the common line of neighbouring

buildings, especially where the houses are detached; but it is

apparently left to the tribunal before whom the case is heard to decide

this point, and the surveyor can only give his evidence, as in many

other cases, to the best of his ability and knowledge, and trust to

obtaining a verdict in his favour.

With regard to obstructions erected before the passing of the special

Act, the commissioners may cause the same to be removed or altered as

they think fit--

“Provided that they give notice of such intended removal or alteration

to the occupier[137] of the house or building against or in front of

which such alteration or removal is begun; and if such obstructions or

projections shall have been lawfully made, they shall make reasonable

compensation to every person who suffers damage by such removal or

alteration.”[138]

Here the words “_reasonable_ compensation” are difficult of construction

and lead frequently to long litigation.

(3.) _Doors or Gates opening outwards._--

Section 71 of the Towns Improvement Clauses Act 1847 enacts that “All

doors, gates and bars put up after the passing of the special Act within

the limits thereof, and which open upon any street, shall be hung or

placed so as not to open outwards, except when in the case of public

buildings the commissioners allow such doors, gates or bars to be

otherwise hung or placed; and if (except as aforesaid) any such door,

gate or bar be hung or placed so as to open outwards on any street, the

occupier of such house, building, yard or land shall, within eight days

after notice from the commissioners to that effect, cause the same to be

altered so as not to open outwards; and in case he neglect so to do the

commissioners may make such alteration, and the expenses of such

alteration shall be paid to the commissioners by such occupier, and

shall be recoverable from him as damages, and he shall in addition be

liable to a penalty not exceeding 40_s._”

Section 72 of the same Act further enacts, “If any such door, gate or

bar was before the passing of the special Act hung so as to open

outwards upon any street, the commissioners may alter the same so that

no part thereof when open shall project over any public way.”

It is naturally necessary that doors or gates of all public buildings

should hang so as to open outwards, so as to give a free and easy exit

in case of panic, many serious accidents having arisen from a want of

this precaution; but with regard to private premises the case is

altogether different, and if doors and gates were allowed to open

outwards, they would soon become a dangerous and intolerable nuisance.

It will be seen that there are two courses to be pursued in connection

with this offence.

The first is where the door, gate or bar has been placed before the

passing of the Towns Improvement Clauses Act in 1847, in which case the

“commissioners may alter the same, so that no part thereof when open

shall project over any public way.” This duty of course rests with the

town surveyor, and in many cases it is not easy of execution, as

structural difficulties may have to be encountered and overcome.

In the second case, where the door, gate or bar has been placed since

the passing of the Act in 1847, certain penalties are incurred by the

occupier or owner, and the commissioners may also alter the door, gate

or bar at his expense.

The following specimen form of notice to be served in connection with a

case of this description may be of use:

____________ TOWN SURVEYOR’S OFFICE.

SIR,

I beg leave to give you notice that of the premises in your

occupation opens outwards, and when open, projects into the street

called or known as .

I have therefore to require that you will be good enough to have such

altered so that it shall not open outwards into the said

street, within eight days next after your receipt of this notice.

I beg leave also to give you notice that if you neglect to make the

alteration required within the period specified by this notice, you

render yourself liable to a penalty of 40_s._, and I shall proceed to

make the necessary alterations, and recover the costs and penalties

from you as the law directs.

I am, Sir, your obedient Servant,

______________________________

_Town Surveyor._

To _______________

(4.) _Vault or Cellar Coverings._--

Section 73 of the Towns Improvement Clauses Act 1847 enacts, “When any

opening is made in any pavement or footpath within the limits of the

special Act, as an entrance into any vault or cellar, a door or covering

shall be made by the occupier[139] of such vault or cellar, of iron, or

such other materials, and in such manner as the commissioners direct,

and such door or covering shall from time to time be kept in good repair

by the occupier of such vault or cellar: and if such occupier do not

within a reasonable time make such door or covering, or if he make any

such door or covering contrary to the directions of the commissioners,

or if he do not keep the same when properly made in good repair, he

shall for every such offence be liable to a penalty not exceeding five

pounds.”

Besides the penalty, the person negligently leaving the covering in a

dangerous condition would be liable to an action for damages at the suit

of anyone who had sustained an injury in consequence of the covering

being so kept.[140]

There is another clause incorporated in the Public Health Act 1875 from

the Towns Police Clauses Act 1847 upon this subject, which is as

follows:

“Every person who leaves open any vault or cellar, or the entrance from

any street to any cellar or room underground, without a sufficient fence

or hand rail, or leaves defective the door, window or other covering of

any vault or cellar . . . . shall be liable to a penalty not exceeding

40_s._ for each offence, or in the discretion of the justice before whom

he is convicted may be committed to prison, there to remain for a period

not exceeding 14 days” (10 & 11 Vic. c. 89, s. 28).

But the former section I have quoted is that upon which the town

surveyor generally acts.

In connection with this duty the following is given as a specimen

notice:

SIR,

I beg to call your attention to the fact that the door or covering to

the vault or cellar in your occupation, No. Street, is

not in good repair (and is slippery and dangerous to

foot-passengers),[141] you are in consequence liable to a penalty of

5_l._

I must request you will be good enough to have such door or covering

properly repaired and made good in accordance with the construction

required by law, within days from the date hereof, and in the event of

your failing to do so, proceedings will be taken to enforce the

penalty to which you are liable without further notice.

I am, your obedient Servant,

______________________________

_Town Surveyor_.

To _______________

In accordance with the provisions contained in the section of the Towns

Improvement Clauses Act 1847 which I have quoted, that the “door or

covering shall be made by the occupier of such vault or cellar of iron

or such other materials, and in such manner as the commissioners

direct,” most towns in this country have prescribed the size and

materials of which they shall be made, the size being often limited to 6

feet in length, by 20 inches projection, from the line of plynth of the

building, for cellar coverings or pavement lights as they are sometimes

called, and 12 inches in diameter for coal plates.

Hayward’s patent hexagonal and semiprismatic pavement lights, however,

have obviated the danger of slipping upon this description of covering,

and consequently little or no inconvenience is experienced, even if the

greater portion of the foot pavement is covered by them.[142]

Coalhole plates should be so firmly fixed as to prevent the possibility

of their shifting, even when the rebate of the flag stone into which

they are dropped is worn, and also to prevent mischievous persons from

raising them.

Here let me state that no person can without the written consent of the

urban authority cause “any vault, arch or cellar to be newly built or

constructed under the carriageway of any street” (38 & 39 Vic. c. 55, s.

26); but from this section it does not appear illegal to construct a

vault, arch or cellar under the footpath, which would generally be the

extent to which such constructions would be extended. However, the more

general powers contained in section 149 of the same Act, by which all

“streets and the pavement stones and other materials thereof” vest in

and are under the control of the urban authority, give the necessary

powers to prevent the construction of cellars under any portion of the

foot-pavement without the consent of the urban authority.

The usual practice adopted is for any person who requires to construct a

cellar under the foot-pavement or carriageway of any street, to apply to

the urban authority for the necessary permission to do so. In granting

the permission, the urban authority call upon the owner of the premises

to which the proposed vault or cellar is attached, to enter into an

agreement acknowledging that the cellar or vault is only an easement,

and agreeing to remove the encroachment whenever called upon by the

urban authority to do so.

These agreements and any other similar easements should be kept together

in a book, which may be called the “Easement Book,” and indexed in such

a manner that a reference can be easily made at any time to any

easement that has been granted.

(5.) _Rain-water from Shutes or Down Pipes._--

Water may not be allowed to drip on to the pavements of the streets from

the adjoining houses, and the following clause from the Towns

Improvement Clauses Act 1847 has been incorporated with the Public

Health Act 1875:

[102] _Vide_ ‘Proceedings of the Institution of Civil Engineers,’ vol.