first, children were brought up in habits of laborious industry. When
the arts and sciences were introduced, the cultivation of the mind
and manners received a considerable degree of attention; and we know
that girls shared in these privileges, because when Claudius wished
to seize the beautiful Virginia as a slave, in order to deliver her
to the infamous Appius, he arrested her as she returned from school,
attended by her governante. In the last days of Rome, personal habits
were exceedingly luxurious, and education became showy and superficial,
because it was acquired from vanity, rather than a love of knowledge.
The power of Roman fathers was excessive. They could imprison their
children, load them with fetters, make them work with the slaves, sell
them, and even put them to death; but mothers had no legal share in
this authority. A story is told of a Roman girl, who was starved to
death by her father, because she picked the lock of a wine chest, to
get at the wine.
The habit of adopting children, even when the parents on both sides
were living, was very common. The adopted were subject to the same
authority, and received the same share of inheritance, as real sons and
daughters. They generally retained the name of their own family, in
addition to the one into which they were adopted.
Though the Romans rivalled all preceding nations in justice and
kindness toward women, yet husbands were intrusted with a degree of
power, which modern nations would consider dangerous. A man might
divorce his wife, if she violated the matrimonial vow, poisoned his
offspring, brought upon him suppositious children, counterfeited his
private keys, or drank wine without his knowledge. Valerius Maximus
says that Egnatius Metellus, having detected his wife drinking wine out
of a cask, put her to death, and was acquitted by Romulus.
The ancient Romans did not allow women to inherit property; but as
wealth increased, fathers did not like to leave their fortunes to
distant male relatives, while their daughters were left portionless;
they therefore managed to elude the law, by making such provision for
their children, as rendered the estates so taken of little value. The
people, vexed at these proceedings, passed the Voconian law, by which
no woman could inherit an estate, even if she were an only child; but
after a time, the right of succession, both in moveables and land, was
granted to females after the death of their brothers.
Women could not dispose of property, or transact any business of
importance, without the concurrence of a parent, husband, or guardian.
Sometimes a man appointed a guardian to his widow, or daughters,
and sometimes they were allowed to choose for themselves. In some
cases, discreet elderly women were appointed guardians. No women,
except the vestal virgins, were allowed to give evidence in a court
of justice concerning wills. The favorite attendants of noble Romans
were sometimes intrusted with an extraordinary degree of power over
the wives of their masters. Justinian’s principal eunuch threatened
to chastise the empress, if she did not obey his orders. These
facts show that Roman women were by no means admitted to the social
equality, which characterizes the intercourse of the sexes at the
present time; but they ate and drank with the men, were present at
convivial entertainments, enjoyed the evening air in the public
groves, accompanied by fathers, husbands, or brothers, and enjoyed
many privileges to which the women of neighboring nations were entire
strangers.
The Romans treated female captives with shameless brutality. Queens
and princesses were compelled to submit to the grossest personal
indignities, and were often dragged through the streets chained to
the conqueror’s chariot wheels. The stern ferocity that mingled with
their better qualities is shown in the story of one of the Horatii,
who killed his sister, merely because she wept for her lover slain by
his hand; and the example of Marcia, wife of Regulus, who shut up some
Carthagenian prisoners in a barrel filled with sharp nails, to revenge
her husband, who had been put to death in Carthage. It is, however,
true that these actions were not sanctioned by public opinion; for
Horatius was punished, and the senate interfered to check the wanton
cruelty of Marcia.
The Romans followed the common practice of hiring mourning women to
sing funeral songs in praise of the dead. The nearest female relations
sometimes tore their garments, and covered their hair with dust. In the
funeral procession, sons veiled their faces, and daughters went with
uncovered heads and dishevelled hair, contrary to the usual practice
of both. They followed the Grecian custom of burning the corpse, and
depositing the ashes in an urn. Infants, that died before they had
teeth, were buried, not burned; and all children not weaned were
carried to the grave by their mothers. The sepulchres were covered
with flowers and garlands, and a small altar was placed near, on which
libations were made, and incense burnt.
It was thought dishonorable for men to mourn; but the law prescribed
that women should mourn ten months for a parent, or a husband. During
this time they laid aside ornaments, and purple garments, and staid at
home, avoiding all amusements; some even refrained from kindling a fire
in the house on account of its cheerful appearance. Under the republic,
women dressed in black like the men; but under the emperors, when
party-colored garments came in fashion, they wore white for mourning.
If a widow married within ten months after her husband’s decease,
she was held infamous. Indeed second marriages were never esteemed
honorable in women. Even in the most corrupt days of the empire, those
who had been married but to one husband were treated with peculiar
deference; hence Univira is often found on ancient sepulchres, as an
epithet of honor.
Plutarch says maidens never married on festivals, nor widows on
working-days, because marriage was honorable to the one and seemed not
to be so to the other; for which reason they celebrated the marriage of
widows in presence of a few, and on days that called off the attention
of the people to other spectacles. Those who remained widows had the
first place in certain solemn ceremonies. The crown of chastity was
decreed to them; and if they married again, they were never after
allowed to enter the temple of that divinity.
The Romans borrowed their mythology from the Grecian, where female
deities abound. When they invoked the gods by name, in their temples,
the Romans, in order to avoid mistakes, were accustomed to add,
“Whether thou art a god, or whether thou art a goddess.” Women, as
well as men, filled the sacred office of the priesthood. The vestal
virgins were young girls, six in number, devoted to the service of
Vesta. When any vacancy occurred, twenty maidens, not younger than
six, or older than sixteen, were selected from the families of Roman
citizens. It was required that their parents should both be living,
and free-born, and that they themselves should be without any bodily
imperfection or infirmity. It was determined by lot which of the twenty
should be chosen; unless some one, with requisite qualifications, was
voluntarily offered by parents, and approved by the pontifex maximus,
or high priest. The vestals were bound to their ministry for thirty
years. For the first ten, they learned the sacred rites; for the next
ten, they performed them; and for the last ten, they taught the younger
virgins. It was the business of the vestals to keep the sacred fire
continually burning; they watched it in the night time alternately;
and whoever allowed it to go out, was severely scourged. The fire
was relighted from the rays of the sun, and extraordinary sacrifices
were made to avert the unlucky omen. Certain sacred images, on the
preservation of which the safety of Rome was supposed to depend, were
likewise intrusted to the care of the vestals. Wills and testaments
were often deposited in their hands, by people who were afraid that
relations would commit frauds and forgeries. They were chosen as the
umpires of difficulties between persons of rank; and their prayers were
thought to have peculiar influence with the gods. Even the prætors
and consuls, when they met them in the street, lowered their _fasces_,
and went out of the way, to show them respect. They were supported
by a public salary; had a lictor to attend them in the streets; rode
in chariots; and sat in a distinguished place at the spectacles. Any
insult to them was punished with death; and if a criminal chanced
to meet one of them on his way to execution, he was immediately
set at liberty, provided the vestal affirmed that the meeting was
unintentional. They were allowed to make their wills, although under
age; and were not subject to the power of parents or guardians, like
other women. They were not forced to swear, unless so inclined; and
their testimony was admitted concerning wills, though no other female
was allowed to give evidence on the subject. Beside these exclusive
honors, they enjoyed all the privileges of matrons who had three
children.
If any vestal violated her vow of chastity, she was buried alive, with
funeral solemnities, after being tried and sentenced; and her paramour
was scourged to death in the forum. Such an event was always thought
to forebode some dreadful calamity to the state, and extraordinary
sacrifices were offered in expiation.
When the vestals were first chosen, their hair was cut off, and buried
under an old lotus tree in the city; but it was afterward allowed to
grow. They wore long white robes, edged with purple, and their heads
were decorated with fillets and ribands. When they left the service
of the temple, they might marry; but this was seldom done, and always
reckoned ominous.
There was at Rome a temple to the goddess who presided over the peace
of marriages, and the appeasement of husbands. Gibbon remarks that
her name, Viriplaca, shows that repentance and submission were always
expected from the woman. When domestic quarrels occurred, sacrifices
were offered in this temple, to procure reconciliation.
Beside innumerable religious ceremonies appropriated to certain
families, and performed on certain occasions, it was customary for
the Roman women, at the end of every consular year, to celebrate in
the house of the consul, or prætor, certain rites in honor of _Bona
Dea_, or the good goddess. No man was allowed to be present; even
the consul himself was obliged to leave his dwelling. Before the
ceremonies commenced, every corner and lurking-place was carefully
searched; all pictures and statues of men contained within the building
were covered with a thick veil; and male animals of every kind were
driven away. All being in readiness, the vestal virgins offered the
customary sacrifices; and women kept a secret so much better than free
masons have done, that to this day there is no conjecture in what the
ceremonies consisted, or why they were observed. Only one attempt
was ever made to violate the prescribed rules. While Pompeia, the
third wife of Julius Cæsar, was celebrating the mysteries, Clodius, a
profligate Roman, who was enamored of her beauty, habited himself as
a singing girl, and walked through the rooms, avoiding the light as
much as possible. A maiden asked him to sing; and as he did not reply,
she followed him so closely that he was obliged to speak. His voice
betrayed him, and the maiden shrieked aloud that the sacrifices were
profaned by the presence of a man. He was driven out with ignominy,
and soon after brought before the judges; but the populace were in
his favor, and he was acquitted. Cæsar did not believe that Pompeia
was aware of the intentions of Clodius; but he immediately repudiated
her, saying, “the wife of Cæsar must not even be suspected.” On this
occasion, Cicero made the following remarks: “This sacrifice, which is
performed by the vestal virgins--which is performed for the prosperity
of the Roman people--which is performed in the house of the chief
magistrate--celebrated with unknown ceremonies--in honor of a goddess,
whose very name it is sacrilege to know--this sacrifice Clodius
profaned!”
Beside the augurs, or soothsayers, the Romans believed in certain
women, supernaturally inspired, called sibyls. The most celebrated is
the sibyl of Cumæ, in Italy. It was said that Apollo became enamored of
her, and offered to give whatever she would ask. She demanded to live
as many years, as she had grains of sand in her hand; but unfortunately
forgot to ask for a continuance of youth and health. She usually
wrote her prophecies on leaves, which she placed at the entrance of
her cave; and unless they were gathered up before the wind dispersed
them, they became incomprehensible. The Roman historians declare that
one of the sibyls came to the palace of Tarquin the Second, with nine
volumes, which she offered to sell at a very high price. The proposal
being disregarded, she burned three, and asked the same price for the
remaining six; and when Tarquin refused to buy them, she burned three
more, and still required the same sum for the remainder. This singular
conduct surprised the king so much, that he consulted the soothsayers,
who lamented the destruction of so many of the books, and advised him
to purchase those that remained. The sibyl disappeared, and never
returned. The books were intrusted to the care of the priests, and
consulted with the greatest solemnity on all important occasions.
The Romans, like the Greeks, had firm belief in omens and enchantments,
over which they supposed the moon presided; hence their witches
were represented as haggard old women, muttering incantations, and
accompanied by dogs howling at the moon.
Paulus Æmilius, having been appointed commander-in-chief against
Perseus, and conducted home from the Campus Martius in a very splendid
manner, found his little daughter Tertia in tears. He took her in his
arms, and asked her why she wept. The child embraced him, and said,
“Don’t you know, then, father, that Perseus is dead?” The girl alluded
to her little dog; but Æmilius replied, “I hail the lucky omen!”
The Romans likewise used philtres. Lucullus lost his senses by a love
potion; and Caligula was thrown into a fit of madness by a philtre
which his wife Cæsonia administered.
The ancient dress of Roman women was modest and simple, like their
characters. They wore a tunic and toga, like those of the men,
excepting that the tunic had sleeves, was high in the neck, and long
enough to reach to the feet. The toga was a sort of ample robe fastened
on the shoulder, and falling in graceful folds. They wore bands, or
fillets, wrapped around the limbs, instead of stockings. Their covering
for the feet were of two kinds; one consisting of a pair of soles,
fastened with straps, nearly like what we call sandals; the other, a
kind of half boot, open from the toe, and laced in front.
Women usually wore white shoes, until Aurelian allowed them to use red
ones, forbidding all men, except the royal family, to wear the same
color. The fashionable wore them very tight, with high heels, to give
them a majestic appearance.
As luxury increased, the ladies became less scrupulous about exposing
their persons. Tunics were made shorter, lower in the neck, and with
sleeves open from the shoulder to the wrist, to display the beauty of
the arm. A good deal of coquetry and grace was manifested in arranging
the ample folds which fell from the girdle. The number of tunics
increased, until it was customary to wear three. The last invented
was a very full robe, called _stola_; and after this was introduced,
the _toga_ was worn only by men and courtesans. The _stola_ had a
long train, often embroidered with gold and purple. The upper part
was fitted to the form, and being open in front displayed the second
tunic. This gave the first idea of bodices, which soon became the
most brilliant article of Roman dress, enriched with gold and pearls,
and precious stones. Above this dress the ladies wore a very long
mantle, fastened by a clasp on the shoulders, from which it flowed
loose, supporting its own weight. It commonly rested on the left arm
and shoulder, leaving the right arm entirely uncovered, according to
the custom of the men. Under the reign of Nero, women began to wear
silken robes, instead of linen or woollen; yet more than half a century
later, we find Aurelian refusing his empress a mantle of silk, because
the threads were sold at their weight in gold. Afterward a kind of
transparent stuff became very fashionable. The texture was so delicate
that they were obliged to color it before it was woven; and the fabric
was so open, that the body might be distinctly seen through it. Varro
called them “dresses of glass,” and Jerome loudly declaimed against
them.
Roman fans were round, like hand-screens; generally made of feathers,
and sometimes with small metallic mirrors inserted above the handle.
At first, garments were generally white; none but people of great
dignity wore them of purple; but in process of time, all manner of
brilliant and varied colors came into fashion. Women of rank loaded
their shoes with embroidery and pearls, and prided themselves on the
variety and costliness of their necklaces, bracelets, ear-rings, and
rings. Pliny says that even women of the utmost simplicity and modesty
durst not venture abroad without diamonds, any more than a consul
without the marks of his dignity. “I have seen,” says that writer,
“Lollia Paulina, wife of Caligula, load herself with jewels, even after
her repudiation; not for any pompous festival, but for simple visits.
The value of those she affected to show amounted to forty millions of
sesterces, (more than two hundred thousand pounds.) They were not given
by the prince, but were part of the effects which descended to her from
Marcus Lollius, her uncle.”
The Roman women in primitive times arranged their hair in simple
braids, neatly fastened with a broad ribbon, or fillet. But afterward,
they wore structures of curls, high as a towering edifice; wigs of
false hair, like a helmet; combs made of box inlaid with ivory; golden
bodkins loaded with pearls; and fillets embroidered with precious
stones.
Those who peculiarly studied decorum, still wore the plain broad fillet
of olden times, and arranged their hair in simple, graceful knots at
the back of the head. This style was called _insigne pudoris_, or a
sign of modesty.
Light colored hair was most admired. Both men and women dyed it, to
make the color more lively; they perfumed it, and applied essences
to give it lustre. Sometimes they powdered it with gold dust; which
custom Josephus says was practised by the Jews. The hair of the emperor
Commodus is said to have been rendered so brilliant by the constant
use of gold dust, that when he stood in the sunshine, his head appeared
on fire. In the early ages, women never appeared in public without a
veil; but in later times this was dispensed with, or used merely in a
coquettish manner. The beautiful but infamous Poppæa always partially
shaded her face with gauze, to increase the power of her charms.
The Roman ladies enlarged their eyes by stooping over the vapor of
burning powder of antimony; and increased their expression by staining
the eyelashes, and gently tinting the lid underneath with the same
powder. The eyebrows likewise were finely pencilled. Pliny speaks of a
wild vine, the leaves and fruit of which were bruised together, to make
a cosmetic for the complexion: and Ovid says some women bruised poppies
in cold water, and applied it to their cheeks. Martial says Fabula was
afraid of the rain, because of the chalk upon her face, and Sabella of
the sun, on account of the ceruse with which she was painted. Poppæa
made use of an unctuous paint, which formed a crust, that remained some
time; it was taken off with milk, and greatly increased the fairness
of the complexion. Ladies were accused of keeping the crust for a
domestic face, and reserving the beautiful one for seasons when they
went abroad. Poppæa, from whom this paint derived its name, had a troop
of she-asses following her, even when she went into exile. Juvenal
says she would not have dispensed with them if she had gone to the
hyperborean pole. Every day they milked five hundred asses, for a bath
to maintain the softness and freshness of her complexion.
The Roman ladies were very careful of their teeth. They cleansed them
often with little brushes and tooth-picks. Some were silver; but those
made of lentisk wood were considered the best. Artificial teeth were
sometimes used; for Martial, in one of his epigrams, says to Maximina,
“Thou hast only three teeth; and those are of box varnished over.”
Ladies usually went to the bath when they first arose, and from the
bath to the toilet. This important business occupied many hours. The
attendants were numerous, and each one had a separate department. One
combed, curled, and braided the hair; a second arranged the jewels;
a third poured the perfumes; and a fourth prepared the cosmetics.
Each one had a name expressive of her employment; hence the words
_ornatrices_, _cosmetæ_, &c. Some, who were called _parasitæ_, were
merely required to look on, and give advice; those who were the best
skilled in flattery were, of course, the greatest favorites. If a curl
was misplaced, or a color unbecoming, the waiting maids were abused
for the fault. Juvenal, speaking to one of these women, says, “Of what
crime is that unhappy girl guilty, because your nose displeases you?”
It was not surprising that such a state of things should exist among
women, when the men wore golden soles to their shoes, plucked out the
hairs of the beard one by one, and applied bread dipped in milk to the
face, to freshen the complexion.
Still, in all periods of Roman history, there were bright examples
of female excellence. When Coriolanus, in revenge for ungrateful
treatment, threatened to destroy Rome with an invading army, the
remonstrances and proposals of the nobility and senate had no effect
on his stubborn pride. The Roman matrons persuaded his mother Veturia,
and his wife Vergilia, to go to his camp, and try their influence in
appeasing his resentment. The meeting between Coriolanus and his family
was extremely affecting. For a while he remained inflexible; but the
entreaties of a mother and a wife finally prevailed over his stern and
vindictive resolutions. The senate decreed that Veturia and Vergilia
should receive any favor they thought proper to ask. They merely begged
permission to build a temple to the Fortunes of Women, at their own
expense. The senate immediately ordered that it should be erected on
the very spot where Coriolanus had been persuaded to save Rome. They
likewise decreed them public thanks; ordered the men to give place to
them upon all occasions; and permitted the Roman ladies to add another
ornament to their head-dress!!
Veturia was made priestess of the new temple, into which no woman who
had married a second husband was allowed to enter.
Portia, the daughter of Cato and wife of Brutus, was remarkable for
her prudence, philosophy, and domestic virtues. She wounded herself
severely, and endured the pain in silence, to convince her husband that
she had sufficient courage to be intrusted with his most dangerous
secrets. Brutus admired her fortitude, and no longer concealed from
her his intended conspiracy against Cæsar. On the day when she knew
the assassination was to take place, she fainted away with excess of
anxiety; but she faithfully kept the secret that had been intrusted to
her. When she parted from Brutus, after the death of Cæsar, a picture
of Hector and Andromache, that was hanging on the wall, brought tears
to her eyes. A friend of Brutus, who was present, repeated the address
of the Trojan princess:
“Be careful, Hector! for with thee my _all_,
My father, mother, brother, husband, fall.”
Brutus replied, smiling, “I must not answer Portia in the words of
Hector, ‘Mind your wheel, and to your maids give law;’ for in courage,
activity, and concern for her country’s freedom, she is inferior to
none of us; though the weakness of her frame does not always second the
strength of her mind.” A false rumor having prevailed that Brutus was
dead, Portia resolved not to survive him. Her friends, aware of her
purpose, placed every weapon beyond her reach; but she defeated their
kindness by swallowing burning coals.