and obtained a bearing and sketch of Clerke Rocks from the hills at the
back of Cooper Island.
A running survey with soundings was made round Zavodovski, the
northernmost island of the Sandwich group, an inhospitable island,
difficult or dangerous to land on, and still more so to gain a way up
the cliffs of rocks and ice to the upland.
The peak, unfortunately, was hidden by clouds, and no signs of activity
of the volcano were seen. No outlying dangers were visible—in several
places we got 20 fathoms 100 yards from the shore. On the north side
were numerous grounded bergs, indicating shoal water. These bergs were
about 40 to 50 feet high. On the basis of 1 fathom below water to 1
foot above they would give a depth of 40 to 50 fathoms. On the eastern
side we saw faint blue hazy smoke issuing in several places from clefts
and caves in the cliffs, and when we got to leeward could distinctly
perceive an unpleasant sulphurous smell. In this connexion Captain C.
A. Larsen, in November, 1908, reported: “... An active volcano; air
poisonous with fumes of burning sulphur; landing impossible owing to
steep-to coasts....” (Larsen, as a matter of fact, was ill for some
days as a result of breathing such fumes in one of the group.)
Two gently sloping uplands on the S. and E. afford a breeding ground
for myriads of penguins, who appear to keep scrupulously clear of the
fumes on the eastern side.
At Elephant Island we made a rough survey of Cape Lookout anchorage
where we anchored, and took several soundings S. and W. of Elephant
Island. We anchored at Cape Lindsay (N.W. of island) and Seal Rocks,
taking bearings and soundings. None of these anchorages can be
described as harbours, and with an onshore breeze they must be left
at once. We steamed through the intricate nest of rocks and reefs that
stretch for over 20 miles to the west and north-west of Cape Lindsay.
This was very ticklish navigation, requiring a very close, unremitting
watch from the crow’s-nest, there being no warning kelp, the only
guides being a brown discoloration under the water and an occasional
swirl of the sea.
The existence of Pagoda Rock was practically disproved by a sounding of
2,902 fathoms 2 miles east of its reported position. It can with safety
be expunged from the chart.
Forty miles north-east of the position assigned to Ross’s appearance
of land we obtained a sounding of 2,446 fathoms blue mud, and could
see no land from the masthead with clear weather. It seems improbable,
therefore, that it exists, unless it is south or west of the position
given, as Ross appears to have been working on dead reckoning, nor
could it have been far in those directions or we should have found
indications of it during our drift in Shackleton’s Expedition 1914-16.
At Gough Island we determined the position of Penguin Island (on the
east coast) to be 40° 18´ 10´´ S. and 9° 54´ 0´´ W., which is 2´ 22´´
S. and 4´ 6´´ E. of the latest Admiralty Chart, but only 50´´ N. and 2´
0´´ E. of the Admiralty’s previous position. These positions were taken
by a mean of a number of solar and stellar observations on different
days by sextant from the ship and bearings and rangefinder distance
to Penguin Island, being only able to use the northern and eastern
horizons.
Our chronometers were kept correct by W.T. time signals. (It would be
interesting to know if this is the first time that the position of an
outlying island like this has been verified by W.T. time signals.)
The position of Glen Anchorage was also accurately observed, agreeing
with the position by Captain Robertson SS. _Scotia_ of Bruce’s Scottish
Expedition.
We determined the position of the anchorage in Lot’s Wife’s Cove,
north end of island, by three observations for latitude and one for
longitude, surveyed and sounded two new anchorages, and sounded the
southern, eastern and part of the northern coast.
A new chart of Gough Island, with large and important corrections, on
a scale of 1/36431 was made.
[Illustration: SETTING UP KITES FOR THE TAKING OF METEOROLOGICAL
OBSERVATIONS
_Photo: Wilkins_]
[Illustration: THE SNAPPER CLOSED
[Illustration: THE SNAPPER OPEN]
[Illustration: AN APPARATUS FOR BRINGING UP SPECIMENS OF THE SEA BOTTOM
_Photo: Central Press_]
The highest point of the island was ascertained with an aneroid by
Captain Douglas to be 2,915 feet in the centre of the island, not 4,380
feet at the northern part, as previously charted. Very good fish were
caught in great abundance in the whole group, and crayfish abound, at
Gough Island in particular, to such an extent that it is possible a
profitable cannery could be started there.
The February-March, 1922, limits and conditions of the pack ice
for 2,500 miles from 18° E. to 52° W. between the latitudes of
63°-70° S. were determined. These, compared with Ross’s, Biscoe’s,
Bellingshausen’s and Shackleton’s, are very interesting, showing the
great difference between one year and another, and even one month and
another.
[Illustration: GOUGH ISLAND
By Comr. F. A. Worsley, R.N.R.
“QUEST” R.Y.S. 1922]
In the Tristan da Cunha—Gough Island group, additional information
for the sailing directions was obtained. Materials and directions
were given to Robert Glass, at Tristan da Cunha, to erect beacons at
Falmouth Bay for convenience of the inhabitants when landing in their
boats during darkness, and to act as leading marks for a safe anchorage
for visiting ships.
We practically disproved the existence of a reef reported by two
whaling captains as having been seen by them on voyages from Cape Town
to South Georgia in 35° 40´ S. and 5° 20´ W. (350 miles E. by N. of
Tristan da Cunha). We steamed over the position and searched for two
and a half days in the vicinity, half the time with a heavy southerly
gale, in which a breaking reef would show 6 or 7 miles away. We sounded
in 1,940 fathoms 3 miles south-east from the position given, 1,942
fathoms 15 miles east, 1,994 fathoms 15 miles south-east, and 1,989
fathoms 8 miles to the east, besides four soundings of 240 fathoms no
bottom and one of 560 fathoms no bottom at varying distances from 15
miles south-west to 5 miles north-west. Although I do not think the
reef exists, this instance gives some idea of the time and trouble a
survey ship may expend in searching for danger, and then not finding
it, through having been given a wrong or doubtful position; but vessels
passing this position would be well advised to keep a good look-out for
breakers.
DEEP SEA SOUNDINGS
Thirty-two soundings were taken in the southern ocean, practically all
in previously sounded areas, and so of great value in adding to our
bathymetrical knowledge of the ocean between the Atlantic Ocean and the
Antarctic Continent.
They were made with a Lucas machine, driven by a small Brotherhood
engine, all kindly lent to Sir Ernest Shackleton by the Telegraph
Construction and Maintenance Company, who also provided the
_Endurance’s_ Lucas, with which we sounded the Weddell Sea. Our
first line of soundings was run from a position 500 miles east of
the Sandwich group to our farthest south point in 69° 18´ S. 17°
11´ E., where we unfortunately were barred from further progress
by heavy impenetrable pack to the south, south-west and south-east.
The soundings here were of great interest, having shoaled from 2,356
fathoms to 1,089 fathoms in a distance of 100 miles. This, with other
indications, made it practically certain that land lay a short distance
south, possibly not more than 60 to 70 miles.
An irregular line of soundings for over 2,000 miles was then carried
out from 17° E. to 46° W., mainly within and along the Antarctic
Circle. The bottom, as usual, was mostly blue mud, droppings from
icebergs, but north of “Ross’s Appearance of Land” we dredged up a
large haul of angular rocky fragments, to the joy of the geologist.
Very heavy weather unfortunately prevented us sounding the blank area
between Elephant Island and South Georgia.
Three soundings were taken between South Georgia and Tristan da Cunha,
but heavy weather again prevented our doing more.
Our last series were taken from 50 miles north of Gough Island to 35°
40´ S. and 5° W., the bottom over this area consisting mainly of white
clay (globigerina ooze).
[Illustration]
Difficulty was experienced at all times in sounding owing to the
extraordinary liveliness of the _Quest_, and many more soundings would
have been taken but for the slowness of the vessel, lateness of the
season, limited time and bad weather.
A number of heights in the Tristan da Cunha, Gough Island group, were
ascertained by Captain G. V. Douglas with an aneroid to be marked in
excess on the Admiralty charts.
The new heights as determined by him and compared with those in
Admiralty charts are:
BY BY ADMIRALTY
DOUGLAS CHART 2228
FEET. FEET.
Tristan da Cunha 6,400 7,640
Middle Island 200 150
Inaccessible Island 1,508 1,840
Gough Island 2,915 4,380
It will be noted that an increase is to be applied to the Admiralty
height of Middle Island only.
APPENDIX V
MEDICAL
By A. H. MACKLIN, M.D.
_The following is intended to give briefly an idea of the special
conditions met with in Antarctic regions and the steps taken for
the prevention of disease._
The chief work of the surgeon of a polar expedition is done before the
ship leaves England, and if it has been properly carried out there
should be little to do during the actual journey. In this respect
casualties are excepted, for naturally they cannot be foreseen. They
are prepared for by providing a good general surgical outfit, the exact
composition of which will depend upon the amount of money available
for its purchase and on the space at disposal for its storage. Also,
as the practice of medicine and surgery is more of an art than an
exact science, it will depend largely upon the individual surgeon. Many
things can be omitted; for example, splints, which can be improvised as
required. There are, however, definite lines upon which the prevention
of sickness may be carried out, and the following are important
points:—
Ordinary sickness can be largely ruled out by careful examination of
personnel and insistence on absolute physical fitness. In making the
general examination the following points should be specially looked
for: bad teeth, pyorrhœa, septic tonsils, and any chronic disease about
the mouth, nasal passages or the accessory sinuses. They are often
the cause of latent trouble unsuspected by the applicant, and their
importance will be seen later in dealing with scurvy. The ears should
be tested for hearing and for any signs of middle ear disease. One
should examine for varicose conditions, hæmorrhoids and anal fissure
or fistula, rupture, flat feet, and other deformities of the feet and
toes, however slight, old-standing corns, bunions, etc. A history of
dislocations should be inquired for, especially of the cartilages of
the knee. My opinion is that any of these conditions should absolutely
rule out all new applicants, for the presence of any one of them will
inevitably lead to trouble. Their occurrence in men of previous polar
experience must be carefully considered. Venereal disease should be an
absolute bar. The wearing of spectacles does not necessarily rule out
an applicant, but the necessity for them is a great handicap in cold
regions.
There are three main conditions which must be specially considered and
prepared against: _Scurvy_ (_and allied conditions_), _frost-bite_ and
_snow-blindness_. _Sea-sickness_ is a fourth condition which may cause
disability, but as in the prevention and treatment of any disease the
main principle is to remove the cause, this cannot be arranged for
except by peace offerings to Æolus. The individual must “go through
it.” If he gets over it—good; if he shows no signs of ever adapting
himself, and much of the work of the expedition is to be done at sea,
he must be sent away at the first opportunity, for chronic sea-sickness
is a very wearing condition and renders the subject of it useless for
work. The _Quest_ was a particularly lively ship, and we lost in this
way two otherwise very useful members of the company.
With regard to sea-sickness remedies which depend mainly upon drugs
having a depressing influence on the brain, I think they are useful
for short journeys of a few hours. For long journeys with continued bad
weather I consider them not only useless, but harmful.
_Scurvy_ (_and allied conditions_).—The history of scurvy in war and
famine, in the early days of long voyages, and in Arctic and Antarctic
exploration shows the important part which this disease has played.
Fully developed scurvy is a horrible condition which renders the
individual an offence to himself and to those about him. A famous
Austrian physician, Kramer, described it as “The most loathsome disease
in nature,” so that the demoralizing effect of an outbreak in a small
and crowded ship or land base can easily be imagined.
Although a disease which has been recognized for centuries, it is only
in recent years that medical science has been brought to bear upon
it and the causation fully investigated. The result is that much new
knowledge has been brought to light.
For practical purposes it may be regarded as due to two main causes :
(1) The lack in the food of an essential factor or vitamin, which
leads to a condition of the body with diminished resistance to
deleterious influences.
(2) The addition to the system during this devitalized state of a
poison.
Prevention aims, therefore, at the provision of food containing the
active vitamin in sufficient quantity and in taking steps to eliminate
as far as possible poisons from the system.
With regard to supplying the vitamin, naturally much of the provisions
carried must be in the form of preserved foods. Unfortunately, most
canning and preserving processes have a detrimental effect upon the
vitamin, and it is under conditions where men are compelled to live on
them for long periods, with no access to fresh foods, that the danger
of scurvy arises.
For many years lime-juice was regarded as a sure preventive and a
certain cure, but this has proved fallacious.
There are, however, certain canned and dried foods which contain active
anti-scorbutic vitamin, though not in such great amount as fresh
vegetables. One should endeavour to rely, therefore, not on any one
product, but on the regular provision of all foods which are of value
in this way.
With regard to the dietary, there are two sets of conditions to be
prepared for: _Life on the ship or at a well-stocked base_, permitting
of a full and varied diet for which more or less bulky foods can be
used; and _sledging conditions_, including abnormal circumstances
arising from accident, which require a close ration.
In making my arrangements I placed reliance on the following foods:
For the first set of conditions, lemon-juice concentrated by the method
advocated by Surgeon Rear-Admiral Sir P. W. Bassett-Smith; dried milk
made by the “roller” process, condensed milk prepared by evaporation
in vacuo; canned tomatoes; peas, beans and lentils for being made to
germinate, and on prolonging the use of potatoes, carrots and onions as
far as conditions should permit.
Under sledging conditions the party is placed on a definite limited
allowance. A sledging ration is composed somewhat as follows: Pemmican,
nut food, biscuit, tea, sugar and dried or condensed milk, amounting
to a total weight of about 2½ lbs. per man per day, and having a food
value of about 5,000 calories. Of these, only the milk can be said
to contain active vitamin, and not in sufficient quantity to prevent
scurvy.
Shackleton added to his _Endurance_ sledging ration capsules of
lime-juice prepared without heat. This was in 1913 when the vitamin
theory was scarcely evolved, and is an example of his remarkable
ability to organize in detail.
For this expedition I added lemon-juice prepared as for use aboard
ship, but made into tablets and packed in air-tight containers, and
dried milk packed in small air-tight packages, each package containing
only one day’s ration, thus avoiding undue exposure to air.
Three different vitamins are described by investigators:
The anti-rachitic fat-soluble A vitamin,
The anti-neuritic[24] water-soluble B vitamin, and
The anti-scorbutic water-soluble C vitamin.
I have spoken only of the last; the first hardly needs consideration
here. The anti-neuritic vitamin is more easily preserved and supplied
than the anti-scorbutic, and for the prevention of beri-beri the
following foods were added to the ship’s dietary: Rice (containing
the germ), wholemeal flour, oatmeal, dried eggs, dried peas, beans and
lentils, and marmite, a yeast product, for adding occasionally to soups
and stews. For sledging conditions: Marmite, ½ oz. per man per day (to
be placed in the “hoosh”).
In preparing the supplies we carried a large variety of foods, for it
is of importance to prevent monotony in meals. This Shackleton always
realized. The following from the “The Worst Journey in the World” is
interesting: “Meanwhile Shackleton’s hut was very pleasant at this time
of year ... and the food. Truly Shackleton’s men must have fed like
turkey cocks for all the delicacies here....” The addition of a few
delicacies adds little to the cost of an expedition, but means a great
deal to those engaged in it. I think it would surprise most people to
know what can be done in the way of supplying wholesome and attractive
foods in a preserved state by modern plants. There should be one
standard of quality only: the best, and goods should be obtained only
from firms of the highest repute.
The elimination of poisons from the system is aimed at firstly, by
thorough preliminary examination, as already indicated, to avoid
sources of poisons in the body itself, e.g., the mouth, teeth, throat,
and nasal passages with their accessory sinuses, and, secondly, by
ensuring that no bad or “high” food shall be eaten.
Constipation in any of the personnel is a factor which must be avoided,
and it is necessary that all hands be impressed with the importance
of a regular daily movement of the bowels and a complete evacuation at
each act. Defæcation is apt to be hurried or neglected in bad weather
at sea and in cold and snowy weather ashore. Polar travel does not
admit of comfortable latrines, and this often means exposure to wind
and drift, for the daily functions are carried out in the ordinary way.
This exposure of the body, though exceedingly uncomfortable, leads to
no lasting harm, for, as will be shown, it is in the comparatively
bloodless extremities that frost-bite usually occurs. Constipation
is followed by absorption of poison from the bowel, and so must be
especially avoided if the risk of scurvy is imminent. Its correction in
bad weather must be carefully carried out, for the cruelty of drastic
purgation under these conditions can be imagined.
In future those responsible must make themselves _au fait_ with the
steps necessary to prevent the onset of deficiency diseases. Scurvy
caused the failure of Lord Anson’s expedition; in Captain Cook’s
brilliant voyages it was absent. Compare the bad conditions in the
_Alert_ and _Discovery_ in 1875 with the earlier voyages of Sir Robert
McClure in the _Investigator_. Always success and failure have depended
upon its presence or absence. In more recent times, take the case of
Captain Scott and the gallant companions who met their fate so bravely.
Mr. Cherry Garrard attributes their failure to return from the Pole to
several conditions, one of them a deficiency in the calorific value of
their ration. “It is a fact that the polar party failed to make their
distance because they became weak, although _they were eating their
full ration or more than their full ration of food_, save for a few
days when they were short on the way down the Beardmore Glacier....”
He goes on to say: “The Summit (S) ration consisted of biscuits 16,
pemmican 12, butter 2, cocoa 0.57, sugar 3, and tea 0.86 oz.; total,
34.43 oz. daily per man.”
I do not know the composition of the pemmican, but this ration should
yield nearly 5,000 calories. I should consider it to be devoid of
anti-scorbutic and anti-neuritic vitamin, and, indeed, the whole
medical history of that return journey shows that these men were
fighting an unknown enemy greater than all the forces of the Antarctic.
In a footnote Mr. Cherry Garrard mentions the possibility of vitamin
deficiency, and it is noteworthy that Dr. Atkinson added fresh onions
(brought by the ship) to the next year’s ration. I think there can
be no doubt that there was vitamin deficiency, and it all goes to
emphasize my point of the absolute necessity for careful medical
organization to prevent these preventable conditions, for it is my firm
belief that the cause of Scott’s death lay not in the Antarctic, but in
his preparations in England prior to setting out. The knowledge of the
subject necessary to enable him to prepare a sledging ration containing
active vitamin was not then available.
As there are two definite causes of fully developed scurvy, viz. the
lack of “vitamin” and the addition of a poison, so the symptoms and
signs divide themselves into two stages:
(1) A stage of general lassitude with loss of vigour and a
diminished resistance to outside influences.
(2) A stage of toxæmia which once started progresses rapidly and
produces the symptoms and signs usually associated with scurvy.
One must be constantly on the watch for the first stage, for unless
carefully looked for it will probably not be recognized, as the man
affected can give little clue to what is wrong with him. I saw many
hundreds of such cases during the war in North Russia when scurvy
was common, none of them showing any local signs at all. When the
better-known signs appear, such as spongy gums, blotches in the skin
and lumps in the legs, the disease is in an advanced stage.
My own arrangements for prevention were published in full prior to our
start in the _Lancet_, August 13th, 1921. I believe this is the only
Antarctic expedition that on setting out has not taken chances with
scurvy, though the absence of any signs of the disease from any of Sir
Ernest Shackleton’s own parties is remarkable. The reason is that the
necessary knowledge had not till that time been available.
Space forbids a full description here, but there are two important
points to which I must refer: _Dried cereals_ by themselves do not
contain active anti-scorbutic vitamin, but if made to germinate the
green shoots which sprout from them are rich in it. This is a point
of immense practical value, the application of which is obvious. With
regard to _fresh meat_, it has been shown by Stefansson in the North,
and by members of the _Endurance_ expedition in the South, that health
can be maintained on a purely meat diet, and that fresh meat, if taken
in sufficient quantity, is effective to cure scurvy. Stefansson, in
the _Friendly Arctic_, says that it must be eaten raw or very much
underdone, but our experience in the South showed that this is not
necessary. In fact, a certain degree of cooking is advisable. He
states also that putrefactive meat is an effective cure for scurvy.
This I think is dangerous teaching; in any stage of scurvy anything
putrefactive should be avoided if possible unless there is nothing
else.
Those general readers who desire to learn more of this most interesting
disease are referred to the bibliography at the end of the report.
On this expedition there was no scurvy, and no risk of it, for we
were never long enough away from sources of fresh food. Yet I would
emphasize the necessity of strong anti-“deficiency disease” measures
in polar work, whatever the programme may be, for in the pack ice
accidents may at any time occur leading to altogether unforeseen
conditions as regards food supply.
_Frost-bite_ is a condition well known to all polar explorers. If
neglected it may lead to most crippling results, and, like scurvy,
requires careful preventive measures.
The parts of the body most commonly affected are the exposed parts of
the face, especially where the skin is drawn tight over underlying
bone, e.g. the sides of the nose, the cheekbones and the chin; the
ears, the fingers and the toes. In parts other than the fingers and
toes the condition is usually not serious, for frost-bite of the face
and ears, if neglected, may cause disfigurement, but no real crippling.
It is a good practice for men in company to scrutinize each others’
faces, and a valuable piece of equipment is a small mirror in which
a man without companions can examine his own face. Frost-bite of
the fingers, though more serious, is usually quickly recognized and
promptly treated.
Frost-bite of the toes and feet is an extremely dangerous condition
and may have far-reaching results. The danger lies in the fact that
its incidence is often unknown to the man attacked, and, though he
may suspect its onset, he may neglect to examine his feet, for polar
footgear is elaborate and cumbersome, examination of toes on the march
means a halt, and a certain amount of time is consumed in unfastening
and securing the foot-coverings.
Prevention is aimed at generally by maintaining health and a vigorous
circulation. Anything which depresses the health and lowers vitality
predisposes to frost-bite. In polar work the most important are
exhaustion, hunger and vitamin deficiency. During a sledge journey
vitamin deficiency, the consequent lack of resistance, and the more
easily induced frost-bite create a condition of the gravest danger to
the man or the party so affected.
Locally, prevention lies in providing suitable clothing. In whatever
form it takes the principle aimed at is the same, viz. _to provide
a non-conducting air space round the skin_. The head and ears are
protected by woollen and windproof helmets. The face cannot be covered,
for masks get so heavily iced up as to make things worse. A cowl can be
fitted to the helmet which, when thrown forward, to some extent shields
the face from winds. The hands are enclosed in mitts, not gloves,
in which the fingers are all together. The finger portion should be
large enough to allow inclusion of the thumb when the hand is not in
use. Sometimes two or three pairs are worn, the outer pair being of
windproof material.
To provide adequate foot protection which shall not at the same time be
cumbersome is not an easy matter, for things which are loose about the
feet are unwieldy. Woollen socks which enmesh the air in their stitches
provide a good insulating air space. In low temperatures two, three or
four pairs may be necessary. To prevent constriction of the feet it is
of importance that each outer pair of socks should be a size larger
than the one inside, and so they should be supplied in series. The
cramming of a foot with too many pairs of socks into a boot too small
for them is bad, for the circulation of blood to the toes is restricted
and the air space is lost. Cold feet have often been cured by telling
the wearer to _remove_ a pair of socks.
All possible steps must be taken to see that the air space is not
replaced by moisture, i.e. the feet and coverings must be kept dry.
This is a difficult problem; coverings which allow of ventilation
allow access of damp from the outside, and waterproof coverings retain
perspiration. It is usually impossible to ensure absolute dryness, and
therefore socks should always be changed before turning in to sleep.
This should be made an inviolable rule, yet it is one which is often
broken. Damp socks should not be placed in a freezing atmosphere, for
the moisture in them will freeze and render difficult the putting of
them on in the morning. They should be kept in the sleeping-bag or
placed under the jersey. By this means they dry rapidly. Sennegrass
may be used for taking up perspiration; it has the property of rapidly
giving up its moisture. Some people prefer to use pieces of flannel
instead of socks; the pieces are wrapped about the feet, and have the
advantage that when taken off they can be spread out and thus dry more
rapidly.
All tight fittings and all constrictions which serve to impede the
circulation should be avoided. Success in preventing frost-bite is
attained only by continued and careful attention to detail.
Precautions which are carried out by men in good condition are liable
to be ignored by those who are exhausted or weak from any cause, and
under these conditions frost-bite occurs frequently. A frost-bitten
part becomes waxy white in appearance. If treated at once no harm
results, if neglected death of the part ensues. Treatment on the spot
consists not in rubbing the part with snow (men have been killed for
less), but in applying dry, gentle warmth. Very light massage may be
used, but violent rubbing, especially of the face, is liable to remove
the cuticle and leave a weeping sore. Fingers can be thrust inside the
affected man’s own clothing next to the warm skin. A frozen toe can be
similarly nursed back by a “Good Samaritan” placing the toe against his
skin and enfolding the ankle—a most unpleasant job, but most excellent
treatment. A hand taken from a warm mitt can be placed on the face,
nose or ears. Recovery is accompanied by an intense feeling of “pins
and needles.” A part that does not immediately come back to normal
must be kept warm and dry, and the application of _a little_ methylated
spirit or turpentine is good.
_It is essential to avoid grease and wet._ I have, in the Antarctic,
the Italian Alps, and in Russia, made extensive tests of oils, fats
and grease, and have come to the conclusion that the application of
vaseline or ointment is the worst treatment possible, especially if the
part is liable to be again exposed to cold. Too great heat is bad. The
circulation must be coaxed back gently. Too sudden a return leads to
exudation and choked capillaries, just as theatre passages are choked
at the cry of “Fire!”
Non-recovery leads ultimately to gangrene. If superficial, the part
may separate of itself, leaving a good new skin underneath which is at
first very tender; if deeper, judicious amputation may be required. The
gangrene may be _dry_ or _moist_. In the former case the part shrinks
and becomes black and scaly, the condition having little effect upon
the general health. It is dry and inoffensive. In the case of moist
gangrene the part becomes septic, is very offensive, and absorption of
poisons leads to impaired health. The amount of the limb that requires
amputation depends upon the severity and extent of the frost-bite. It
must be emphasized that in examining a part for frost-bite the waxy
appearance may not be present. It does not follow that the part has not
been frost-bitten or is not seriously affected. There is a more slowly
produced condition, due to the action of prolonged cold, in which blood
returning into the capillaries which have been damaged by the continued
constriction due to the cold sets up inflammation and exudation,
which may lead to death of the part. Signs of mottling, at first pinky
white, later blue-grey, should be looked for, and if they appear the
parts must be treated with the greatest care. If circumstances permit,
the limb should be raised, rested, and dry, warm (not hot) dressings
applied. For unbroken parts I use cotton wool which has been thoroughly
dried, bandaged lightly; for cases when the skin is broken, lint which
has been warmed and the surface scorched to render it sterile, covered
with warm, dry wool, and again lightly bandaged. This simple treatment
can be applied under any conditions in which it is possible to produce
a flame. Cases take a long time to recover fully. Ointments, hot wet
dressings, and poultices should be avoided. A milder though similarly
produced effect leads to an irritable condition resembling chilblains.
It affects commonly the tips of the ears. The momentary exposure of
bare skin does not lead to immediate frost-bite, but the length of
time that it can be exposed depends upon the temperature, the amount
of moisture present, and the strength of wind. It is often necessary
in carrying out a piece of work to expose the hands, which may require
periodical warming up. Much depends upon the circulation, for if a job
is attempted after the body has been for some time at rest frost-bite
sets in quickly. If, on the other hand, the individual has been working
hard, walking or running, and the blood is pulsating actively, the
hands and other parts can be exposed for comparatively long periods
without harm.
As a result of unrecognized and untreated frost-bite strong men have
been crippled for life. Constant watchfulness is required; its danger
cannot be over-estimated, nor too much emphasis placed upon measures
for its prevention.
_Notes on Oils and Grease_
It is commonly believed that fats, oils and grease are good
non-conductors of heat and if placed on the clothes or on the skin
help to keep one warm. There was never a greater fallacy, for it is
common experience of polar explorers that the reverse is the case.
Circumstances do not permit of regular laundrying or even of regular
hot baths, and situations are not rare at this work in which men have
spent several months without a wash or a change of clothes. After the
loss of the _Endurance_ the party had neither for a year. The clothes
inevitably became greasy, especially about the elbows and thighs. The
cold could be felt “striking through” the greasy parts.
It was often necessary to kill and cut up seals. In the process the
left hand grasped the blubber and became very greasy, whilst the right
hand, which wielded the knife, very largely escaped. Usually it was
possible only to wipe with snow, which had little effect to remove the
grease, before replacing the hands in mitts. Subsequently the left hand
felt colder and was more liable to frost-bite. Socks which have been
worn for some time and become slightly greasy are less warm than clean,
dry socks. There are socks of a type manufactured by certain firms
which have been deliberately imbued with grease to make them warmer.
The wearing of them produced the opposite effect. During the war I made
experiments upon myself and with troops, in which two stretcher-bearers
massaged the feet of each man, the left foot with whale oil and the
right by rubbing only. Both were done at the same time and for the same
length of time. The results were greatly in favour of the dry rubbing.
I collected also a number of socks which had been worn (and were
therefore greasy) and dried them thoroughly. I acquired some absolutely
new socks, and issued one dry, greasy sock and one new sock to each
man. Evidence in this case was not unanimous, but was numerically in
favour of the clean sock.
The conclusion is that oils and grease are of small value for
protection against cold and should as far as possible be avoided.
It may be thought that by not washing or having a change of clothes
for a long period the skin gets into a bad state. Fortunately, in
the Antarctic there are no human parasites, and one does not perspire
so freely as in warmer climates. Nevertheless, when working hard in
very low temperatures perspiration may be very free, and consequently
well-ventilated clothing is necessary. Modern Antarctic equipment
consists of warm woollen underclothes and very light windproof overalls
made of closely woven material. Furs are not used, though they are
favoured still by some Arctic explorers. The theory is often put
forward that the best procedure to adopt in the Arctic is to copy as
nearly as possible the clothing of the Esquimaux, for, that being their
home, naturally they know what is best. This view is strongly urged
by Canadians who trade along the Arctic coast. Certainly it has the
advantage of cheapness, but I wonder if they went to Central Africa
whether they would adopt the loin cloth—also cheap? As a matter of
fact, experience has shown that the skin improves in condition and
takes on a white, silky softness that some women might envy. It is
advisable under the conditions to seize any chance of still air and
bright sunshine to remove the clothes, dust from them the flakes of
skin which are constantly being shed, and give the body an air bath.
_Snow-blindness_ is a condition of acute and sudden congestion of
the eyes, affecting chiefly the conjunctivæ (the delicate membranes
which cover the greater part of the front of the eye). The little
blood-vessels become dilated, producing a prickly sensation of grit
in the eyes, which become painful in strong light. The condition may
become worse, leading to a marked congestion with heavy discharge
and total blindness. Snow-blindness is produced less frequently
by sun-glare on the snow than by a diffuse dull light which casts
no shadows and requires continuous strain to pick out hummocks and
unevenness of the ice. It is said that people with less pigment, i.e.
“blue-eyed” people, suffer more than those with darker, more heavily
pigmented eyes, but this is not always the case.
The condition can be prevented by wearing goggles with tinted lenses;
e.g. the ordinary dark Crookes lenses are quite effective. The frame
is of importance, for it must allow of free ventilation without side
glare. The _Rowley_ snow goggle, as used by Amundsen and Shackleton, is
a thoroughly effective design. The contour of the face and the depth of
the eye sockets differ so much in different individuals that each man
should be fitted for goggles prior to starting.
If treated early the condition gives little trouble. Even bad cases
are easily treated on board ship, or at a base, by protecting the
eye from strong light, and frequent bathing with warm water, boracic
lotion, or, better still, very dilute zinc sulphate. If on the
march, treatment is more difficult, for lotions will probably not be
available. Small, portable and very effective _tabloid_ outfits are
obtainable, containing eye drugs in small lamellæ, which, when placed
in the eye, are dissolved in the tears and so form lotions. It must
be remembered, when selecting the small outfits, that one which may
be easily manipulated in the warm showrooms of Messrs. Burroughs and
Wellcome may not be so easily handled with fingers benumbed and made
clumsy with cold.
For the non-medical man the best treatment is first to place in the
eye a cocaine lamella to relieve pain, and follow it in a few minutes
by another of zinc sulphate. Pituitary and adrenal extracts have
a very rapid effect, but must be used with great care. Untreated
snow-blindness in bad cases may lead to permanent results. The
condition is preventable and easily treated in its early stage, hence
once more the great importance of careful preparation.
_Bacterial affections_ are rare. “Colds in the head” hardly ever
occur, and if they do are probably due to germs brought by the party
themselves. Wounds, however, readily become septic. Even clean cuts
take a long time to heal, and unite with more scarring than usually
happens in more temperate regions. This is due to the comparatively
bloodless condition of the skin. Steps should always be taken to keep
the injured part as warm as possible. When possible it is an economy
to rest and carefully look after open wounds however slight, for the
reluctance to heal often causes long-continued annoyance.
Every polar surgeon must be prepared to do his own nursing. There is
no one else to do it. Conditions for a sick or injured man, even under
the best circumstances, are far from being ideal, yet much can be done
by improvising and keeping an adaptable mind. Comfort, even for an
invalid, is a relative term. The great thing is to keep the patient
cheery, and in the ship, at a base hut, in a tent, or even under an
upturned boat, one can be continually doing little things to make him
feel that he is being well looked after.
The surgeon’s advice is often sought with regard to local food
supplies. There is very little in the way of animal flesh that one
cannot eat if put to it, and a few precautions in cooking can make
almost anything palatable. The meat of whales, seals, sea-elephants,
sea-leopards and penguins is all very similar, being composed of a dark
red coloured flesh of coarse texture. They have a somewhat strong oily
taste, which one learns not to dislike in cold regions. The organs,
such as the brains, hearts, livers and kidneys, are edible and are said
to be rich in anti-neuritic vitamin. One has to beware of parasites.
Fish form the diet of most of these animals, and are a prolific source
of tape worm, round worm and small thread worms. Often, also, the liver
contains small trematodes. Weddell seals and sea-leopards especially
seem to be infested with these parasites; on being cut open they have
often an unpleasant toxic smell, the intestines swarm with worms, the
heart may have small cysts on its surface, small animalculæ may be
detected in the bile which flows from the cut liver, and the spleen and
lymph glands are often enlarged, showing that the animal is suffering
from a general poisoning. Unless the party is starving, such an animal
should naturally be rejected _in toto_, although the meat may appear to
be sound.
The crab-eater seals, which live largely on small crustaceæ, are
much more healthy animals. Penguins also require careful examination.
Seabirds have a rather strong taste of oil and fishiness, which can
largely be removed by soaking them in dilute vinegar for twenty-four
hours. Young albatross and paddy birds require no special treatment
and are delicious. Fish swarm in Antarctic and sub-Antarctic regions
wherever there is shoal water and kelp, as also round the South
Atlantic islands, where crayfish also can be obtained. Every effort
should be made to vary a diet of preserved provisions by seizing the
chance whenever possible of obtaining any of the above.
There is much of interest in the medical side of exploration that
space forbids me to touch on, but there is one point which is likely
to concern the surgeon of a polar expedition, whose department is an
all-embracing one: the health and physical fitness of sledge dogs.[25]
Many explorers have found dogs unsatisfactory as a means of transport.
This is especially the case with British explorers. Scott found them
a failure on his first expedition and put little trust in them on
his last. Shackleton, in his own first expedition, as a result of his
experience with Scott, used ponies in preference. Careful organization
has been put into providing and preparing for various forms of
mechanical transport before the expeditions concerned left England,
yet Shackleton in getting ready for the _Endurance_ expedition is,
so far as I know, the only British explorer who seriously organized
and thoroughly prepared for an efficient service of dog transport
prior to his start. Sledges, harness, traces and, last, not least,
food and sledging rations were worked out in detail. Commander Wild,
who associated with him in this work, is a strong advocate of their
utility. During the expedition the dogs were rigidly disciplined and
carefully “vetted,” and the results were splendid. We were unable to
attempt the cross-country journey, yet the work of the dogs day by day
was marvellous. There was no ice too rough for them, they crossed broad
leads of water at high speed over nothing but rubble, wherever men
could take a sledge they could take it faster, and sometimes go where
men could not. They required no tents or sleeping-bags—only a _minimum_
of one pound of _good_ food per day.
Dogs are living organisms, like men, and require treatment as such.
Their characters must be studied and their health looked after. To
begin with, like men, they must be physically fit, they must be kept
fit, their coats brushed and combed, their skin and paws kept in good
order, they must be freed from parasites, and their fighting wounds
made to heal. Like men, they must be well disciplined and trained, and
then they are fit to send out on a sledge journey.
The sledging ration must be as carefully worked out as that of the men
with a view to calorific value and _vitamin sufficiency_. Dogs are
possessed of a high degree of intelligence, are hardy, and can look
after themselves. As I have said, they can take a sledge anywhere that
men can, therefore they are worth looking after. Yet one of the most
pitiable things in the history of polar exploration is the way in which
dogs have been neglected, left in miserable condition when probably all
that was required was a dose of castor oil and a good vermifuge, made
to work to the last ounce on a totally inadequate ration, and finally
driven to death.
Amongst the names of non-British explorers which stand out are those of
Sverdrup, Amundsen and Peary. They looked after the _health_ of their
dogs, and were amply repaid for the care expended.
During the voyage of the _Quest_ there was little sickness. A number of
casualties occurred, most of them trivial and easily dealt with, none
producing serious results.
There was one death: Sir Ernest Shackleton. The cause was _atheroma
of the coronary arteries_. The condition was a long-standing one and
in my opinion was due to overstrain during a period of debility. In
his history there are many occasions when it may have been produced.
The scurvy which he developed during the southern journey of the
_Discovery_ expedition may have produced lasting results. It has been
stated that his collapse caused the failure of that journey. I must
make it plain that the development of scurvy in an individual during
a sledge journey is not in any way the fault of the individual, but
results from faulty organization. Sir Ernest Shackleton has never had
a single case of scurvy, or any condition allied to it, in any party
under his charge. His condition may have been produced during his own
great pioneer journey towards the South Pole.
What is remarkable is that in such an advanced condition he was able
to carry on as he did. It shows, psychologically, a wonderful will
power and an unyielding determination to overcome difficulties. In this
respect may be noted one of the last things which he wrote (in a final
letter to Mr. Rowett):
“Never for me the lowered banner,
Never the lost endeavour.”
In other psychological respects he was remarkable, as is seen in the
combination of a happy and apparently carefree temperament with an
ability for accurate and detailed organization. As a leader he was
always “boss.” He was condemnatory of shortcoming and exacting in the
service rendered by subordinates, yet he drew from all who worked for
him a deep liking and an unfailing loyalty. His physical qualities are
well known. As a living organism he was wonderful.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
BASSETT-SMITH. “Scurvy; with Special Reference to Prophyllaxis
in the Royal Navy.” _Proc. Roy. Soc. Med._ 1920, Vol. xiii (War
Section).
CHICK, H., AND DELF, E. M. “The Antiscorbutic Value of Dry and
Germinated Seeds.” _Biochem. Jour._, 1919, xiii, 199.
CHICK, H., AND HUME. “The Distribution amongst Foodstuffs ... of
the Substances Required for the Prevention of (_a_) Beri-beri and
(_b_) Scurvy.” _Trans. Soc. Trop. Med. and Hyg._ 1917, x, 141.
COUTTS. (Upon an inquiry as to dried milk, etc.). Report to the
Local Government Board, 1918. New Series, No. 116, 31.
HESS. _Scurvy Past and Present._ Lippincott, 1920.
—— “Newer Aspects of Some Nutritional Disorders.” _Jour. Amer.
Med. Assocn._, March 12, 1921. Vol. 76.
LIND. _Treatise on Scurvy._ London, 1772.
MCCARRISON. “Studies in Deficiency Disease.” Oxford Med.
Publication, 1921.
MACKLIN. “A Polar Expedition.” _Lancet_, March, 1921.
MACKLIN AND HUSSEY. “Scurvy: Its Prevention on a Polar
Expedition.” _Lancet_, Aug. 13, 1921.
MEDICAL RESEARCH COMMITTEE. “Report on the Present State of
Knowledge Concerning Accessory Food Factors (Vitamines), 1919.”
PERSONNEL
SIR ERNEST SHACKLETON, C.V.O. Died in South Georgia.
FRANK WILD, C.B.E. _Commander._
F. A. WORSLEY, D.S.O., O.B.E., _Hydrographer
R.D., R.N.R. and Sailing Master._
D. G. JEFFREY, D.S.O., R.N.R. _Navigator._
A. J. KERR _Chief Engineer._
C. E. SMITH _Second Engineer._
A. H. MACKLIN, O.B.E., M.C., M.D. _Surgeon, and in
charge of stores
and equipment._
J. A. MCILROY, M.R.C.S., L.R.C.P. _Surgeon and Meteorologist._
L. D. A. HUSSEY, B.Sc. _Meteorologist and Assistant
Surgeon._
G. H. WILKINS, M.C. _Naturalist._
G. V. DOUGLAS, M.C., M.Sc. _Geologist._
C. R. CARR, D.F.C. _Aviator._
J. W. S. MARR _Boy._
J. W. DELL _Electrician and Boatswain._
C. J. GREEN _Cook._
HAROLD WATTS _Wireless Operator._
T. F. MCLEOD _A.B._
S. S. YOUNG _Fireman._
G. H. ROSS _Fireman._
H. J. ARGLES _Trimmer._
CHRISTOPHER NAISBITT _Ship’s Clerk._
INDEX
Aarberg, Dr., 180, 186, 190
Aarberg, Mrs., 69, 180, 190, 194
Admiralty, 7, 10, 314, 344, 348
Air Ministry, 7, 13, 340, 343
Albatross, 49, 52, 83, 186-189, 190, 294, 296, 363,
_see also_ Appendix iii
Island, 186
_Albuera_, 66, 67, 190
_Amphipods_, 101
Andersen, Mr., manager, Husvik, 76
Anenkov Island, 172
Argles, H. J., 48, 49, 83, 92, 118, 139, 141, 145, 148, 186,
197, 272, 327
Ascension Island, 287, 301-309, 327
Atmospheric effects, 116, 126, 156, 290
B
Baden-Powell, Sir Robert, 170, 232
Barlas, Mr., Assistant Magistrate, South Georgia, 67
Barrier, Great Ice, 78, 83
Bay of Biscay, 19, 341
Isles, 185
Beaufort Sea, 2
Becker, Sir Frederick, ix, 3
Begbie, Mr. Harold, viii
Binnie, Mr., Resident Magistrate, South Georgia, 176, 196
Bird life, Elephant Island, 335
Gough Island, 272, 337-338
St. Paul’s Rocks, 329
St. Vincent, 328
at sea, 52, 83, 329, 334-335, 339
South Georgia, 330-333
Tristan da Cunha, 213, 336
Zavodovski Island, 334
Birdwood Bank, 7
Biscoe, John, voyage of, 130
_Blendon Hall_, wreck of, 211
Blubber as fuel, 106, 108, 137, 145, 168
Bostock, Mr., manager, Prince Olaf Harbour, 185, 189
Bouvet Island, 6, 79, 91
Bransfield Strait, 72
Bridgland, Captain F., 17
Buenos Aires, 264
C
Canadian Government, 3, 4
Cape Colony, 205, 292, 345
Cape George, 347
of Good Hope, 205, 290
Lindsay, 348
Lookout, 157, 162
Roca, 29
Valentine, 155
Wild, 156, 158, 162, 165-167
Cape hen, 52, _see also_ Appendix iii
pigeon, 52, 83, 159, 190, _see also_ Appendix iii
Cape Town, 6, 13, 46, 72, 73, 75, 137, 148, 214, 216, 237, 243,
254, 256, 262-264, 271, 284, 287-294, 343
Cape Verde Islands, 34
Carr, C. R., 14, 27, 38, 49, 50, 52, 61, 80, 82, 83, 91, 100, 105,
118, 140, 142, 148, 149, 157, 159, 167, 185, 186, 190, 197,
202, 206, 212, 231, 327
Cascaes, 29
Caves, ice, 89
Gough Island, 280, 283
Middle Island, 324
Zavodovski Island, 87, 334, 347
_Challenger_, 206, 321
Christmas celebrations, 50-52
Clarence Island, 154, 155, 156, 317
Clark, Mr. R. S., of _Endurance_, 308, 331 (_notes_), 332
(_notes_), 333
Clerk Rocks, 82, 347
Clothing, 76, 358, 361
Coats Land, 78, 314
Continental Shelf, 120
Cook, Mr. James A., x, 290, 295
Cooper Bay, 80, 82, 316, 347
Island, 346, 347
Cornwallis Island, 155
Cotton, Miss Betty, 241
Crayfish, 274, 278, 280, 349, 363
Crozet Island, 6
Cumberland Bay, 60, 346
D
Deception Island, 91, 137, 140, 168, 182
Dell, J. W., 14, 27, 38, 49, 54, 77, 83, 91-93, 104, 120, 132,
140, 147, 169, 178, 196, 209, 265, 287-289, 327, 343
_Diatoms_, 101
Diego Alvarez Island, _see_ Gough Island
Diet, 353-357
_Discovery_, 14, 68, 308, 365
Dogs, sledge, 364
Dominican gull, 112, 159, _see also_ Appendix iii
Dougherty Island, 7
Douglas, G. V., 15, 22, 27, 38, 49, 59, 77, 80, 82, 83, 94, 100,
124, 134, 139, 142, 146, 148, 149, 157, 163, 179, 197, 206,
231, 287, 292, 304, 309, 343, 348, 351
diary, 208, 209, 210, 212, 214
geological observations, 314-318
Dredging, 149, 296
Drygalski Fiord, 82
E
East India Company, 205, 297, 300
Elephant Island, 81, 91, 137, 145, 153-168, 171, 178, 183, 273,
317-318, 335, 342, 347-348, 350
Enderby Brothers, 5
Land, 73, 314
Quadrant, 7, 292
_Endurance_, 3, 61, 68, 90, 99, 117, 119, 152, 155, 183, 194,
308, 350, 354, 357, 360, 364
Equipment, general, 15, 72, 76
scientific, 10-13, 341, 343
Eriksen, 15, 27, 36, 38, 48
_Euphausiae_, 101, 111
Expedition, Bellingshausen’s, 86
Canadian Arctic, 14, 344
Deutschland, 46, 196
German Transit of Venus, 197
Imperial Trans-Antarctic, 1
Mawson, 87
Shackleton, 1914-16, 348
Shackleton-Rowett, 6
_Expedition Topics_, 93, 97
F
Falkland Islands, 79, 184
Falmouth Bay, Tristan da Cunha, beacons, 349
Foca I, _see Quest_
_France_, 37
Frost-bite, 353, 357-360
G
Garrard, Mr. A. Cherry, 355, 356
_The Worst Journey in the World_, 355
Glaciers, Elephant Island, 158, 161, 317
South Georgia, 197, 198, 316
Zavodovski Island, 86
Glass, Corporal William, 222, 238-239, 248, 259
Gough Island, 6, 215, 265-286, 287, 291, 319-320, 337-340, 343,
348, 350, 351
Gould, Lieut. Comdr., 7
Graham Land, 72, 74, 75
Green, C. J., 20, 24, 26, 36, 49, 51, 54, 81, 83, 97, 190, 191,
194, 197, 202, 294, 296, 302, 309
Gritviken Harbour, 59, 60, 67, 69, 76, 192, 195
Growlers, 132, 152
H
Hansen, Mr., manager, Leith Harbour, 67, 76, 77, 109, 172, 176,
179, 180, 182, 190, 333
Harmsworth, Mr. A. C., 5
Heard Island, 6
Hodson, Mr., of _Discovery_, 308
Hussey, L. D. A., 14, 23, 27, 33, 38, 40, 43, 49-52, 61, 65, 67,
69, 76, 84, 172, 178, 182, 185, 194
account of the burial of Sir E. Shackleton, 173-177
Husvik Harbour, 76, 185
I
Ice, fresh water from sea, 118
pack, 79, 98-100, 102, 104, 107, 112, 118, 129-133, 136, 143,
149, 150, 152, 350
pancake, 135, 136
_see also_ Growlers _and_ the Pack
Icebergs, 58, 83, 85-91, 93, 96, 141, 142, 149, 152, 156, 159,
350
Ice-blink, 98, 136
Illness, prevention of, 352
Inaccessible Island, 6, 203, 205, 206, 211-213, 239, 324-325, 351
J
Jacobsen, Captain, of _Professor Gruvel_, 67, 74
Jacobsen, Mr., manager, Gritviken, 61, 66, 75, 80, 261
Jeffrey, D. G., 14, 23, 27, 38, 43, 48, 49, 52, 77-82, 83, 85,
87, 103, 105, 122, 142, 146, 149, 163, 166, 178, 186, 187,
191, 196, 197, 202, 206, 209, 231, 266, 309, 343
K
Kelp, 82, 191, 209, 214, 274, 346, 348, 363
Kelvin sounding machine, 12, 84, 318, 344
Kerr, A. J., 14, 17, 28, 29, 34, 42, 47, 49, 52, 53, 55, 56, 74,
78, 83, 87, 92, 109, 122, 128, 136, 149, 151, 157, 159,
179, 194, 202, 292, 303, 308
Killer whales, 93, 102, 111-114, 125, 131, 132, 143, 146, 335
L
Larsen Harbour, 82, 331 (_note_ 2), 347
Least, Captain, of _Woodville_, 69, 174
Leith Harbour, 66, 76, 77, 80, 172, 190
Lisbon, 29, 30, 32, 78, 341
Lucas sounding machine, 12, 91, 92, 289, 344, 350
Lysaght, Mr. Gerald, 17, 19, 21, 23, 25
M
McIlroy, J. A., 14, 19, 27, 49, 52, 61, 65, 67, 80, 83, 91, 92,
95, 100, 104, 118, 126, 129, 140, 141, 149, 157, 159, 168,
170, 185, 194, 197, 201, 202, 232, 292
Macklin, A. H., x, 3, 6, 14, 23, 27, 38, 40, 45, 48, 49, 52, 61,
62, 67, 75, 80, 81, 83, 89, 91-95, 98, 103-105, 112, 118,
126, 132, 139, 140, 142, 147-152, 157, 159, 163, 166, 167,
185, 188, 191, 194, 196, 197, 202, 204, 214, 216, 270, 284,
292, 298, 302, 303, 309
diary, 57, 64, 122, 135, 141, 145, 153, 164, 186-188, 191, 199,
275, 294-296, 302, 304-308
medical, 352-365
Tristan da Cunha, 219-264
Macleod, T. F., 14, 19, 27, 49, 52, 77, 83, 92, 100, 123, 140,
152, 163, 169, 178, 187, 194, 201, 290
Macquarie Island, 87, 273
Madeira, 17, 19, 31, 34, 310
Manson, Captain, of _Albuera_, 67, 190
Marion Island, 6
Marr, J. W. S., 15, 21, 23, 30, 32, 36, 38, 49, 52, 77, 80, 81,
83, 84, 91, 118, 132, 140, 146, 150, 163, 169, 178, 186,
197, 202, 206, 212, 232, 304, 327
diary, 33, 94, 144, 207
Mason, J. C. Bee, 14, 23, 27-29, 31, 32
Middle Island, 205, 208, 210, 324, 351
Mill, Dr. H. R. viii, 3
Mollymauk, 213, 245, _see also_ Appendix iii
Moltke Harbour, 197
Monte Video, 67, 69, 173-177
Mooney, N. E., 15, 21, 22, 28-32
Mount Paget, 315
N
Naisbitt, C., 48, 49, 52, 77, 83, 93, 97, 98, 118, 148, 270, 278
Natural History Museum, British, 163, 314
New York, 164
_Neko_, floating factory, 177, 178, 182, 185, 186
New Zealand, 7, 285
Newnes, Sir George, 5
Nightingale Island, 6, 205-210, 211, 212, 322-324
O
_Orwell_, oil transport, 76, 288
P
Pack, the, 73, 101, 110, 113, 117, 122, 146
Paddy birds, 159, 163, 363, _see also_ Appendix iii
Pagoda Rock, 79, 96, 348
Palmer Archipelago, 74, 183
Pediunker, 213, 253
Penguin Island, 286, 348
rookeries, 81, 87, 213, 274, 284
Penguins, 80, 86, 93, 102, 156, 162, 166, 295, 363
Adelie, 115, 143, 145, 148
Emperor, 108-109, 111, 124
Gentoo, 81, 158, 160, 167
King, 87, 108, 334
Ringed, 81, 85, 141, 158, 334
Rockhopper, 213, 274, 284
_see also_ Appendix iii
Personnel, 14-15, 48, 366
_Perth_, oil transport, 184
Petrels, 99
Antarctic, 93, 111, 112, 131, 141, 143
Giant, 83, 129, 131, 186, 187
Mother Carey’s Chickens, 52, 83, 131
Snow, 111, 112, 124, 143, 145
Wilson’s, 111
_see also_ Appendix iii
Plant life, Ascension Island, 305
Gough Island, 268, 272, 285, 338-339
Nightingale Island, 207
St. Helena, 299, 300
South Georgia, 334
Tristan da Cunha, 213, 240, 244, 252, 320
Plymouth, 17, 293, 308
Sound, 18, 312
Ponta del Gada, 310
Portugal, 29
Positions, 20, 21, 22, 50, 79, 98, 104, 108, 110, 116, 117, 120,
128, 131, 136, 141, 143, 144, 147, 288, 342, _see also_
Appendix v
Possession Bay, 346
Prince Olaf Harbour, 185, 188, 189, 346
Prion, _see_ Whale bird
_Professor Gruvel_, 67, 74, 173
Q
Queen Mary’s Land, 114
Query, dog, 17, 20, 26, 62, 100, 107, 122, 143, 145, 148, 153,
196, 201, 265, 278, 284, 289
_Quest_, adaptation and equipment, 8-13;
voyage to Rio, 16-37, 42-43;
overhauled, 44-47;
first visit to South Georgia, 48-63, 72-74, 76-79;
pushing South, 80-98;
in the ice, 98-144;
beset, 145-152;
visits Elephant Island, 153-172;
second visit to South Georgia, 177-190;
visits Tristan da Cunha group, 199-203, 206-209, 213, 224, 231,
233, 235, 243, 252;
Gough Island, 265-270, 279-284;
Cape Town, 287-293;
homeward voyage, 294-296, 301, 308-313;
alluded to, vii, 314, 316, 318, 340, 341, 351, 353, 365
R
Raratonga, 7
Reef, sounding for reported, 288, 349
Rio de Janeiro, 43-48, 53, 63, 77, 78, 85, 140, 182, 341, 345
“Roaring Forties,” the, 179, 199, 203
Rogers, Rev. Martin, 214, 217, 227, 232, 235, 236, 243, 248, 263
Rogers, Mrs. Martin, 235-237, 243, 248
Ross, G. H., 83, 142, 197
Ross’s Appearance of Land, 91, 137, 144, 145, 350
Rowett, Mr. J. Q., viii, 3, 5, 9, 15-17, 51, 52, 57, 66, 72, 73,
77, 173, 174, 176, 177, 204, 215, 217, 287, 290, 312, 328,
340, 365
Rowett, Mrs. J. Q., ix, 51, 52, 176
Royal Bay, 197, 316, 347
Royal Geographical Society, 2
S
St. Helena, 287, 296-301, 327
St. Paul Rocks, 6, 38-42, 325-327, 328, 345
St. Vincent, 35, 42, 62, 78, 287, 308, 309, 327, 328, 341
San Miguel Azores, 310, 327
Sapp, Captain, of _Southern Isles_, 185
Scilly Isles, 19, 30
_Scotia_, 267, 348
Scott, Captain, 14, 355, 364
Scurvy, 104-106, 353-357, 365
Sea-elephants, 81, 137, 156, 157, 159, 162-164, 186, 272, 333,
337, 363
Sea hen, _see_ Skua
Sea-leopards, 93, 112, 125, 149, 333, 335, 363
Sea life, St. Paul Rocks, 38-42
Tristan da Cunha, 336
tropical, 36
Seal meat, 103-105, 108, 125, 363
Seal Rocks, 166
Seals, 81, 107, 111-115, 143, 295, 337, 360
Arctic and Antarctic, 125
Crab-eater, 101, 114, 124, 131, 132, 139, 145, 335, 363
Weddell, 118, 333, 363
Sea-sickness, 31, 353
Shackleton, Lady, 8, 66, 67, 69, 173, 174, 176, 194
Shackleton, Sir E. H., vii-ix;
plans and finance, 1-10, 14-15;
on the _Quest_, 16-38, 41-43, 48-59;
at Rio, 44-48;
arrival at South Georgia, 60-63;
death, 64-67, 365;
arrangements for burial, 67-70, 173;
memorial service, 174;
funeral, 176;
memorial cairn and grave, 192-195;
alluded to, 71-79, 88, 105, 155, 156, 171, 183, 188, 312, 314,
342, 344, 350, 354-356, 362, 364
diary, 18-23, 58-59
_South_, 1, 155, 333
Sharks, 38-41, 209, 295, 337
Sinclair, Captain, of _Neko_, 182, 183
Skua, 80, 81, 129, 159, 213, 268, 272, _see also_ Appendix iii
Smith, C. E., 15, 49, 83, 84, 92, 292
Snow-blindness, 353, 361-362
Sorlle, Mr., manager, Stromness Harbour, 183, 184
Soundings, 84, 92, 96, 104, 110, 116, 117, 120, 128, 131, 141,
143, 144, 147, 171, 189, 197, 199, 214, 274, 279, 283, 286,
288, 318, 327, _see also_ Appendix v
Southampton, 8, 17, 177
South Georgia, first visit, 60-63, 80-82;
second visit, 168-172, 178-198;
geology, 315-317;
natural history, 329-334;
hydrographic work, 345-347;
alluded to, 8, 57, 67, 69, 72, 73, 77-79, 91, 94, 137, 138,
173-176, 197, 201, 328, 342, 350
Sandwich Group, 347, 350
Shetlands, 183, 317
Trinidad Island, 6, 43, 287
_Southern Isles_, oil transport, 185
_Southern Sky_, 184
Sperry gyroscopic compass, 11, 344
Stefansson, 2, 14, 105, 357
Stoltenhoff Island, 205, 210, 212, 324
Stromness Harbour, 183-185
Surveys, 38, 87, 279, 285, 286, _see also_ Appendix v
T
Tagus, river, 29, 31
Temperatures, 52, 129, 143, 144, 145, 146, 150, 342
Terns, 131, 268, _see also_ Appendix iii
Traill-Smith, Comdr., 18, 293
Tristan da Cunha, 6, 179, 190, 198, 199, 203-206, 213-264, 266,
274, 291, 320-322, 336, 342, 349-351
U
Uruguay, Republic of, 174, 194
Uruguayan Government, 173-175
Minister for Foreign Affairs, 175, 177
V
Vitamines, 354-358, 363, 364
Volcanic appearances, 82, 86, 347
W
Wallis Island, 60
Water sky, 98, 107, 111, 150
Watts, H., 15, 27, 49, 66, 83, 92, 120, 140, 149, 160, 296
Weddell Sea, 72, 91, 100, 119, 142, 350
Whale birds, 52, 83, 213, _see also_ Appendix iii
food, 101-102
hunting, 182-183
Whales, 101, 102, 132, 171, 333, 363
“Wideawake Valley,” 302-303
Wild, Frank, 55, 122, 142, 153, 200, 221, 223, 231-233, 236, 238,
295, 296, 342, 364
Wilkins, G. H., 14, 23, 27, 35, 37, 38, 50, 59, 77, 87, 92, 103,
108, 115, 134, 140, 149, 157, 163, 169, 179, 186, 187, 197,
206, 207, 212, 231, 285, 292, 304, 309, 327, 330, 333, 337,
340
Wind at Gough Island, 281, 283
South Georgia, 184
Tristan da Cunha, 213, 228, 251,
_see also_ Appendix iv
Wireless, 10, 19, 22, 66, 140, 344-345, 348
_Woodville_, 69, 174, 175, 178, 189
Worsley, F. A., 14, 23, 27, 42, 49, 52, 54, 57, 60, 65, 76, 77,
82-85, 90-92, 94-96, 98, 103, 110, 117, 120, 122, 123, 128,
131, 133, 136, 141, 143, 144, 147-149, 161, 166, 171, 172,
183, 184, 187, 189, 194, 197, 202, 204, 214, 265, 266, 288,
294, 343
Wounds, treatment of, 362
Y
Young, S. S., 48, 49, 52, 83, 92, 163
Z
Zavodovski Island, 85-87, 318, 334, 347
PRINTED BY CASSELL & COMPANY, LIMITED, LA BELLE SAUVAGE, LONDON, E.C.4.
FOOTNOTES
[1] Captain and chief purser respectively of the _Aquitania_.
[2] The papers at the time made much of this gale. It was,
however, little more than a strong blow and a zephyr compared
with what we were to experience before our return to these same
latitudes on our homeward run.
[3] On our return to England we learned that this beautiful ship
had become a total wreck on the Great Barrier Reef of Australia.
[4] An expression of Jeffrey’s.
[5] Referring to a conspicuously placed cross set up by the crew
of the _Deutschland_ to one of their members who had died there.
[6] Adaptation from Tennyson’s lines on Franklin.
[7] Clothing stores.
[8] On leaving South Georgia, I had moved into Sir Ernest’s cabin,
and McIlroy took my old one. Both cabins opened on to the waist of
the ship, and were consequently frequently flooded with the heavy
seas which rushed to and fro there.
[9] First officer of the _Endurance_.
[10] Referring to a telegram sent by Sir Robert Baden-Powell
to Sir Ernest Shackleton just as we were leaving England to the
effect that if the Scouts did not serve him well he would “skin
them alive” on their return.
[11] For the substitution of the adjective I apologize to the
entrant.
[12] A sea term, meaning that we filled the tanks full to the top.
[13] Dr. Macklin’s account.
[14] Dr. Macklin’s account.
[15] I learn on going to press that H.M.S. _Dublin_ is to visit
the island in the near future.
[16] W. T. Gordon, D.Sc., King’s College, London.
[17] Renard (A). Voyage of H.M.S. _Challenger_, Phys. and Chem.,
Vol. ii, 1889, p. 120.
[18] Berwerth (F). Mikroskopische Structurbilder der
Massengesteine, Lief II, No 16 (1897).
[19] Mr. Clark, the biologist of the _Endurance_, found them
nesting in burrows in the middle of Moraine Plain, Cumberland Bay.
[20] Mr. Clark found them in numbers at Larsen Harbour in
November, 1914.
[21] Mr. Clark, of the _Endurance_, saw a few in West Bay,
Cumberland Bay, in November, 1914.
[22] “Three Years on Tristan da Cunha,” by K. M. Barrow.
[23] A complete and interesting report has been received at
the last moment from Capt. Wilkins, too late to go to press.
It is hoped that this will be published separately at an early
date.—AUTHOR.
[24] Anti-beri-beri.
[25] As events turned out, dogs were not used in the _Quest_
expedition, but the writer has decided to include this point in
his observations.