HOME
We left on Sunday (20th), intending to call at Madeira, but the
north-east trades proving too much for the _Quest_ I adopted the
sailing ship route and proceeded “full and by” in the direction of the
Azores. Conditions were now more pleasant than we had had them since
setting out from England at the commencement of our enterprise. The
weather became daily cooler and the air fresher. The winds blew the
dust and ashes away to leeward, and we were able to have a clean ship.
It was quite like the old days, the young, happy days of those fine old
clipper ships of Messrs. Devitt and Moore:
Beating up for the western isles
Close hauled in the north-east trades.
Early in the morning of September 3rd we picked up the Azores, and
about 5 P.M. entered the harbour of Ponta del Gada, in San Miguel. I
was anxious to give the hull a coating of paint, but as it was Sunday,
and a feast day, there was no hope of any work being done.
We stayed two days, the only incident of interest being a visit to the
United States ship _Wilmington_, which had put in here with a broken
crank shaft on her way home from Shanghai. The captain and some of his
officers, in turn, visited us.
[Illustration: The Course of the _Quest_, Outwards and Inwards]
Our work done, we set out, and on a perfect evening proceeded along the
coast of the island, which is very picturesque. The land is terraced,
and there is evidently a considerable amount of intensive cultivation.
Pretty little villages nestle in its hollows, and windmills are dotted
all about the hills. The _Quest_ proceeded smoothly. The sea was
calm, and in the still air of this lovely summer evening one felt that
nothing could be more perfect and that one could go on and on for ever.
We had had so much bad weather and our trip throughout had been so
arduous that we felt this respite all the more.
I had hoped on leaving the Azores to run immediately into westerly
winds, but for some days we had light north-easters. The wind finally
came round to north-west and blew up strongly on our beam. The
ocean gathered itself up for one more fling at us, but it was but a
half-hearted one; we were homeward bound, and what did we care? In a
few days we should be in England, and though I have experienced many
goings and comings since those unforgettable first ones, the parting
never seems to lose its hurt nor the home-coming its thrill.
God gave all men all earth to love,
But since our hearts are small,
Ordained for each one spot should prove
Beloved over all;...
—KIPLING.
On September 16th we entered Plymouth Sound and anchored in Cawsand
Bay. As was fitting, the first man to join the ship was Mr. Rowett, who
gave us the warmest of welcomes home. He was very interested in all I
had to tell him, but was deeply touched when I spoke of our old “Boss”
whom we had left “down there.”
So we returned, quietly, as was befitting. My task when the leadership
fell on my shoulders was to “carry on.” This, with the aid of the
men who gave me their unquestioning obedience and showed unswerving
loyalty, I was able to do. It gave me great pleasure when Mr. Rowett,
whose support and co-operation alone made the expedition possible,
said, “Old man, you’ve done splendidly!”
We had made observations and brought back a mass of data gathered
through long days of hardship and bitter toil, and I hope, when all
is sorted and fully worked up, that our efforts may prove of value in
helping to solve the great natural problems that still perplex us.
I have taken part in five expeditions to the Antarctic, and though I
think that my work there is done, I shall never cease to feel glad that
it has fallen to my lot to pioneer and guide the groping fingers of
Knowledge on the white edges of the world.
APPENDIX 1
GEOLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS, by G. VIBERT DOUGLAS, M.C., M.Sc., Geologist
to the Expedition.
As planned by the late Sir Ernest H. Shackleton the voyage of the
_Quest_ to Southern Regions was intended to explore the coast from
Enderby Land westwards to Coats Land, a length of approximately
2,500 miles. On the routes to and from this main objective it was
his intention to call at many seldom-visited islands in the Atlantic,
Southern, Indian and Pacific Oceans.
A part of the second objective was attained, and the reader who desires
to learn of the detailed geological results of the expedition is asked
to consult the full scientific report which is now being prepared,
and which, by the courtesy of the authorities of the British Museum of
Natural History, is to be published as one of their Memoirs. It is the
purpose of the writer in these notes to give an outline of the general
geology of the islands which were visited. The names given to the rocks
are only field terms, as no microscopic examination has been made up to
the present.
_Methods Employed_
It was found to be seldom possible to do accurate and close geological
mapping, owing to the limited time that was available for work ashore.
Maps of the areas had to be made, as those of the Admiralty are of too
small a scale to do more than provide a skeleton upon which the larger
scale sketches can be based. The sketches were generally the result of
a rapid reconnaissance with plane table or compass and pace, or in some
cases simply a freehand sketch from the summit of a ridge.
Wherever possible hand specimens were collected and the general
geological associations noted.
The order in which the following islands are described is not that in
which they were visited, but they are grouped as follows:
{ South Georgia (68)
Islands of the Southern Ocean { Elephant Island (1)
{ Zavodovski, South Sandwich Gp. (0)
{ Gough Island (5)
{ Tristan da Cunha (2½)
Islands of the South Atlantic Ocean { Nightingale (1)
{ Middle (1)
{ Stoltenhoff (0)
{ Inaccessible (1)
{ St. Paul’s Rocks (½)
{ Saõ Miguel Açores, St.
Islands of the Mid-Atlantic { Vincent (Cape Verdes) (3)
{ Ascension (3)
{ St. Helena (1)
(The numbers in brackets refer to the days spent ashore.)
ISLANDS OF THE SOUTHERN OCEAN
SOUTH GEORGIA.—_Lat. 54° S. Long. 37° W._
_Topography_
This island is about 116 miles long by 20 miles wide, with the longer
axis lying in a general N.W. and S.E. direction. It has the appearance
of an upland dissected by cirque recession and enlargement. The highest
peak, Mount Paget, which is an isolated remnant of the upland, is about
8,000 feet high.
[Illustration: TERMINATION OF ROSS GLACIER, SOUTH GEORGIA
8TH MAY, 1922
SHACKLETON-ROWETT EXPEDITION]
The average peaks in the comb ridges are about 2,000 feet, and the
average level of the interior would be placed by the writer as about
600 feet above sea level. The glacial valleys run in general across
the longer axis and are separated from each other by comb ridges. The
majority of the glaciers show signs of withdrawal. At the N.W. end of
the island many of the valleys are free of ice altogether.
One interesting investigation was carried out at Royal Bay, where
the Ross Glacier comes down to the sea. The position of the foot of
the glacier relative to the shore was first measured by the Gauss
Expedition of 1882, then again by Nordenskjold in 1902, and then by the
members of the _Quest_ in 1922.
These measurements show this interesting fact—that there was an advance
of the foot of over 4,000 feet during the period 1882 to 1902, and
that now it is back in the position of 1882. It is suggested that this
does not indicate any general advance or withdrawal, but rather that
the glacier, which is operating, to use an hydraulic term, under a
high head is being forced out to sea where the foot is afloat. It will
continue to advance until the effect of the rollers on the floating
mass of ice overcomes the tensile strength of the ice and it breaks
away. If we assume that twenty (20) years represent this period (it may
be a multiple of a smaller period), then this gives an advance per year
of about two hundred and twenty (220) feet.
_Geology_
From Cooper Bay to Bird Island the rocks seen by the writer were
of sedimentary origin. They are of the nature of grits, tuffs and
phyllites. To the east of Cooper Bay the rocks are igneous. The
basement is of a basic nature, with flows, at least two in number,
over it. Back from Cooper Bay, and just east of the contact with the
sediments, there is a small stock of a more acid rock, which has been
called a syenite.
A provisional table is here drawn up to show the relative age
relations, with the more recent at the top:
AT LARSEN HARBOUR
Epidosite }
Spilite } Doleritic dykes cutting these.
Gabbro }
NORTH-WEST OF DRYGALSKI FJORD
Quartz diorite stock
Gabbro Complex system of dykes.
[Illustration: BOOBY WITH CHICK ON ST. PAUL’S ROCKS
_Photo: Wilkins_]
[Illustration: A BOOBY CHICK ON ST. PAUL’S ROCKS
_Photo: Wilkins_]
[Illustration: TYPES OF FISH CAUGHT IN THE LAGOON AT ST. PAUL’S ROCKS
_Photo: Wilkins_]
[Illustration: WHITE-CAPPED NODDIES AT ST. PAUL’S ROCKS
_Photo: Wilkins_]
_Tectonic Movements_
The sedimentary rocks have been subject to considerable folding and
faulting. From the direction of the folds and the general trend of the
line of schistosity it would appear that the pressure had come from the
S.S.W. or N.N.E.
_Age_
A few fossils of a very indefinite character were obtained, and are now
being worked out.[16] Provisionally it may be said that one, a fossil
plant probably of the Araucaria type, points to an age not older than
lower carboniferous.
ELEPHANT ISLAND.—_Lat. 61° S. Long. 55° W._
This is one of the easterly islands in the Powell group of the South
Shetlands, and was only landed on at two points, Lookout Harbour and
Minstrel Bay.
_Topography_
The features of Elephant Island probably are similar to what those of
South Georgia were before the intense glacial erosion sculptured the
island as already described.
[Illustration: POWELL GROUP
SOUTH SHETLANDS]
It is a plateau 300 feet at the rim, but rising gently towards the
interior. It appeared to be covered by an ice sheet, and the same may
be said of Clarence Island, which lies a few miles to the eastward;
only in the latter case there was a definite cliff of ice visible above
the rock face.
The glaciers were more of the hanging than of the valley type.
Especially was this so on the west coast.
_Geology_
The rock specimens collected and the little mapping which was done
indicate that the island is composed mostly of sedimentary rocks which
have been much metamorphosed. Phyllites predominated, but various
schists, slates and banded limestones were also seen.
ZAVODOVSKI.—_Lat. 56° S. Long. 27° W._
This island, the most northerly in the South Sandwich group, was not
landed on by the members of the _Quest_, and the following observations
from the ship must be considered only probable and in no way certain.
The island is of volcanic origin, rising as a cone from the sea. The
upper levels were not seen by us, but the height of the summit is given
by Bellingshausen as 1,200 feet. The cliff rises vertically from the
sea about 40 feet, and then there is a long, gentle slope gradually
getting steeper.
The lava flows seen on the cliff face appeared to consist of a compact
columnar basalt at the base. Above there was a line of red cinder, and
above this again what looked to be rough pahoehoe lava. A number of
clefts and vents were seen on the face of the cliff, and from these
there issued bluish fumes.
Soundings with the Kelvin were taken every half-mile or so, and the
material collected corresponds with the basalts and cinder mentioned.
It was unfortunate that we were unable to visit the other islands
in this group, for with the exception of the scanty reports of
Bellingshausen, C. A. Larsen and a German expedition, the geology and
natural history are practically unknown, and the existing charts are
not by any means complete.
PETROLOGICAL REPORT, by W. CAMPBELL SMITH, M.C., M.A., British Museum
of Natural History.
Rock fragments washed from material dredged at 19 fathoms off
Zavodovski, South Sandwich group, 20/1/22.
The sample consisted of a few grammes of rounded black pellets varying
in diameter from 1 to 5 mm. They consisted of the following:
Ten dense black glassy basalts. All appear free of olivine. Some
are crowded with minute laths of plagioclase; others contain fewer
minute laths but show a few small phenocrysts of plagioclase, or
of augite, or both.
Four dense dark-brown glassy olivine-basalts, some containing many
crystals of plagioclase, and a few crystals of olivine and augite.
The glass is crowded densely with magnetite and sometimes with
other undetermined microliths.
Four rather paler basalts with holocrystalline-porphyritic
texture. These contain very small phenocrysts of plagioclase
and sometimes of augite, in a ground mass of very minute laths
of felspar and grains of augite and magnetite. The texture of
the ground mass is intergranular. One of the specimens contained
no augite phenocrysts, but rather numerous microphenocrysts of
magnetite.
Two small fragments of pale basalt-glass, deep olive-buff in
colour. Microliths are absent in one specimen, but they are
abundant in the other and consist of small laths of plagioclase,
and minute prisms of augite and a few crystals of what is probably
olivine. The felspar laths gave extinction angles of 15°, but only
a very few measurements could be made. This material resembles
the pale patches of glass in the palagonite tuffs of Sicily and of
Kerguelen Land,[17] and a somewhat similar though darker coloured
rock has been described from Schwartzenfels Hesse as vitrophyric
basalt, and has been elegantly figured by Berwerth.[18]
ISLANDS OF THE SOUTH ATLANTIC OCEAN
GOUGH ISLAND.—_Lat. 40° S. Long. 10° W._
Gough Island lies roughly 200 miles south of the Tristan da Cunha
group. It is 8 miles long by 3 miles wide.
_Topography_
The island forms a monoclinal block with dip slopes to the west and
escarpments to the east. The highest point on the long ridge which runs
down the longer axis of the island is about 2,915 feet above sea level.
The west side of the ridge goes down in a long slope to the cliffs
bordering the sea.
The escarpments on the east side are cut by three or four glens.
The largest one, about half-way down the coast, gives access to the
interior.
The most striking feature, looking up the glen, is the great stock
of an acid intrusive rock, which rises to 2,270 feet. It can best be
described in the words of Scott:
“Shooting abruptly from the dell
Its thunder splintered pinnacle.”
_Geology_
The island is the result of a series of fissure flows of a basaltic
and trachytic nature. These flows have been intruded by the stock
just mentioned above, and many fissures were opened by it. These have
subsequently been filled by dykes. The rock forming the dykes is very
hard, with the result that they are now a very prominent feature, and
stand up in some cases about 50 feet above the surrounding country.
This is due, of course, to differential weathering.
It is probable that the east coast represents a fault plane, but as
the erosion has been great, direct evidence is wanting. Apart from this
fault no faulting nor folding was observed.
[Illustration: GENTOO PENGUIN WITH TWO CHICKS
_Photo: Wilkins_]
[Illustration: NESTING GROUND OF THE MOLLYMAUK
_Photo: Wilkins._]
[Illustration: GIANT PETREL AT NEST
_Photo: Wilkins_]
TRISTAN DA CUNHA.—_Lat. 37° S. Long. 12° W._
[Illustration: TRISTAN da CUNHA]
_Topography_
Tristan is an island octagonal in plan, about 8 miles across. It rises
as a prism for about 2,000 feet, and then tapers off as a cone to about
6,400 feet above sea level. The crater is now filled with water, and at
that level is about 200 feet across. The rainfall on the upper slopes
is very great, and they are deeply eroded. At the foot of the cliff, on
the northern shore, there is a gently sloping lava plain, upon which
the settlement is situated. In extent it is about 3½ miles long by
half a mile wide. About midway between the extremities there are a few
small craters rising above the plain. The plain is grass clothed, and
the upper slopes are covered in moss, bracken and scrub trees. This
vegetation continues up to about 4,000 feet, above which point the
rocks are bare.
_Geology_
The island consists of a great series of lava flows which have poured
from the volcano, and are of the nature of scoriæ, cinder, trachyte and
basalt in succeeding and alternating layers. As is so common on these
volcanic islands, the lower lava is generally a hard, compact basalt
showing rough columnar structure.
Only one section was observed, which is placed below, but there is
good reason to believe that to the west, in the neighbourhood of Swain
Bay, more complex conditions exist, as many samples of bombs of a rock
carrying large crystals of felspar and hornblende and other coarse
grained rocks were given to the writer by some of the islanders, who
stated that they came from this locality.
Preliminary note by W. Campbell Smith, M.C., M.A., on the samples
given by islanders at Tristan da Cunha and reported to have come
from the neighbourhood of Swain Bay. The specimens can be grouped
in four types:
(1) Rocks with felspar almost _nil_. Probably consist mainly
hornblende and pyroxene, with perhaps some olivine, apatite and
magnetite.
(2) Rocks with a little felspar and characterized by large
poikilitic plates of hornblende. These contain abundant pyroxene,
and some olivine, apatite and magnetite.
(3) Rocks with long, thin blades of hornblende in a fine-grained
matrix of labradorite, and with some patches of black “glass”
and abundant minute prisms of apatite. In hand specimens these
look like dyke-rocks, but I think the texture and the patches of
magnetite show that they are segregations.
(4) Coarse-grained rocks with perhaps more felspar than
hornblende. Hornblende in large crystals in a matrix of
labradorite. The texture is coarser than in the preceding type.
Felspars reach 2 or 3 mm. in diameter. The hornblende includes
some small crystals of yellow pyroxene. Apatite and magnetite are
given abundant.
All four types appear to be closely inter-related. They contain the
same minerals in varying proportions and probably grade one into the
other.
The obsidian and the pieces of red glass are basalt glass, and are
probably similar to the specimen described by Renard in the Report on
the _Challenger_ Collection, p. 82. He states that the inhabitants use
the rock for striking fire.
OBSERVED SECTION FROM THE PEAK TO HERALD POINT
_Elevations._ _Rock provisionally named._ _Remarks._
FEET
6,400 Scoriæ and vesicular basalt. Forming summit.
6,200-5,700 Loose scoriæ and bombs. Crater cone.
5,700-5,500 Basalt.
5,000-4,550 Trachy-basalt.
4,400 Vesicular basalt.
4,300 Trachytic agglomerate.
4,250 Compact basalt.
4,150 Red scoriæ.
3,950 Basalt.
3,750 Scoriæ.
3,600 Scoriæ and basalt. A contact.
3,520 Basalt and scoriæ. A contact.
3,420 Scoriæ and basalt. A contact.
3,220 Grey basalt.
(Break in the observations).
1,200 Basalt and scoriæ. A contact.
(Break in the observations).
{This rock is used for
225 Basalt. { building the dwellings
{ by the inhabitants.
223 Cinder.
222 Scoriæ.
220 Tuff.
216 Agglomerate.
To sea Compact basalt. Rough columnar
level. structure.
A number of vapour vents were observed at different points.
It is apparent that the small craters mentioned above as existing on
the settlement plain sprang up after the main period of eruption when
the island was built.
To the west and about 22 miles from Tristan there are the four
islands—Nightingale, Middle, Stoltenhoff and Inaccessible.
NIGHTINGALE
_Topography_
This island, which is the most southerly of the group, is rectangular
in plan, one mile by three-quarters. High cliffs bound the south, east
and west sides. The northern slopes descend gradually to the sea, where
they terminate in cliffs about 30 feet high.
The highest point is on the east side of the island, and is about 1,000
feet above sea level. It is connected by a low featured col to the high
land to the south-west. To the west, that is, towards the interior of
the island, there is a depressed area which now has a small pond in
it. It is probable that this was once the crater from which the lavas
issued.
[Illustration: NIGHTINGALE IS]
_Geology_
One day only was available for work on this island, and orders were
that the supposed guano deposits which were reported at the north side
were to be examined. These deposits are of no economic value, and an
analysis is here appended.
_Certificate of Analysis._
Ogston and Moore,
Analytical Chemists,
89 Aldgate, London.
July 28, 1922.
_Guano from Nightingale Island._
Moisture 72.12
Organic matter and ammonia salts 24.70
Phosphoric acid _nil_
Lime _nil_
Magnesia, alkalies, etc. 1.60
Silicious matter 1.58
------
100.00
======
_Guano from Cave on Middle Island._
Moisture 17.00
Organic matter and ammonia salts 15.15
Phosphoric acid 3.85
Lime 5.10
Magnesia, alkalies, etc. 10.20
Silicious matter 48.70
------
100.00
======
The rocks, however, appeared to be in general of a trachytic nature.
MIDDLE ISLAND
_Topography_
Middle Island lies less than half a mile to the north of Nightingale.
It is in plan about a quarter of a mile square, and rises to a height
of about 200 feet. It is flat-topped, with minor depressions.
_Geology_
There have been questions asked as to the origin of Middle Island,
and to the writer, who had this in mind when visiting the island, the
following were the reasons for its existence.
The trachytic flows from Nightingale probably extended at one time
about a mile farther to the north than the present northern shore
of Nightingale. This is evidenced by the trachytic agglomerate and
trachyte seen on Middle. Following this there was an effusion of a
hard, compact lava from a neck which exists on the latter island. The
border of the neck is marked by a breccia. The dykes emanating from
this lava are not seen on Nightingale, but some of the rocks which
infest the channel between the islands are probably their eroded
remains. The action of the sea on the mass of altered trachyte between
Middle and Nightingale Islands has in the course of time cut a channel
through.
STOLTENHOFF
It is not possible to land on this island, as it rises sheer from
the sea to about 200 feet. It is flat-topped, and in area about 500
yards by 150 yards. The rock of which it is composed appears to be of
a trachytic nature, and may be the northern limit of the flow’s from
Nightingale, which have already been mentioned; it may, however, be a
centre of activity, such as is described as existing on Middle Island.
INACCESSIBLE ISLAND
_Topography_
Eleven miles to the N.N.W. from Stoltenhoff is this island, which is
the most northerly one of the group. In plan it is pear-shaped, being
about 3 miles by 2½.
In its general features it is a basin, being a great caldera, the
south-east side of which has been blown out. A cone rises to about
1,500 feet towards the north-east of the depressed central area. The
interior is broken country clothed in verdure, and on account of the
high rim, which affords protection from the winds, would be suitable
for human habitation. A stream winds through the interior, finally
falling in a beautiful cascade to the beach at the north-east shore,
where a landing is easily made if the wind is not from the north.
[Illustration: Inaccessible Island]
_Geology_
The central cone is a mass of scoriæ, and the section from here to the
sea near the waterfall shows that there have been successive flows of
basalt and trachyte. The high cliffs to the west of the landing are cut
by a series of parallel dykes, which are an outstanding feature.
ISLANDS OF THE MID-ATLANTIC OCEAN
THE ST. PAUL’S ROCKS
These lie just north of the equator, almost midway between Africa and
Brazil. These rocks are almost unique in occurrence, for, as Charles
Darwin remarks in his journal, “Its mineralogical constitution is not
simple.... It is a remarkable fact that all the many small islands,
lying far from any continent, with the exception of the Seychelles
and this little point of rock, are composed either of coral or erupted
matter.”
The St. Paul’s Rocks are a group of eight or nine small rocky islands,
the largest of which is only about 350 feet long by 150 feet wide. This
island and the most northerly were the only ones where a landing was
effected.
[Illustration: Sketch Map of St Paul’s Rocks]
The whole of the southerly portion of the main island is composed of
a highly weathered rock which has thin veinlets of serpentine cutting
through it. Running in a north and south direction, and in places
dragged and folded and cutting this formation, there is a dyke, which
stands up prominently from the main country rock. About 30 yards to the
east the rock is cut by a series of irregular interlacing narrow dykes
having the appearance of old concrete. The ground mass is hard and
to the eye amorphous. It contains rounded pebbles and possibly shell
remains.
Towards the centre of the main island the rock formation changes
abruptly to a compact glassy green rock, probably a peridotite. It has
developed a jointing, and but for the conglomerate forms the remainder
of the island and possibly the other islands as well, because the
country rock on the north island is of a similar nature.
Along the inside of the central basin at two points there occurs a
conglomerate—pebbles ranging from 3 inches in diameter to a fraction of
an inch cemented in a matrix.
Towards the north end there is a fault which crosses the island in a
N.W. and S.E. direction, and parallel to which there is a dark, rusty
dyke.
In two or three places on the main island, one of which is near this
fault, there are small pot holes. There was a rounded boulder in each,
and probably, as the sea comes swirling in at high tide, a rotary
motion is given to the boulder and the pot hole develops.
The general formation of the islands might be described as a stock
of glassy peridotite which has risen from the bed of the ocean and of
which only the highest points are now visible.
SAÕ MIGUEL AÇORES, ST. VINCENT (CAPE VERDE), ASCENSION AND ST. HELENA
The above islands were called at and examined, but as the geology has
already been described by others who had more time at their disposal,
no new light was thrown on them. The visits, however, were valuable in
that they will enable the writer to compare the conditions existing at
these places with the seldom visited islands already above described.
DEEP-SEA SOUNDINGS
In collaboration with the hydrographer, material from the sea floor
was obtained by soundings in various localities. This material is
being examined microscopically, and its physical properties are being
determined (specific gravity, gradation of sizes, radioactivity, etc.).
GENERAL OBSERVATIONS
The general reader is reminded that the geological observations
recorded here are in no way complete. Much detailed work is necessary
on these various islands before the full record can be written. Nature
has laid open the story of her history to the careful investigator, but
from the casual one she withholds the deeper meaning.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The writer wishes in conclusion to thank the following for their hearty
co-operation, which made the above results possible:
Capt. G. H. Wilkins, M.C., F.R.G.S.
Major C. R. Carr, D.F.C.
Messrs. Dell, Argles and Marr.
The work at South Georgia would have been impossible but for the kind
assistance of the managers of the whaling companies:
The De Pesca Company, of Buenos Aires
The Southern Whaling Company (Lever Bros.)
The Tönsberg Company, of Norway
The Westfahl Company, of Norway
The Salvesen Company, of Leith, Scotland
The excellent surveying instruments which were so kindly lent by
Messrs. Troughton and Simms proved invaluable under all conditions.
Thanks are specially due to Mr. John Quiller Rowett, LL.D., without
whose generous support the expedition would have been impossible.
APPENDIX II
NATURAL HISTORY
Soon after leaving England numbers of landbirds were seen about the
ship. In position lat. 43° 52´ S. and 11° 51´ W. long, we saw a heron
passing overhead, steering in a S.S.E. direction towards the northern
coast of Africa. After leaving Lisbon on the way to Madeira, numbers of
robins, wrens, doves, larks and sparrows flew aboard in an exhausted
condition. They were captured, measured and their colourings noted,
afterwards given food and water, and allowed to go free. One dove
that came near the ship was so exhausted that it fell several times
into the sea, which was very choppy. We expected it to drown, but on
each occasion it rose from the break of the wave and finally settled
on the topsail yard, where it rested and dried itself, and finally
set off with renewed vigour in the direction of land. Mother Carey’s
Chickens joined us soon after our start, and we were rarely without
them throughout the voyage.
At St. Vincent we collected specimens of vultures, mostly black or dark
brown, but some were white with black markings. A few crows, larks
and other small birds were seen. A white owl was presented to the
naturalist by one of the residents. The species is not common to the
island, but is reported to have been seen after high winds blowing from
the mainland.
In latitude 60° 26´ N. we were surrounded by a particularly large
school of porpoises, and secured one by harpooning it from the
bowsprit. It was a male, 7 feet 7 inches in length, and the stomach
contained the remains of 5 squids and 114 octopus beaks.
We visited St. Paul’s Rocks on November 8th, when two species of birds
were found to be nesting: the Noddy Tern and the Booby. The Noddy Tern
(_Anous stolidus_) is shy, and few except those with young remained
on the island. We collected some of their eggs, many of them addled.
The young were almost fully fledged, but each was attended by the
parent bird, which stayed to defend it. These birds varied largely in
colourings, chiefly in the degrees of white and lavender grey of the
forehead and back of the neck, the lighter phase being the more common.
Nests were built roughly to a height of from 12 to 15 cm., and composed
largely of seaweed and guano. Built-up nests predominated, but several
eggs and young were found in depressions in the broken rocks. The Brown
Gannet, or Booby (_Sula leucogastra_), is so called from its stupid
expression. The nests consisted of rocks, a few feathers and guano,
or merely depressions in the rock. We collected some eggs and several
young ones in all stages, from one which was newly hatched, without
down or feathers and eyes closed, to those which were almost fully
fledged. The nests are so set in the irregular and sloping surfaces
that the birds continually foul each other, the young especially
becoming very filthy in this way. They live largely, if not entirely,
on flying fish, and gorge themselves so heavily with them that when
taking flight on our going amongst them each bird disgorged one, two or
three fish in different stages of digestion.
Crabs abound on the rocks. They are very active and nimble, and at the
approach of man scramble into crevices. They are able to jump, and on
several occasions were seen to gather their legs under them and leap
squarely forward a distance of two or three feet. Some grow to large
size and develop powerful claws, but apparently they make no attempt to
seize the birds, the chicks or the eggs. When the adult bird disgorged
on rising, the crabs hastened to seize the flying fish, and, tearing
them to pieces, crammed them voraciously into their jaws. There is a
lagoon in the middle of the rocks, the floor of which is covered with
marine plants of many varieties, whilst fish swim to and fro in great
numbers. Sharks, varying in length from four to eight feet, swarmed in
it, and we harpooned several. The stomachs of most of them were empty,
and the others contained only a few squids. A full description of the
fish of St. Paul’s Rocks will be found elsewhere. Numerous specimens of
all species were taken from the rocks and preserved for sending to the
museums.
We left Rio de Janeiro on January 18th for South Georgia. During this
part of the journey we were followed by stormy petrels, Wilson petrels,
wandering albatross, mollymauks, Cape pigeons, Cape hens, sooty
albatross, and saw several terns. As we neared the island we observed
penguins, skua gulls and giant petrels, and, as we passed along the
coast, prions, diving petrels and dominican gulls.
The whaling stations of South Georgia are visited by many varieties
of seabirds, which congregate there in hundreds of thousands for the
offal which finds its way into the sea. By acting as scavengers they
serve a very useful purpose. Cape pigeons thickly cover the water for
hundreds of square yards and present a really extraordinary sight. They
chatter and squabble incessantly. Terns flit gracefully about, never
settling on the water, but making occasional short dives for morsels.
Wilson petrels flit like fairies over the surface, their feet touching,
but their bodies never entering the sea. Dominican gulls, skua gulls,
mollymauks and giant petrels also come about in hundreds, for there is
food in abundance in the harbours.
There are about twenty-four species of birds in South Georgia,
including a wagtail (_Anthus antarcticus_), which is found on the
lower slopes of the island about the beaches. The Wandering Albatross
(_Diomedea exulans_) is the most stately and graceful of all flying
birds, yet when seen ashore or at close range has a curiously foolish
expression. It nests on the grassy promontories of the main island and
on some of the smaller outlying islets. The nests are pyramidal mounds
composed of tussock grass, mud and a few feathers. The hen lays one
egg, which the parent birds take turns in incubating. The chicks are
pretty white fluffy things, which later take on a brown adult plumage.
As the bird increases in size so the brown colouring gives way to a
white phase, the very old ones being almost entirely white. The nesting
season commences about the middle of January. Wilkins observed that
inter-mating took place between birds of neighbouring nests, a male
bird wandering off to visit an already mated female. This usually
took place when the husband bird was out at sea in search of food, but
occasionally it was observed that the apparently true mate would appear
on the scene, and, discovering the intruder, would show fight, and a
battle would ensue. This, however, was never a serious matter, and was
mainly an exhibition of side-stepping, feints and vicious snaps of the
beaks, but the combatants rarely came to real pecking or blows. The
female looked on and kept up a chattering noise with the bill whilst
the fight lasted. Only once was a female seen to leave nest and egg
unprotected. In a moment a skua had swept down and thrust his beak into
the egg. The albatross does not nest on the north-east coast of South
Georgia farther south than Possession Bay.
The Sooty Albatross (_Phœbetria palpebrata_) rivals, or even excels the
“Wanderer” in gracefulness of flight. It is not very common in South
Georgia, those found being at isolated points on the north-western
coast.
The Blackbrowed Albatross, or Mollymauk, is found in two varieties
(_Thalassogeron melanophrys_ and _T. chrysostoma_). They are found
breeding at the north-western end and on the neighbouring islets.
Numbers of the former are common; of the latter, rare. Wilkins
discovered a nest and egg, and succeeded in obtaining specimens—the
first to be collected. He also cinematographed the bird on its nest.
The newly hatched chick is covered with light grey down, slightly
darker on the wings, and increasing in depth of colour with age. The
bill is a dark horn colour, the iris light brown, and the feet light
grey.
The Giant Petrel—Nellie, or Stinker—(_Ossifraga gigantea_) is found
nesting on all the grassy bluffs, but most commonly on the islets of
the Bay of Isles, amongst the “Wanderers.” They are exceedingly ugly
and ungainly, have an unpleasant smell, and their feathers are infested
with ticks.
Cape Hens (_Majaqueus aequinoctialis_) are seldom seen near land except
in the evening, when they sit at the doors of their burrows chattering
away in neighbourly fashion.
Wilson Petrels flock in great numbers about the whaling stations. They
nest in burrows.
The Diving Petrel (_Pelecanoides urinatrix_) frequents the west coast
of South Georgia in greatest numbers, but an occasional one may be
found at any place near the shore.[19]
Whale Birds (_Prion_) are very common on most of the small islands
and on some places on the main island. They live in burrows. They are
rarely seen by day, as they can only leave and return to the burrows
under cover of darkness, for they are preyed upon relentlessly by the
skua gulls. They flock out to sea in clouds just after nightfall and
return in the early morning. Those which fail to get in by daybreak
almost certainly fall victims to the rapacious skuas, which are
responsible for the death of thousands of them yearly. They lay a
single egg.
Cape Pigeons (_Daption capensis_) are the brightest and cheeriest
of all seabirds. They frequent the whaling stations in hundreds of
thousands. Their chattering and chaffering as they squabble over choice
pieces of offal goes on unceasingly all day and all night. They nest in
clefts high up in the cliff faces.
Snow Petrels (_Pagodroma nivea_) have been seen in the vicinity of the
island, but are rare.[20]
Silver-Grey Petrels (_Priocella glacialoides_) were seen during our
second visit to the island, but are also rare in this locality.
There are two varieties of skua gull: _Megalestris McCormicki_ and
_M. antarctica_. They are pirates and live by acts of piracy. All the
seabirds have in one way or another to protect themselves from their
depredations. The smaller birds live in narrow clefts or in burrows.
The larger birds, which nest in the open, have to keep a continuous
watch over nest and chick. The skua is brown coloured and has a
strong, curved, hawk-like beak. Its habits and mode of life present a
fascinating study, but space prevents a full description. Skuas make
their nests on grassy slopes about the island, and resent any approach
by strangers. Often when proceeding over the bluffs one is annoyed by
these birds, which have a disconcerting habit of circling in the air,
to descend with a swoop and a loud rush of air straight at one’s head,
clearing it by only a few inches.
The Dominican Gull (_Lartis dominicanus_) is a fine-looking
black-backed gull which nests in the tussock grass. It is found in
large numbers about the whaling station.
The Tern (_Sterna vittata_) is a prettily-marked little bird which
nests in the open, and is also found about the stations. It has a
pretty, graceful flight, and hovers continually above the surface
looking for scraps, in search of which it occasionally makes short
dives.
The Blue-Eyed Shag (_Phalacrocorax atriceps_) is found in large
numbers round the island. It is a most business-like bird, and goes
steadily about its daily work, taking very little notice of outside
interruptions. It is more prettily marked than the northern shag,
having a black back and white belly. The back of the head is black, and
carries a tuft of black feathers. The white of the belly is continued
up over the under part of the neck and head. The eye is blue coloured.
It lays two or three greenish-white eggs, and the young are covered
with a dark-coloured down. Their food is fish, which they obtain by
diving, and of which they consume an enormous number daily.
Paddies, or Sheathbills (_Chionis alba_), are not common on this
island, though a few were seen about the coast by the naturalist.
South Georgian Teal (_Nettion georgicum_) are said to be getting very
rare. A few were noticed and some specimens collected.
Falkland Island Geese—introduced by man—are also rare, and none were
seen by the naturalist.[21] The whalers say that a few are still to be
found about Cumberland Bay.
There are three species of penguin: Gentoo (_Pygoscelis papua_), King
(_Aptenodytes patagonica_), and Rockhopper (_Eudyptes Chrysolophus_).
The Gentoo is a brightly marked bird with black head and neck, black
back and white belly, yellow legs, and a white patch over each eye
that gives it a curiously inane expression. It is the most shy of the
penguins, and easily takes fright if rapidly approached. By dropping
on its breast and using both feet and flippers it can travel at
considerable speed and can dodge cleverly. It nests in tussock grass.
The King is larger than the Gentoo, and has very bright markings about
the neck and upper part of the breast. It nests in tussock grass, but
keeps nearer to the sea edge than the Gentoo. The Rockhopper is less
common than either of the others. It is smaller than the Gentoo and
resembles it somewhat in appearance except that the feet are of a more
browny yellow, the patch over the eye is lacking, and it has a tuft of
yellow and black feathers. Occasional Ringed and Adelie penguins were
noticed, but they are stragglers and not commonly seen on the island.
Sea-elephants are common on all the beaches of South Georgia during
the summer months, and are found also throughout the winter. They lie
on the beaches or in wallows amongst the clumps of tussock grass. The
smell from them is unpleasant and unmistakable. The bulls, except in
the rutting season, usually remain apart from the cows, which collect,
together with their young, into harems numbering from fifteen to fifty.
The flippers, though short, are wonderfully flexible, and have curious
little rudimentary fingers with which they scratch themselves in what
is, at times, a ludicrously human way. They are fond of heaping sand
upon themselves. When approached they make a curious windy roaring
noise, and they may often be heard trumpeting from their wallows.
Wilkins, in crossing the island, saw a sea-elephant track which led
the whole way over. It was in soft snow and was unmistakable. Many
other tracks went for a mile or so inland, but turned and came back
to the beach from which they started, and only one was found to cross
all the way. Weddell Seals come ashore in numbers, and also occasional
sea-leopards.
The managers of the whaling stations reported that whales were
plentiful during the height of the season (1921-22), though, as was
to be expected, the numbers fell off with the onset of winter. The
most numerous were humpback and blue whales, and a few sperm and
sei-whales were caught. The return of the humpback is interesting,
for in the early days of the whaling industry in 1904 and for several
years afterwards this species formed the bulk of the catch (over 90
per cent.). The numbers fell off rapidly, till in 1912-13 they formed
38 per cent.; in 1915-16, 12 per cent.; and in 1917-18, only 2.5 per
cent. It was generally considered and admitted by many of the whalers
that the decline was due to ruthless hunting, but the explanation
seems to lie in the distribution and drift of food supply. For a fuller
description of South Atlantic whales and whaling, readers are referred
to Appendix I of “South,” by Robert S. Clark, M.A., B.Sc.
During our second visit to South Georgia Mr. Hansen, the manager of
Leith Harbour Whaling Station, showed us a porpoise which had leapt
ashore. It was coloured bluey black and dirty white; total length,
53½ inches; tip of nose to blowhole, 6 inches; tip of nose to dorsal
fin, 17½ inches; tip of nose to flippers, 9 inches. It has been
provisionally determined as _Phocaena dioptrica_.
Small shore-life in South Georgia comprises flies, found along the
beaches and breeding in the semi-rotting seaweed cast up by the tide;
several forms of spiders, beetles (_Hydromedion_), mites (_Bdella_),
tiny jumping flies, and an earth worm (_Acanthrodilus_).
Vegetation ashore is very scarce, the only grass which grows in evident
quantity being the tussock grass (_Poa flabellata_). The naturalist was
able to collect specimens of plants referable to sixteen species, but
many of them were marine algae.
Seventeen reindeer which were brought to the island in the years 1911
and 1912 have increased and multiplied to such an extent that there
were about 250 when we were there, and this notwithstanding the fact
that the whalers have periodically killed numbers for food. Wilkins
examined the stomachs of some that were killed, and found them normal
in size, not distended, as usually happens when the food is of poor
quality.
The _Quest_ left South Georgia on January 18th, 1922. A few miles out
from the coast we passed thousands of whale birds (_Prion_) feeding
on the surface of the water, probably upon crustaceæ, which were
so plentiful that the sea was highly coloured. Cape pigeons, Wilson
petrels, sooty albatross and a number of mollymauks came about the
ship, but wandering albatross were conspicuously absent at this stage.
On the second day we met snow petrels (_Pagodroma nivea_), which
remained intermittently with us till our return to South Georgia.
On January 20th we visited Zavodovski Island. The slopes were covered
with Ringed penguins, and the beaches under the glaciers were occupied
by a number of King penguins. Fumes were issuing from caves on the
eastern side of the island, and it was noticed that the penguins kept
clear of them. Many Giant petrels flew round the ship, and a number
were seen resting ashore. Cape pigeons, Wilson petrels and a blue
petrel were noticed in the vicinity of the island. As we turned farther
south prions became more scarce, but Wilson petrels and Cape pigeons
kept up in numbers. The light-mantled sooty albatross seen in these
areas was conspicuously light-phased, and became markedly so in the
more southern latitudes. Silver-grey petrels (_Priocella glacialoides_)
were first seen in lat. 57° S. and 15° E. long. They were observed
throughout the voyage till we returned to South Georgia, where the
naturalist obtained some specimens.
In lat. 58° S. we met the Antarctic petrel (_Thalassoeca antarctica_).
They occurred in groups of ten or fifteen, but never in large numbers,
as seen in the Ross Sea. In this latitude also an occasional Sooty
petrel (_Oestrelata macroptera_) was seen, and a species of whale bird,
classed temporarily by the naturalist as _Prion desolatus_. We saw a
Cape hen in lat. 61° S., and a Giant petrel after we had crossed the
circle; the latter is very rare in the Antarctic proper. One of the
latter seen in 67° S. had a very white phase.
In lat. 68° S. Arctic terns were noticed. Some of them were already
(on February 8th) beginning to change their plumage, the dark cap in
many cases being streaked with grey. Emperor Penguins (_Aptenodytes
Forsteri_) were seen in numbers south of lat. 67° S., but, taken on
the whole, were not common throughout the trip. They are the “farthest
south” penguins. Numbers of cheery little Adelies were seen in greatest
numbers near “Ross’s Appearance of Land.” Crab-eater Seals (_Lobodon
carcinophagus_) were seen in large numbers about the pack edge,
especially in those parts where the ice showed marked diatomaceous
bands. Often as many as a dozen of these seals were seen on a single
small floe heaving up and down on the swell. Killer whales were present
in numbers at the time we were in the pack, and were frequently seen in
the open leads. The Crab-eaters, on the other hand, seemed to avoid the
larger leads of open water. On February 13th we had occasion to kill a
number of Crab-eaters, when each female was found to be pregnant, the
fœtus varying in length from one to three inches. Sea-leopards were
seen, but were rare.
We visited Elephant Island on March 28th, and effected landings at Cape
Lookout and on a narrow beach at the western end of the northern coast.
Animal life is scarce, and plants are confined to a lichen, which
grows on some of the rocks on the sides facing north, and a species of
moss. The bird life consists of Gentoo, Ringed and Rockhopper penguins,
the latter being very scarce; seabirds, including Cape pigeons, Skua
gulls, Dominican gulls, Blue-eyed shags (all of them plentiful), and
Mollymauks and Giant petrels (more rare). The Paddy, or Sheathbill
(_Chionis alba_), is plentiful.
The Ringed penguins made their rookeries on steep rock-faces close
to the sea, and spent many patient hours in climbing up and down
from their positions, hopping carefully from ledge to ledge. The
Gentoos selected easier slopes. Rarely a Gentoo was found in a Ringed
rookery, but Ringed were found fairly frequently among the Gentoos.
The Paddies haunted the rookeries, their food being obtained largely
from the excreta of penguins, from which they pick small round worms
or nematodes, with which the penguins are infested. The stomach
and intestines of the Paddies themselves are wonderfully free from
parasites. They eat readily of any offal which may be lying about.
Those which remained during the winter were very thin, due to the
departure of the majority of penguins. Numerous seals and sea-elephants
were lying on the beaches. On the rocks are dark-shelled limpets
(_Patella polaris_), which never come above low-water mark; no doubt
they would freeze to death in the colder air.
We returned to South Georgia on April 6th, and left for Tristan
da Cunha on May 9th. During the voyage we saw Wandering Albatross,
two Sooty Albatross (_P. palpebrata_ and _P. fusca_), mollymauks,
Silver-Grey petrels (_Priocella glacialoides_), Wilson petrels,
Giant petrels, Diving petrels, several varieties of prions, Cape
hens, Cape pigeons, Terns, Skua gulls and Shearwaters. As we neared
Tristan da Cunha we lost _Phoebetria palpebrata_, and the only kind
of Sooty Albatross seen was _P. fusca_. The islands of the Tristan
da Cunha group are so close together that the animal life is similar
to them all. The naturalist found eggs of the following: The yellow
billed mollymauk (_Thalassogeron chlororynchus_), greater Shearwater
(_Puffinus gravis_), Rockhopper Penguin (_Eudyptes chrysocome_) and
_Catharacta antarctica_. The evidence of the islanders regarding the
bird life of the islands is as follows (birds are recognized by general
description and plates): Wandering Albatross used to breed on Tristan,
but now only found rarely on Inaccessible Island. Sooty Albatross (_P.
fusca_) nests in August. Young birds leave the nest in April (the young
of _P. palpebrata_ were hatched on January 15th at South Georgia).
Yellow-nosed mollymauks (_T. chlororynchus_) nest in August. Young
birds leave the nest in April (the young of _T. chrysostoma_ were
hatched on January 1st in South Georgia).
_Oestrelata macroptera_ moults in May, lays in July.
_Oestrelata mollis_ lays in November.
_Pachyptila vittata Keyteli_ lays in September.
_Priofinus cinereus_ lays in May and June.
_Sterna vittata_ lays in November.
_Stercorarius antarcticus_ lays in August.
_Anous stolidus_ arrives in September, lays in November, but goes away
for the winter.
_Eudyptes chrysocome_ moults and leaves the island in March, comes
again in August, and lays in September.
A thrush (_Nesocichla eremita_) and a finch (_Nesospiza acunhae_) are
found on Inaccessible Island, but seem to have left Tristan.
Wilson petrels, Cape hens, Cape pigeons and gulls are not often seen
and do not nest on the island. A diving petrel is frequently seen, but
no eggs have been found. With regard to sea-life, fish abound in plenty
in the kelp about the island. The naturalist had little opportunity for
a collection of specimens. The following is the list given by Mrs. K.
M. Barrow, who spent three years on the island:[22]
[Illustration: THE SURFACE OF A GLACIER, SHOWING NUMEROUS CREVASSES
_Photo: Wilkins_]
[Illustration: SEA-ELEPHANTS IN TUSSOCK GRASS
_Photo: Wilkins_]
Blue-fish, Snoek (_Thyrsites atun_), Mackerel (_Scomber colias_), Five
finger (_Chilodactylus fasciatus Lac_), Soldier-fish, Craw-fish and
Klip-fish. The southern blue whale is occasionally seen, as are also
seals and sea-elephants. Sharks are common, and several were caught
from the ship whilst lying off Nightingale and Inaccessible Islands.
We arrived at Gough Island on May 27th. At first sight it appears as
a green island clothed in verdure. As we approached the western side
we saw a number of birds, prions, wandering albatross, mollymauks, a
diving petrel, skua gulls and terns. Both _Phoebetria cornicoides_ and
_P. fusca_ were seen. After rounding south-west and south points few
birds were seen except skua gulls and terns, and they were not common.
No albatross were seen on the eastern side during the whole of our
visit. Just after passing south-east point Wilkins saw what he thought
was a noddy tern (_Anous stolidus_), which was previously reported as
visiting the island. Immediately on landing on the Glen beach buntings
(_Nesospiza goughensis_) came tamely about, but did not let themselves
be caught by hand. Numbers were seen feeding on flies, which swarmed
in the decaying seaweed, and also inland, where they were seen on the
stems of tussock grass or clinging to the branches of the tea plant
(_Chenopodium tomentosum_). They were found everywhere up to the level
of the thicker vegetation, which ends at about 2,000 feet. There are
two types: one, black-throated and mouse-coloured; the other, light and
dark brown, with yellowish markings. They were feeding together, and
seen to be in about equal numbers and of equal size.
On every part of the island visited the sharp “Chuck! chuck!” of water
hens could be heard, and several were shot for specimens. They were
shy, and at sight of man hastened in amongst the tussock grass, where
it was impossible to see them. The frontal shield is bright red; bill
and feet, bright yellow; plumage, black and cinnamon. All parts of
the Glen which gave a sufficient depth of earth and which were not
overgrown with trees were honeycombed with the burrows of different
kinds of petrels. They did not come out by daylight, but their croaking
frequently betrayed them, and in this way several specimens were added
to the collection, These included _Priofinus cinereus_ and broad-billed
prions (_Pachyptila vittata Keyteli_). At night a large fire was
lighted on the beach, and several specimens were shot as they flew
inwards through the light. Some of them fell into the tussock grass,
and in the dark could not be found. In the morning, when taken up, they
were seen to have been almost entirely picked to pieces and eaten by
mice, which swarmed in large numbers at the foot of the Glen. These
mice are the ordinary _Mus musculus_, and were no doubt introduced by
earlier landing parties. On several parts of the island were large
penguin rookeries, deserted at this time of year except for a few
straggling Rockhoppers (_Eudyptes chrysocome_). The thrush, common on
Nightingale and Inaccessible Islands, was not seen at all on Gough
Island. No albatross or mollymauk nests were seen, but there might
have been some on the north-west side, which is the most exposed to the
winds, and thus most likely to be selected by these birds.
The collection of birds from Gough Island numbered over fifty
specimens, referable to nine species:
_Garrodia Nereis Chubbi_ (Matthews), which was shot as it flew over the
light of the camp fire.
_Priofinus cinereus_, found in burrows on the hill.
_Oestrelata mollis_ (Gould), found in burrows near the beach. Their
croakings could be heard all night.
_Pachyptila vittata Keyteli_ (Matthews), found as above. From the noise
they were making there must have been many in the neighbourhood of the
camp.
_Stercorarius antarcticus_ (Lesson). Skuas were not common, and only
about twenty were seen during the visit.
_Sterna vittata_ (Reich). Many terns were seen, both in adult and
juvenile plumage.
_Nesospiza Goughensis_ (Eagle Clarke). Birds of this type were brought
back by the Scotia and described by Eagle Clarke, Orn. Report Scottish
Nat. Antarctic Expedition. They have been classed as two species,
but from examination of the twenty-eight specimens in the _Quest_
collection it is thought that these birds are of one species, and the
difference in plumage can be accounted for by age. (N.B. See paper by
Mr. P. R. Lowe, M.B.O.U.)
_Gallinula_ or _Porphyriornis Comeri_ (Allen). This water-hen is common
on Gough Island, but is not seen on Tristan da Cunha. Some of the
islanders say they have seen it on the western side of Inaccessible
Island.
_Eudyptes chrysocome._ Only two or three were seen.
Gough Island gives an impression from the sea of almost tropical
greenness, and on landing at the Glen one has much the same impression,
for the slopes and hillsides are thickly covered with vegetation.
Trees, tree ferns and tussock grass are most abundant, whilst the
rocks and cliff faces are covered with mosses and lichens. The trees
are the Island Tree (_Phylica nitida_). An interesting discovery was
made by the geologist of a grove of trees of a different sort. They
were in the “little glen” on the southern side of Archway Rock, and
he describes them as “growing as if planted in an orchard,” reaching
a height of four to five metres and spreading to four metres or more.
It has since been identified as a variety of _Sophora tetraptera_ J.
Mull, var. nov. _Goughensis_. About the beach there is a luxuriant
growth of dock (_Rumex fructescens_ and _Rumex Obtusifolius_). There
was also a wild celery, which was found by comparison to differ
considerably from the type species from Tristan da Cunha (Thouars
Fl. Trist. p. 43 _Apium Australe_). This plant was also collected
by the _Scotia_, and after an examination of the specimens, as well
as those from the _Quest_, it has been decided to name it as a new
species, _Apium Goughensis_. In the sheltered parts of the cliffs
were several varieties of maidenhair fern (_Adiantum aethiopicum_);
mosses and lichens were everywhere. On the flat ground bordering the
beach grew a thick covering of grasses, mostly dwarfed _Scirpus sp._,
with here and there some bunches of _Agrostis ramulosa_. Thistles and
_Gnaphalium_ grew rankly near the edge of the penguin rookeries. The
wild tea plant (_Chenopodium tomentosum_) flourished luxuriantly. The
small _Hydrocotyle_ (most probably _leucophalica_), though dwarfed
by its environment, was noticed by its distinctive leaf. The thicker
vegetation grew to a level of about 2,000 feet, when most of it ceased.
At this level the cranberry in its southern temperate form (_Empetrum
nigrum_ var. _rubrum_) grows abundantly. At this season of the year
(June 1st) it was loaded with bright red fruit. _Lycopodium_ was
found by the naturalist at the highest level attained by him, but in a
dwarfed condition. _Agrostis ramulosa_ and _A. media_ seemed to thrive
at higher levels. _Cotula Goughensis_, a new species described by Dr.
Rudmose Brown of the _Scotia_, which grows to a height of 30 cm. near
the beach, is dwarfed to 5 or 6 cm. on the higher slopes. Only closely
related forms were noticed at the higher levels, but a longer period
ashore and a more careful and prolonged search at these levels might
produce something new. In all thirty specimens referable to nineteen
species were collected. Of these, three were not in the collection
made by the naturalists of the _Scotia_, but they collected several
species not collected by us. Two of the new specimens are of plants
common to the Tristan da Cunha group. _Sophora tetraptera_ had not been
previously collected, though Mr. Comer, who was amongst one of the
earliest parties to visit the island, described two different types of
trees. The members of the _Scotia_, whose visit, owing to bad weather,
was very hurried, not finding the second tree, decided that the tree
fern (_Lomaria boryana_) was meant.
We left Gough Island for Cape Town on June 1st. We saw several kinds of
petrels, Wandering albatross, Cape pigeons, many shearwaters (_Puffinus
gravis_ and _Priofinus cinereus_), and two species of mollymauk,
black-browed and yellow-nosed, in juvenile plumage with a showing
of grey under the throat, were observed. Several attempts were made
to catch a specimen with a grey marking on the throat, but without
success. It appeared to resemble the mollymauk described by Dr. Harvey
Pirie and Mr. Eagle Clarke, but identification was impossible whilst
it was on the wing. Several dark-brown petrels, probably _Oestrelata
macroptera_, were seen. A number of Sooty albatross which came about
the ship had white spots on the head and shoulder. Attempts were
made to hook one with a fishing line, but failed. As we approached
South Africa albatross of a darker phase and a number of mollymauks
with dark-grey heads and throats were seen, probably the young of
_Thalassogeron chlororynchus_. Nearer land many gannets were noticed
diving into the sea.
This report[23] cannot be regarded as an exhaustive account of the
natural history work of the expedition, being merely a résumé of
the naturalist’s provisional report. Much work still requires to
be done before the full value of the collections can be estimated.
The collection, especially of birds, is a large one, and has added
considerably to the material already available in the museums.
Several new species and varieties have been provisionally determined.
Throughout the whole period of the expedition conditions were never
favourable for natural history work, and change of plan compelled
that many of the parts should be visited in mid-winter instead of in
summer, with consequent disadvantages as regards weather and landing
facilities. The amount of material brought home reflects great credit
on Captain Wilkins as a collector and on his assistants.
NOTE.—At the time of going to press I learn that one of the
buntings taken from Inaccessible and Nightingale Islands has been
determined as a new species, and that the larger Gough Island
finch is a new genus. The latter is being named —— _Rowettia_,
after Mr. Rowett.
APPENDIX III
METEOROLOGY
J. A. MCILROY, M.R.C.S., L.R.C.P., AND L. D. A. HUSSEY, B.Sc.
Meteorological observations made at one single station are of little
value by themselves. Their full value lies in the possibility of
their being correlated with observations made contemporaneously at
other stations in neighbouring parts of the world. Particularly is
this so where the station is a moving one, as in the case of the
_Quest_. Consequently no attempt can be made here to draw any general
conclusions from the observations which were made on the voyage.
The complete meteorological logs have been handed over to the Marine
Meteorological Section of the Air Ministry, as, with all the material
that they can collect from ships all over the world, that body is in a
position to make the best use of our results.
[Illustration: THE ISLAND TREE (_PHYLICA NITIDA_)
_Photo: Wilkins_]
[Illustration: SEA-ELEPHANTS AMONG THE ROCKS]
[Illustration: COMMANDER WORSLEY TAKING OBSERVATIONS OF THE SUN BY
SEXTANT
_Photo: Wilkins_]
[Illustration: HUSSEY (TAKING SEA TEMPERATURES), COMMANDER WILD AND
McILROY
_Photo: Dr. Macklin_]
At the outset of the expedition the Air Ministry very kindly gave
us every assistance, and lent us a great deal of apparatus and many
instruments on the understanding that they would be allowed to use the
information that we gathered. This arrangement has been carried out,
and we hope that among the many scientific results of the expedition
we have been able to add one link to the chain of observations which is
being made daily all round the world, and so we may have justified our
existence.
The instruments used consisted of the following:
(_a_) Two standard ships’ screens, in each of which were a wet and
dry bulb thermometer. These were placed one on each side of the
bridge, well exposed and as far as possible away from any draughts
and convection currents from galley and engine-room. The readings were
taken from the screen on the weather side.
(_b_) A marine-pattern mercury barometer, hung in the gyroscope-compass
room, which was also used to check the ship’s aneroid which was placed
in the wheel-house.
(_c_) A barograph, which was, however, of little use owing to the bad
weather that we experienced and the continual rolling and pitching of
the ship.
(_d_) Several sea thermometers and hydrometers for surface work.
(_e_) Various equipment, such as kites, balloons and meteorographs,
which were taken for experimental purposes.
Complete observations were taken every four hours of air and sea
temperatures, humidity, pressure, wind, direction and form of clouds,
etc., in the usual ship’s meteorological log.
Except when the ship was in port, where permanent stations existed,
these observations were carried out continuously during the whole of
the voyage, making roughly about two thousand odd sets of observations
in all.
Although no general conclusion can yet be drawn from these
observations, a general summary of the weather conditions experienced
by the _Quest_ may be of interest.
As far as actual wind _force_ is concerned, the first part of the
journey, to Lisbon, was uneventful, except for a short but heavy gale
when off the Bay of Biscay. This gale lasted at its height for about
eight hours, after which it gradually eased off. It was accompanied by
a sudden very marked fall in the barometer, but no corresponding change
in the wind, which was blowing from the south all the time.
The day after leaving Lisbon, when well out to sea, a large waterspout
was observed only about a mile away westward.
From now onwards, until after leaving St. Vincent, the wind was steady
but weak, never once approaching gale force. The north-east Trades,
even, almost failed us, and were of very little assistance indeed.
This state of affairs continued till we reached Rio de Janeiro, and it
was after leaving this port on December 18th, 1921, that our troubles
from the weather commenced.
Two days before Christmas, 1921, a very calm sea and still, damp
air, with the horizon obscured, gave us fears for the future. That
these were only too well founded was proved next day, when, with a
steadily falling barometer and an equally steadily rising sea, the
wind increased from the south. The sky became overcast and intense
squalls followed each other in rapid succession. Conditions became
worse during the next three days, and on the following two days,
December 29th and 30th, the wind blew with hurricane force. Huge seas
threatened to swamp the ship, the helm was lashed, and everyone except
Sir Ernest and Captain Wild were sent below. Sir Ernest said that never
in all his life had he seen such mountainous seas. Oil-bags were hung
out, and we ran before the storm. On the fifth day conditions seemed
to improve, but it was only a temporary lull, and a storm of equal
violence succeeded this, lasting for two days. This gale lasted in all
over seven days, and during most of this time it was rarely possible to
cook a proper meal or, indeed, keep one’s balance on deck at all; and
the mere taking of the observations under these circumstances entailed
a pretty thorough soaking. Fortunately a barographic curve was obtained
during the whole of this storm, and it shows in a striking way the
sudden rapid fall in atmospheric pressure which occurred during this
time.
There was not a dry spot left on the ship, and the hydrograph and
maximum and minimum thermometers were encrusted with salt from the
seas, which even washed over the upper bridge where these instruments
were placed.
January, 1922, gave promise of fair weather, and as far as wind was
concerned that promise was fulfilled. The voyage from South Georgia
down to the pack was marked by one or two gales of moderate severity,
with the sky almost continuously overcast. Close, heavy pack seemed
nearly always associated with fine, clear weather and southerly
winds, while the reverse obtained as the wind veered to the opposite
direction. When actually frozen in and drifting with the pack the
weather was generally fine.
The lowest temperature experienced was 6°F. on March 15th in latitude
63° 45´ S. and longitude 45° 12´ W., and again on March 16th and
17th in about the same position. At these temperatures—26° below
freezing—the water round the wet-bulb was frozen, and so dry-bulb
readings alone were obtainable.
From this time onwards gales generally from the south were of much
more frequent occurrence than fine weather or even moderate winds, and
Elephant Island lived up to its evil reputation by being the centre of
such bad weather as to make landing extremely dangerous.
From South Georgia to Tristan da Cunha—May 8th to May 19th—the journey
was marked by such bad weather that winds of under gale force occurred
on less than half a dozen occasions only. This can to some extent
be accounted for by the lateness of the season and the approach of
mid-winter.
With the exception of one sharp gale, the weather experienced round
Gough Island was a considerable improvement on that which had been our
almost daily lot for the previous two months.
Our stay at Tristan was not long enough for us to collect information
as to general weather conditions on the island, but the padre who is
now there, and who is erecting a meteorological station, will doubtless
supply a useful series of observations.
From Gough Island to Cape Town—June 2nd to June 18th, 1922—similar
weather was experienced, only about four days not showing gales.
Slight, but _very_ slight, improvement in weather conditions occurred
on the way up to Ascension from the Cape, but from thence onwards
much finer weather was our lot till we were two days off England, when
another gale welcomed us home.
As we made clear at first, this memorandum is not intended to be a
complete and detailed dissection and analysis of the two thousand odd
series of observations that were made during the voyage, but only to
indicate how bad weather handicapped all our efforts in the southern
hemisphere.
If, when these results come, in the course of time, to be considered in
conjunction with others made in those parts, we shall have added our
little bit to the present very meagre knowledge of weather conditions
there, we shall feel satisfied. For every addition to our knowledge
of regional meteorology contributes to our knowledge of meteorology
in general, and so helps us to understand the many perplexing problems
which meteorologists all the world over are up against.
In conclusion, a word of thanks is due to Captain Brooke-Smith and
Commander Hennessey of the Meteorological Section of the Air Ministry,
for much valuable advice and assistance, both before we sailed and
after our return home.
APPENDIX IV
HYDROGRAPHIC WORK
_The following is a brief account of the hydrographic work carried
out by_ COMMANDER WORSLEY, R.N.R., _assisted by_ LIEUT-COMMANDER
JEFFERY, R.N.R., J. DELL, P.O., R.N., _and_ CAPTAIN G. V. DOUGLAS.
The hydrographic equipment consisted, besides sextants, theodolites,
chronometers and compasses, of three sounding machines—a Kelvin and two
Lucas machines—a gyroscope compass, two rangefinders, and a wireless
set.
The Kelvin sounding machine has a 7-stranded steel wire ·35 of an inch
in circumference and 300 fathoms long. It is intended for soundings to
a depth of 100 fathoms, for which purpose thin glass tubes of chemicals
are provided which record the pressure to that depth, but we frequently
took soundings to 280 fathoms by stopping the ship and getting a
perpendicular cast.
The Lucas machine, which, in addition to having been lent to Sir Ernest
Shackleton on his different expeditions and supplied to the French,
German and Australian Antarctic Expeditions of 1908-10 and 1911 and
also the Canadian Arctic Expedition of 1913, has done the major part
of the work of exploring the profound depths of the world’s oceans, and
is, I believe, easily the best machine to-day for the work.
Ours had 6,000 fathoms Brunton wire, having a diameter of ·028 inches
and weighing 12·3 lbs. per 1,000 fathoms, with a breaking strain of 200
lbs. We also had a 500-fathom Lucas, suitable for boat work, and with
which I have always hoped at some time to sound, through a crevasse,
for the thickness of the Great Antarctic ice sheet. The 6,000-fathom
machine could also be used for kites, small balloons and other aerial
work.
The Sperry gyroscope compass worked well as far South as we went—69°
18´—but the liveliness of the vessel made the initial adjustments
difficult, and the constant ramming and blows from the ice threw it
out again. The new type of mercury ballistic with which it was fitted
minimized much of the bad effects of the bumping. Add to this the small
size of the vessel not enabling us to carry more fuel for the actuating
dynamo, and the lateness of the season prevented us stopping often for
the necessary time to steady it up.
We can, however, say from our experience of it that in a slightly
steadier vessel, with more time and dynamo fuel, that even in
latitudes beyond 70° it would be most useful for quickly ascertaining
the variation of the magnetic needles and, in conjunction with the
rangefinder, for quickly making a chart of a coast or islands which
the vessel might be passing. Much of our survey of Gough Island was so
made. Our average time taken to get the gyro running correctly from the
start was about six hours.
The 65 c.m. Barr and Stroud rangefinder was useful in giving the
distances to lay off the bearings of the various points in survey work
and, with vertical angles, obtaining the heights of peaks, islands and
icebergs.
The larger 4 feet 6 inches rangefinder was virtually useless, as we
could only use it in a completely land-locked harbour.
The naval wireless set, rotary spark transmission and continuous wave,
lent us by the Admiralty, was particularly useful in giving us G.M.T.,
and so correct longitude. Our reception was very good; we received,
when 68° 49´ S., time signals from Rio Janeiro at a distance of 3,206
miles. We heard messages from ’Frisco at a distance of about 8,000
miles while in 65° S. lat., and later in lat. 50° S. received time
signals from Nauen, Germany, 9,000 miles distant. The latitude appeared
to be a governing factor, as S. of 50° S. lat. we experienced very bad
atmospherics, while S. of 55° there appeared to be an almost constant
roar in the receivers, making it impossible to read signals, although
they could be often heard. There may have been more silent intervals
than appeared, as we only had one operator, and being busy on ship’s
work he only listened for half an hour at the appointed time for the
signals.
The greatest distance that we transmitted signals was about 400 miles
in Cape Colony; normally we could get 200 miles. The earth was rather
a problem; being a wooden ship, we fastened large copper sheets to the
ship under water, but they were repeatedly torn loose when forcing our
way through the ice.
The wireless telephone lent by Marconi’s worked very well. We spoke
for a distance of 100 miles with it approaching Rio, and it was
made evident that on any expedition it would be very useful, its
only drawback being the loud roar made by the engine, which could be
silenced considerably.
A new large-scale chart was made of St. Paul Rocks and surrounding
submarine plateau contained within the hundred-fathom line on a scale
of 200 feet to the inch, the Admiralty Chart 388 being on a scale of
2,029 feet to the inch.
From their small size (the largest being 380 feet by 180 feet) and
the probability that erosion is taking place, it is doubtful if they
can ever be used for an aerial station or any other purpose except a
lighthouse or wireless meteorological and directional station.
At South Georgia we carried out series of over two hundred soundings
W., S.W., N. and E. of South Georgia, discovering several banks,
one with apparently a fairly clear bottom for trawling in from 50 to
100 fathoms from 10 to 30 miles offshore to the N.W., but this area
requires more examination than we had time to give it. All the other
banks had very irregular bottoms.
We found no indication of a bank at a greater distance to the N.E., as
has been reported, but the 200-fathom line is much farther off to the
S.W. than was expected.
From whalers’ reports and our soundings it would appear that there is
a more or less continuous bank to the N. and N.E. of and parallel to
the island, with deeper water forming a submarine valley between. With
a limited examination, we found the bottom to consist mainly of a dark
grey sand, gravel and stones. The whalers report that these banks swarm
with an incredible number of very good eating fish, so easily caught
that they can be “jigged” up with no bait, but a bit of bright metal on
the hook.
There is a large Roman Catholic population eight days’ steam away
in South America, and it is possible that a profitable trawling and
fish-curing industry could be started here.
[Illustration: ST. PAUL ROCKS
By Comr. F. A. Worsley, R.N.R. and Lt Comr. D. G. Jeffrey, R.N.R.
“QUEST” R.Y.S. 1921
Lat. 0° 56´ 0´´ N. Long. 29° 22´ 0´´ W]
A sketch chart of Prinz Olaf Harbour in Possession Bay, where Lever
Brothers have a whaling station, was made. This is the best harbour at
the west end of South Georgia.
Some additions to the plan of Stromness Bay, Admiralty Chart No. 3,579,
were made.
Soundings from Cumberland Bay to Cooper Island were taken. The bottom
here is rocky and irregular, with several reefs and dangers, all,
however, fortunately marked by kelp—the great safeguard and aid to
the navigation around South Georgia, except on the south, south-west
and west coasts, where icebergs tear much of the kelp off. The kelp is
useless, however, if steering towards bright sunlight, as the glare on
the water makes it impossible to see it soon enough. The SS. _Fridtjof
Nansen_ was so wrecked on a reef 7 miles offshore near Cape George in
1907; but the whalers steam full speed straight for the coast in thick
fogs, and being very handy turn in almost their length immediately they
see the kelp, which frequently reaches to the surface in 60 fathoms and
even deeper water.
A sketch chart of the passage inside Cooper Island and of Cooper Bay
anchorage for small vessels was made.
A rough chart of Larsen Harbour, the best harbour at the S.E. end
of South Georgia, was made. There is enough flat ground here to make
a small whaling station, and sufficient water could be got from the
glacier streams.
We took new soundings in Royal Bay and across the front of the Great
Glacier, steaming along a quarter of a mile inside the line of the
glacier front of 1902 (Nordenskjold), but along the line laid down by
the German survey of 1882, showing an advance and then a retreat of the
glacier front.