THE SISYPHUS: THE INSTINCT OF PATERNITY
The duties of paternity are hardly ever imposed on any except the
higher animals. The bird excels in them; and the furred folk perform
them honourably. Lower in the scale, the father is generally
indifferent to his family. Very few insects form exceptions to this
rule. Whereas all display a frenzied ardour in propagating their
species, nearly all, having satisfied the passion of the moment,
promptly break off domestic relations and retire, heedless of their
brood, which must do the best that it can for itself.
This paternal coldness, which would be detestable in the higher ranks
of the animal kingdom, where the weakness of the young demands
prolonged assistance, has here as its excuse the robustness of the
new-born insect, which is able unaided to gather its food, provided
that it be in a propitious place. When all that the Pieris need do, to
safeguard the prosperity of the race, is to lay her eggs on the leaves
of a cabbage, what use would a father’s solicitude be? The mother’s
botanical instinct requires no assistance. At laying-time, the other
parent would be an obstacle. Let him go and flirt elsewhere; he would
only be in the way at this critical season.
Most insects are equally summary in their educational methods. They
have but to choose the refectory which will be the home of the family
once it is hatched, or else a place that will allow their young to find
suitable fare for themselves. There is no need for the father in these
cases. After the wedding, therefore, the unoccupied male, henceforth
useless, drags out a languid existence for a few days more and at last
dies without lending the least assistance in the work of setting up his
offspring in life.
Things do not always happen in quite such a primitive fashion. There
are tribes that provide a dower for their families, that prepare board
and lodging for them in advance. The Bees and Wasps, in particular, are
masters in the industry of making cellars, jars and satchels in which
the mess of honey for the young is hoarded; they are perfect in the art
of creating burrows stocked with the game that forms the food of their
grubs.
Well, this enormous labour, which is one of building and provisioning
combined, this toil, in which the insect’s whole life is spent, is done
by the mother alone. It wears her out, it utterly exhausts her. The
father, drunk with sunlight, stands by the edge of the workyard
watching his plucky helpmate at her job and considers himself to have
done all the work that he is called upon to do when he has toyed a
little with his fair neighbours.
Why does he not lend the mother a helping hand? It is now or never. Why
does he not follow the example of the Swallow couple, both of whom
bring their bit of straw, their blob of mortar to the building, their
Midge to the brood? He does nothing of the kind, perhaps alleging his
comparative weakness as an excuse. It is a poor argument, for to cut a
disk out of a leaf, to scrape some cotton from a downy plant, to
collect a little bit of cement in muddy places would not overtax his
strength. He could very easily help, at any rate as a labourer; he is
quite fit to gather the materials for the mother, with her greater
intelligence, to fix in place. The real reason of his inactivity is
sheer ineptitude.
It is strange that the Hymenopteron, the most gifted of the industrial
insects, should know nothing of paternal labour. The male, in whom one
would think that the needs of the young ought to develop the highest
aptitudes, remains as dull-witted as a Butterfly, whose family is
established at so small a cost. The bestowal of instinct baffles our
most reasonable conjectures.
It baffles them so thoroughly that we are extremely surprised when we
find in the muck-raker the noble prerogative denied to the
honey-gatherer. Various Dung-beetles are accustomed to help in the
burden of housekeeping and know the value of working in double harness.
Remember the Geotrupes couple, preparing their larva’s portion
together; think of the father lending his mate the assistance of his
powerful press in the manufacture of the tight-packed sausages, a
splendid example of domestic habits and one extremely surprising amid
the general egoism.
To this example, hitherto unique, my constant studies of the subject
enable me to-day to add three others, which are equally interesting;
and all three are likewise furnished by the Dung-beetle guild. I will
describe them, but briefly, for in many particulars their story is the
same as that of the Sacred Beetle, the Spanish Copris and the others.
The first case is that of the Sisyphus (S. Schæfferi, Lin.), the
smallest and most zealous of our pill-rollers. He is the liveliest and
most agile of them all, recking nothing of awkward somersaults and
headlong falls on the impossible tracks to which his obstinacy brings
him back again and again. It was in memory of these wild gymnastics
that Latreille gave him the name of Sisyphus, famous in the annals of
Tartarus. The unhappy wretch had the terrible task of having to roll a
huge stone up hill; and each time he had toiled to the top of the
mountain the stone would slip from his grasp and roll to the bottom.
Try again, poor Sisyphus, try again and go on trying: your punishment
will not be over until the rock is firmly fixed up there.
I like this myth. It is in a fashion the history of a good many of us,
not detestable scoundrels worthy of eternal torments, but decent,
hard-working folk, doing their duty by their neighbours. They have one
crime only to expiate: that of poverty. So far as I am concerned, for
half a century and more I have painfully climbed that steep ascent,
leaving garments stained with blood and sweat on its sharp crags; I
have strained every nerve, drained myself dry, spent my strength
recklessly in the struggle to hoist up to safety that crushing burden,
my daily bread; and hardly is the loaf balanced when it slips off,
slides down and is lost in the abyss. Try again, poor Sisyphus, try
again until the load, falling for the last time, smashes your head and
sets you free at last.
The Sisyphus of the naturalists knows none of these bitter trials.
Untroubled by the steep slopes, he gaily trundles his load, at one time
bread for himself, at another for his children. He is very scarce in
these parts; and I should never have managed to procure a suitable
number of subjects for my purpose, but for an assistant whom I ought to
present to the reader, for he will play his part more than once in
these narratives.
I speak of my son Paul, a little chap of seven. My assiduous companion
on my hunting-expeditions, he knows better than any one of his age the
secrets of the Cicada, the Locust, the Cricket and especially the
Dung-beetle, his great delight. Twenty paces away, his sharp eyes will
distinguish the real mound that marks a burrow from casual heaps of
earth; his delicate ears catch the Grasshopper’s faint stridulation,
which to me remains silence. He lends me his sight and hearing; and I,
in exchange, present him with ideas, which he receives attentively,
raising wide, blue, questioning eyes to mine.
Oh, what an adorable thing is the first blossoming of the intellect;
what a beautiful age is that when innocent curiosity awakens, enquiring
into all things! So little Paul has his own vivarium, in which the
Sacred Beetle makes pears for him; his own little garden, no larger
than a pocket-handkerchief, where he grows beans, often digging them up
to see if the tiny roots are growing longer; his forest plantation, in
which stand four oaks a hand’s-breadth high, still furnished on one
side with the twin-breasted acorn that feeds them. It all makes a
welcome change from dry grammar, which gets on none the worse for it.
What beautiful and delightful things natural history could put into
children’s heads if science would but stoop to charm the young; if our
barracks of colleges would but add the living study of the fields to
the lifeless study of books; if the red tape of the curriculum beloved
by bureaucrats did not strangle any eager initiative! Little Paul, my
boy, let us study as much as we can in the open country, among the
rosemary- and arbutus-shrubs. By so doing, we shall gain in vigour of
body and mind; we shall find more of the true and the beautiful than in
any old musty books.
To-day we are giving the blackboard a rest; it is a holiday. We get up
early, in view of the contemplated expedition, so early indeed that you
will have to start without your breakfast. Have no fear: when your
appetite comes, we will call a halt in the shade and you shall find in
my bag the usual viaticum, an apple and a piece of bread. The month of
May is near at hand; the Sisyphus must have appeared. What we have to
do now is to explore, at the foot of the mountain, the lean meadows
where the flocks have been; we shall have to break with our fingers,
one by one, the cakes dropped by the Sheep and baked by the sun, but
still retaining a kernel of crumb under their crust. There we shall
find the Sisyphus huddled, waiting for the fresher windfall with which
the evening grazers will supply him.
Instructed in this secret, which I learnt long ago from chance
discoveries, little Paul forthwith becomes a master in the art of
shelling Sheep-droppings. He displays such zeal and such an instinct
for the best morsels that, after a very few halts, I am rich beyond my
fondest hopes. Behold me the proud owner of six couples of Sisyphi, an
unprecedented treasure, which I was far from expecting.
It will not be necessary to rear these in the vivarium. A wire-gauze
cover is enough, with a bed of sand and a supply of victuals to their
liking. They are so small, hardly the size of a cherry-stone! And so
curious in shape withal! Dumpy body: the hinder end pointed; and very
long legs, resembling a Spider’s when outspread: the hind-legs are of
inordinate length and curved, which is most useful for clasping and
squeezing the pellet.
Pairing takes place about the beginning of May, on the surface of the
ground, amid the remains of the cake on which the couple have been
feasting. Soon the time comes for establishing the family. With equal
zeal, husband and wife alike take part in kneading, carting and stowing
away the bread for the children. With the cleaver of the fore-legs a
morsel of the right size is cut from the lump placed at their disposal.
Father and mother manipulate the piece together, giving it little pats,
pressing it and fashioning it into a ball as large as a big pea.
As in the Sacred Beetle’s workshop, the mathematically round shape is
obtained without the mechanical trick of rolling the ball. The fragment
is modelled into a sphere before it is moved, before it is even
loosened from its support. Here again we have an expert in geometry
familiar with the form that is best adapted to make preserved
foodstuffs keep for a long time.
The pellet is soon ready. It must now, by vigorous rolling, be made to
acquire the crust which will protect the crumb from too-rapid
evaporation. The mother, who can be recognized by her slightly larger
size, harnesses herself in the place of honour, in front. With her long
hind-legs on the ground and her fore-legs on the ball, she hauls it
towards her backwards. The father pushes behind in the reverse
position, head downwards. It is precisely the same method as the Sacred
Beetle’s, when working in twos, but with another object. The Sisyphus
team convey a larva’s dowry, whereas the big pill-rollers trundle a
banquet which the two fortuitous partners will eat up underground.
The couple start, for no definite goal, across such impediments as the
ground may present. These obstacles are impossible to avoid in this
backward march; and, if they were perceived, the Sisyphus would not try
to go round them, as witness her obstinacy in trying to climb the
wirework of the cage. This is an arduous and impracticable enterprise.
Clawing the meshes of the gauze with her hind-legs, the mother pulls
the load towards her; then, putting her fore-legs round it, she holds
it suspended. The father, finding nothing to stand upon, clings to the
ball, encrusts himself in it, so to speak, adding his weight to that of
the lump and taking no further pains. The effort is too great to last.
The ball and its rider, forming one mass, fall to the floor. The
mother, from above, looks for a moment in surprise and forthwith drops
down to recover the load and renew her impossible attempt to scale the
side. After repeated falls, the ascent is abandoned.
The carting on level ground is not effected without impediment either.
At every moment the load swerves on the mound made by a bit of gravel;
and the team topple over and kick about, with their bellies in the air.
This is a trifle, the veriest trifle. The two pick themselves up and
resume their positions as cheerily as ever. These tumbles, which so
often fling the Sisyphus on his back, cause him no concern; one would
even think that they were sought for. After all, the pill has to be
matured, to receive consistency. And, under these conditions, bumps,
blows, falls and jolts are all part of the programme. This mad
steeplechasing goes on for hours.
At last the mother, regarding the work as completed, goes off a little
way in search of a favourable site. The father mounts guard, squatting
on the treasure. If his companion’s absence be prolonged, he relieves
his boredom by spinning the ball nimbly between his uplifted hind-legs.
He juggles after a fashion with the precious pellet; he tests its
perfection with the curved branches of his compasses. To see him
frisking in that jubilant attitude, who can doubt his lively
satisfaction as a paterfamilias assured of the future of his children?
‘It’s I,’ he seems to say, ‘it’s I who kneaded this round, soft loaf;
it’s I who made this bread for my sons!’
And he lifts on high, for all to see, this magnificent testimonial to
his industry.
Meanwhile, the mother has selected the site. A shallow pit is made, a
mere beginning of the projected burrow. The ball is rolled near it. The
father, that vigilant guardian, does not let go, while the mother digs
with her legs and forehead. Soon the hollow is big enough to hold the
pellet, the sacred thing which she insists on having quite close to
her: she must feel it bobbing up and down behind her, on her back, safe
from parasites, before she decides to go farther. She is afraid of what
might happen to the little loaf if it were left on the threshold of the
burrow until the home was completed. There are plenty of Aphodii and
Midges to grab it. One cannot be too careful.
The pellet therefore is inserted, half in and half out of the
partly-formed basin. The mother, underneath, gets her legs round it and
pulls; the father, above, lets it down gently and sees that the hole is
not choked up with falling earth. All goes well. The digging is resumed
and the descent continues, always with the same caution, one of the
Sisyphi pulling the load, the other regulating the drop and clearing
away anything that might hinder the operation. A few more efforts; and
the ball disappears underground with the two miners. What follows for
some time to come can be only a repetition of what we have just seen.
Let us wait half a day or so.
If we have kept careful watch, we shall see the father come up again to
the surface by himself and crouch in the sand near the burrow. Detained
below by duties in which her companion can be of no assistance to her,
the mother usually postpones her appearance till the morrow. At last
she shows herself. The father leaves the place where he was snoozing
and joins her. The reunited couple go back to the heap of victuals,
refresh themselves and then cut out another piece, on which again the
two work together, both as regards the modelling and the carting and
storing.
I am delighted with this conjugal fidelity. That it is really the rule
I dare not declare. There must be flighty Beetles who, in the
hurly-burly under a spreading cake, forget the first fair pastry-cook
whom they helped with her baking and devote themselves to others, met
by chance; there must be temporary couples, who divorce each other
after producing a single pill. No matter: the little that I have seen
gives me a high opinion of the Sisyphus’ domestic habits.
Let us recapitulate these habits before passing on to the contents of
the burrow. The father works just as hard as the mother at extracting
and modelling the lump that is to constitute a larva’s dowry; he shares
in the carting, even though he plays a secondary part; he keeps watch
over the loaf when the mother is absent looking for a spot at which to
dig the burrow; he helps in the work of excavation; he carries outside
the rubbish from the cavity; and lastly, to crown these good qualities,
he is to a large extent faithful to his spouse.
The Scarabæus displays some of these characteristics. He readily helps
in manipulating the pill; when it has to be carted, he takes his place
in a team of two, one pulling and one pushing. But let me repeat that
the motive of this mutual service is selfishness: the two
fellow-workers labour and cart the lump only for their own purpose. To
them it is a gala cake and nothing more. In that part of her work which
concerns the family, the Scarabæus mother has no assistant. Alone she
rounds her sphere, extracts it from the pile, rolls it backwards by
herself in the head-downward posture adopted by the male of the
Sisyphus couple; alone she digs her burrow; alone she stores away its
contents. Heedless of the laying mother and the brood, the other sex
does not assist at all in the exhausting task. How different from the
pigmy pill-roller!
It is time to inspect the burrow. At no great depth we find a tiny
niche, just large enough to allow the mother to move around her work.
The smallness of the chamber tells us that the father cannot remain
there for long. When the studio is ready, he must go away to leave the
sculptress room to turn. We have already seen him coming back to the
surface some time before the mother.
The contents of the cellar consist of a single pill, a masterpiece of
plastic art. It is a copy of the Sacred Beetle’s pear on a very much
reduced scale, its smallness making the polish of the surface and the
elegance of the curves all the more striking. Its main diameter varies
between one-half and three-quarters of an inch. It is the most artistic
achievement of the Dung-beetle’s art.
But this perfection is of brief duration. Soon the pretty pear is
covered with knotty excrescences, black and twisted, which disfigure it
with their blotchy lumps. A part of the surface, otherwise intact,
disappears beneath an amorphous mass of eruptions. The origin of these
ugly warts baffled me at first. I suspected some fungous growth, some
Sphæriacea, for instance, recognizable by its black and pimply crust.
The larva showed me my mistake.
As usual, this is a grub bent into a hook and carrying on its back a
large pouch or hump, the emblem of a ready evacuator. Like the Sacred
Beetle’s, indeed, it excels at stopping up any accidental holes in its
shells with an instantaneous spray of stercoral cement, of which it
always keeps a supply in its knapsack. It practises moreover an art of
vermicelli-making which is unknown to the pill-rollers, except the
Broad-necked Scarab, who however but seldom makes use of it.
The larvæ of the various Dung-beetles employ their digestive residues
for plastering their cell, whose dimensions lend themselves to this
method of riddance, without the necessity of opening temporary windows
through which to expel the ordure. Whether because of insufficient
space or for other reasons which escape me, the Sisyphus-larva, after
allowing for the regulation coating of the interior, ejects the excess
of its products outside.
Let us keep a close eye on a pear whose inmate is already growing
fairly big. Sooner or later we shall see that the surface at one point
is getting thinner and softer; and then, through the frail screen,
there is a spurt of dark-green fluid, which subsides with corkscrew
evolutions. One more wart has been formed. It will turn black as it
dries.
What has happened? The larva has made a temporary breach in the wall of
its shell; and through the ventilator, which is still covered with a
thin veil, it has excreted the superfluous cement which it was unable
to use indoors. It has evacuated through the wall. The window
deliberately opened in no way affects the safety of the grub, as it is
at once closed and hermetically sealed with the base of the spout,
which is compressed by a stroke of the trowel. With a stopper so
quickly placed in position the food will keep fresh however many holes
are made in the body of the pear. There is no danger of the dry air
entering.
The Sisyphus also seems to be aware of the peril which later, in torrid
weather, would threaten her tiny pear, buried at so slight a depth. She
is a very early arrival. She works in April and May, when the
atmosphere is mild. In the first fortnight of July, before the terrible
dog-days have arrived, her family burst their shells and go in search
of the heap that will furnish them with board and lodging during the
scorching time of the year. Then comes the brief spell of autumn
revelry, followed by the withdrawal underground for the winter sleep,
the awakening in spring, and lastly, to complete the cycle, the
pill-rolling festival.
One more observation about the Sisyphus. My six pairs under the
wire-gauze cover gave me fifty-seven inhabited pellets. This census
shows an average of over nine births to each couple, a figure which the
Sacred Beetle is far from reaching. To what cause are we to attribute
this flourishing brood? I can see but one: the fact that the male works
as well as the mother. Family burdens that would exceed the strength of
one are not too heavy when there are two to bear them.