THE
HISTORY
OF THE
CONDITION OF WOMEN,
IN VARIOUS AGES AND NATIONS.
BY
MRS. D. L. CHILD.
AUTHOR OF “MOTHER’S BOOK,” “FRUGAL HOUSEWIFE,” ETC.
“In youth women are our idols, at a riper age our companions, in old
age our nurses, and in all ages our friends.” _Lord Bacon._
VOL. II.
COMPRISING THE WOMEN OF EUROPE, AMERICA, AND
SOUTH SEA ISLANDS.
THIRD EDITION.
BOSTON:
OTIS, BROADERS & CO.
1840.
Entered according to the Act of Congress, in the year 1835, by
JOHN ALLEN & CO.
in the Clerk’s Office of the District Court of Massachusetts.
Boston:
STEREOTYPED BY SHEPARD, OLIVER AND CO.
No. 3 Water Street.
CONTENTS TO VOL. II.
PAGE.
Ambrones 82
Americans, South 246
Americans, North 255
Anne’s reign 143
Athenians 9
Austrians 166
Betrothal, various modern forms of 193
Bona Dea 54
Blue stocking 145
Bravery, female 121, 209
Britons, ancient 81
Celibacy venerated 116
Charles II., time of 140
Chivalry 90
Christianity introduced at Rome 75
Cimbri 82
Convents 125, 249
Courts of Love 111
Cromwell, time of 136, 139
Crusades 118
Danes 174
Dutch 171
English 147
Falconry 114
Feudal times 87
Flitch of bacon 115
Franks 77
Gauls 80
Germans, ancient 79
Germans, modern 165
Goths 80
Greeks, ancient 1
Greeks, modern 176
Greenland 242
Hair 59, 138, 188
Hallow E’en 133
Iceland 175
Indians of North and South America 225, 291
Irish 149
Italians 161
Knights, duties of 92
Lacedæmonians 30
Laws, modern 199
Learned women 127, 208
Liburnians 167
Marriage, modern forms of 189
Marriage deemed unholy 76, 116
Middle ages 86
Military spirit in women 121, 209
Morlachians 168
Northern nations that conquered Rome 77
Nun initiated 251
Offices held by women 146
Panegyrics on women 140
Peasantry of Europe 180, 187
Polanders 162
Portuguese 159
Pythia 26
Quaderoons 263
Queens 206
Romans 35
Russians 172
Russian settlements 246
Saint Dunstan’s Well 116
Salique law 151
Satires on women 141
Scandinavians 77
Scotch 150
Sibyl of Cumæ 55
Sibyl, Danish 83
Slave countries 212
South Sea islands 272
Spain 157
Spartans 30
Swedes 174
Swiss 169
Tournaments 100
Troubadours 105
Tricks, trying 133
Tyrolese 168
United States 255
Valentine’s day 134
Vestals 52
Visigoths 77
Walachians 167
Widows 25, 51, 138, 205
Winnisberg, women of 98
Witches 131, 258
HISTORY OF WOMEN.
[Illustration: Penelope at her loom.]
EUROPE.
Plutarch speaks with disapprobation of the Persian manner of treating
women; yet the Greeks themselves kept them under very strict
discipline. They had distinct apartments, in the highest and most
retired part of the house, and among the wealthier classes these rooms
were often kept locked and guarded. Women belonging to the royal
families were not even allowed to go from one part of the house to
the other without permission. When Antigone, in Euripides, obtains her
mother’s permission to go on the house-top to view the Argian army,
her aged guardian insists upon first searching the passage, lest the
profane eyes of a citizen should dishonor her by a glance.
Young girls were more rigorously secluded than married women; yet it
was considered highly indecorous for the latter to be seen beyond
the door-step, until they were old enough to assume the character of
matrons. Menander says:
“You go beyond the married woman’s bounds,
And stand before the hall, which is not fit;
The laws do not permit a free-born bride
Farther than to the outer door to go.”
Maidens were rarely allowed to appear in the presence of men; and never
without veils. This covering was probably made of transparent stuff;
for Iphigenia speaks of seeing her brother through “the veil’s fine
texture.”
Eustathius says, “Women should keep within doors, and there talk.”
Thucydides declared that “she was the best woman of whom the least was
said, either of good or harm;” according to the Greek proverb it was
considered extremely dishonorable to be governed by a female; and Plato
rejoiced that he was not born a woman.
In order to prevent assignations, Solon enacted that no wife, or
matron, should go from home with more than three garments, or a basket
longer than one cubit, or more food than could be purchased for an
obolus;[1] or travel in the night-time without a lighted torch carried
before her chariot. Lest pride should seek to exhibit itself in a
pompous retinue, he ordered that no woman should appear attended by
more than one servant, except when she was drunk! On the death of a
husband, the oldest son became the guardian of his mother. A woman was
incapable of appearing in court without her guardian; therefore the
words of the proclamation always were, “We cite ---- and her guardian.”
No property could be disposed of, either by will or otherwise, without
the consent of guardians. Female captives taken in war were not usually
treated with any degree of respect or tenderness: thus we find Hecuba
complaining that she was chained, like a dog, at the gate of Agamemnon.
Alexander the Great formed an honorable exception to this rule, and in
his treatment of the royal Persian prisoners imitated the noble example
of Cyrus.
[1] A small coin, about the value of a penny.
Women were not allowed to attend the Olympic games; but this
prohibition could not have existed at all periods; for we are told
that Cynisca, daughter of Archidamus, king of Sparta, was the first
woman who won the prize in the chariot-race at Olympia. Perhaps the
Spartan women alone partook of these masculine diversions; those of
more feminine habits would probably perceive the propriety of not
attending games, where the combatants wrestled without clothing. In
commemoration of her victory, Cynisca sent a chariot and four brazen
horses, to be dedicated to Olympian Jupiter.
In the earliest ages, Greek women had a right to vote in the public
assemblies; but this privilege was taken away from them. They were
never allowed to be present at banquets, and it is not supposed that
they ever ate in the same apartment with the men.
The restraint of female influence being thus removed, it may be
presumed that the outward forms of decency were less scrupulously
observed than they would have been under a different system. A fine
of one thousand drachmas was imposed upon every woman who appeared in
public without clothing; and the necessity of making such a law does
not speak well for purity of manners.
That women were not always entirely passive and subservient, appears by
the example of Xantippe, so famous for her household eloquence; and by
the dispute between Agamemnon and his wife, concerning his wish that
she should absent herself from the wedding of her daughter Iphigenia:
_Agamemnon._ “Without more reasonings, my demands obey!”
_Clytemnestra._ “By Juno, that o’er Argos bears the sway,
Sooner would wretched Clytemnestra bleed,
Than give consent to so unjust a deed.
Affairs abroad better thy lot become;
’Tis fit that I should manage things at home.”
Themistocles used to say, “My little boy rules Athens; for he governs
his mother, and his mother governs me.”
The women of Lemnos, finding themselves slighted for the sake of
certain Thracian captives, whose charms conquered their conquerors,
resolved upon indiscriminate revenge. They unanimously agreed to put
all their male relations to death; and this barbarous plan was carried
into execution, with the solitary exception of Hypsipyle, the queen,
who spared the life of her father. In consequence of this, the women
conspired against her, and soon after drove her from the kingdom.
The most common employments of Grecian women were spinning, weaving,
embroidery, making garments, and attending to household avocations.
Their embroidery often represented battle-scenes and historical
events, which must have required a great deal of time and patience.
During the early ages, there seems to have been no difference whatever
between the occupations of princesses and women of common rank. Before
marriage, Penelope tended her father’s flocks on the mountains of
Arcadia; and when she was queen of Ithaca, her son bids her attend to
the spindle and the loom, and leave the affairs of the palace to his
direction. During the absence of her husband, she was troubled with
numerous powerful suitors, whose enmity was greatly to be feared in
those turbulent times. She promised to choose one from among them, when
she had finished weaving a certain web; but she continually baffled
them, by unravelling in the night what she had woven in the day: hence
“Penelope’s web” became a proverbial expression for works that were
never likely to be finished. We are told that Nausicaa, daughter of
king Alcinous, who met Ulysses shipwrecked on her father’s coast, went
down to the shore, accompanied by her maidens, to wash clothes; and
princess as she was, she carried her dinner with her.
Women grinding corn, after the manner of the Israelites, are alluded to
by old Greek authors; and that they were in the habit of spinning with
a distaff as they walked, is to be inferred from the fact that it was
considered a bad omen to meet a woman working at her spindle.
As luxury increased, the lines of demarkation between different
ranks no doubt became more obvious, and laborious occupations were
relinquished by the wealthy. It is likewise probable that restraints
became less and less rigid. Women, in later times, certainly joined the
men in entertainments at Aspasia’s house, and the remains of an ancient
picture leads to the conjecture that at some period they attended
the theatres. It is recorded that certain women disguised themselves
in male attire, and went to Academus to listen to the philosophy of
Plato; and when this desire for knowledge began to prevail, it could
not be long before it manifested itself in casting off the fetters
prescribed by custom. Individuals there were, as there ever will be, of
both sexes, who were in advance of the people among whom they lived.
Beside the far-famed Sappho and Aspasia, there was Corinna, the Theban
poetess, who is said to have five times carried the prize from Pindar;
and there was Arete, daughter of Aristippus, who taught philosophy
and the sciences to her son: from this circumstance the young man was
called _Metrodidactos_, i. e. Taught-by-his-mother.
Increasing luxury evidently did not produce universal corruption;
for the wife of Phocion was a model of prudence, simplicity, and
domestic virtue. When one of the actors, who was to represent a queen,
demanded a more pompous retinue, Melanthius, who was at the charge
of the exhibition, said: “Phocion’s wife appears in public with a
single maid-servant; and dost thou come here to show thy pride, and
corrupt our women?” The audience received this remark with a thunder of
applause. This same modest matron, when a lady exhibited many jewels
in her presence, replied: “Phocion is my greatest ornament, who is
now called for the twentieth time to command the armies of Athens.”
Plutarch, who lived as late as the time of Trajan, bears testimony
that his wife Timoxena was far above the frivolity and affectation,
which characterized many of her sex; that she cared little for dress or
parade; and was chiefly desirous to perform all the duties, and observe
all the proprieties of life.
Of the amusements of the Grecian women we know little. Religious
festivals no doubt constituted a large portion of their recreations.
Many dances were used on these occasions; among which was the
Caryatides, a Spartan dance, in honor of Diana. Theseus, who invented
a circular dance called the Crane, is said to have been the first who
introduced the custom of men and women dancing together. Various
musical instruments were in use, such as the harp and the cythara,
and women doubtless played upon these, as well as joined in the songs
appropriated to various festivals. Female characters at the theatre
were performed entirely by men in disguise.
Ladies of rank were at all periods accompanied by attendants; and among
them was generally some old nurse, or matron, continually about their
persons. Two such are described as waiting upon Penelope, beside a
numerous band of maidens, whom she guided in the labors of the distaff
and the loom.
The Grecian dress consisted of sandals for the feet, and an ample
flowing robe, without sleeves, fastened at the waist by a girdle. The
wealthy wore purple, and other rich colors; the common class usually
wore white, for the economy of having it dyed when it became soiled.
Jewels, expensive embroidery, and delicious perfumes, were used in
great profusion by those who could afford them. It is supposed that
women stained their eyebrows black, and stained the tips of their
fingers rose-color, after the manner of the East. They took great pains
to keep their teeth in perfection, and some affirm that they painted
their lips with vermillion.
According to Socrates, the most costly female wardrobe in his time
might be valued at about fifty minæ, or one hundred and sixty pounds,
nine shillings, and two pence.
Until the time of Cecrops, the Grecians lived without the institution
of marriage; but his laws on that subject, being found conducive to
the public good, soon became generally observed. He expressly forbade
polygamy; but at certain periods, when great numbers of men had been
slain in battle, temporary laws were passed allowing men to take more
than one wife. Euripides is said to have imbibed a dislike to the
whole sex by having two wives at once, who made his house a perpetual
scene of dissension. It was allowable for a man to marry his sister by
the father’s side, but not by the mother’s. Cimon married his sister
Elpinice, because his father’s misfortunes had left him too poor to
provide a suitable match for her; but afterward, when Callias, a rich
Athenian, became in love with Elpinice, and offered to pay all her
father’s fines, if she would consent to be his wife, Cimon divorced
her, and gave her to him.
Parents negotiated matches for their children; and neither young men
nor maidens presumed to marry without the consent of both father and
mother.
In Athens, heiresses were compelled by law to marry their nearest
kinsmen, in order to preserve the fortune in the family; but if he
chanced to be old and superannuated, a younger relative was admitted
into the household, and in all respects considered the lady’s husband,
except in having a legal claim to her inheritance.
When a female orphan was left without adequate support, the nearest
relative was obliged to marry her, or settle a portion upon her
according to his wealth and rank. When the connections were numerous,
they often combined together to contribute the required sum.
Any foreigner who married an Athenian woman was liable to be sold,
together with his estate, and a third part given to the accuser. Any
foreign woman, who married a citizen of Athens, was liable to be sold
for a slave, and the man was likewise fined a thousand drachmas. These
laws fell into disuse; but were revived by Pericles for a short period,
during which five thousand Athenian citizens were sold on account of
foreign alliances.
It was common for Grecian lovers to deck the doors of their beloved
with garlands, and pour libations of wine near the threshold, because
this was the manner in which Cupid was worshipped at his temple. They
likewise inscribed her name on trees, on the walls of their houses, and
on the books they used. These inscriptions were generally accompanied
by some flattering epithet. In allusion to this custom, one of the
characters in Euripides says he never should have a good opinion of
women, though all the pines in mount Ida were filled with their names.
When a person’s garland was untied, it was taken as a sign of his being
in love; and when women were seen weaving wreaths, they were accused of
being love-sick.
Various magical arts and spells were in use to discover the state of
each other’s affections. The Thessalian women were famous for their
skill in these matters; and the Grecian maidens were in the habit of
applying to them for assistance; thus one in Theocritus says:
“To Agrio too I made the same demand,
A cunning woman she, I crossed her hand;
She turned the sieve and shears, and told me true,
That I should love, but not be loved by you.”
Many charms and philtres were likewise in use to procure affection,
when their love was unsuccessful. These charms were sometimes
compounded with blood of doves, the bones of snakes and toads,
screech-owl’s feathers, bands of wool twisted upon a wheel, and if
possible from the neck of one who had hanged himself. Sometimes pills,
roots, and powerful herbs, were the chosen ingredients; and instances
occurred wherein the unfortunate victims of superstition lost their
reason by the administration of these dangerous philtres. Images of
wax were sometimes made and placed before the fire to melt, while
certain spells were pronounced; this was done from the idea that there
was some mysterious sympathy between the wax and the heart of the
beloved object. Sometimes one who was forsaken and indignant made an
image of clay and placed it beside the wax, that while one melted the
other might harden; they believed that the heart of the rejected thus
became stern and unrelenting, while the faithless lover was softened
by affection. Other enchantments, too various to mention, were used by
those who wished to effect similar purposes.
Particular regard was paid to lucky seasons and omens for the wedding
day. The full of the moon was considered a favorable time, and
the conjunction of the sun and moon was peculiarly auspicious. The
sixteenth day of the month was regarded as more unlucky than any other.
It was supposed that trees planted on that day would wither and die,
and that girls who were either born or married at such a date were
destined to misery; but for a boy it was considered a lucky augury to
be born on the sixteenth.
Before marriage, the Grecian maidens offered baskets of fruit to Diana,
and many other ceremonies were performed in her temple. On account of
her own aversion to wedlock, it was deemed peculiarly desirable to
appease her indignation, and propitiate her favor. Sacrifices were
likewise offered to Juno, Minerva, Venus, the Fates, and the Graces.
When the victim was opened, the gall was taken out, and thrown behind
the altar, as a symbol that all anger and malice must be cast aside.
The entrails were carefully examined by soothsayers, and if any unlucky
omen presented itself, the contract was dissolved, as displeasing to
the gods. The most fortunate omen that could appear was a pair of
turtles, because those birds are remarkable for constant affection to
each other; if one appeared alone, it was thought to prognosticate
separation and sorrow to the young couple.
In many places the bride was required to cut off some of her ringlets
and offer them to the gods of marriage, at the same time pouring
libations on their altars.
Both bride and bridegroom wore bright colored garments, and were
adorned with garlands, composed of flowers sacred to Venus, and other
deities supposed to preside over nuptials. The house where the wedding
was celebrated was likewise decked with garlands.
The Bœotians used wreaths of wild asparagus, which is full of thorns,
but bears excellent fruit; it was therefore thought to resemble ladies,
who give their lovers some trouble in gaining their hearts, but whose
affection is a sweet reward. The bride carried an earthen vessel full
of parched barley, and was accompanied by a maid bearing a sieve, to
signify her obligation to attend to domestic concerns; a pestle was
likewise tied to the door, for the same purpose. The bride was usually
conveyed in a chariot from her father’s house to her husband’s in the
evening. She sat in the middle, with the bridegroom on one side, and
one of her most intimate female friends on the other. A widower was
not allowed to attend his bride, but sent one of his friends for that
purpose. Blazing torches were carried before the young couple, and
music followed them. Homer thus describes a bridal procession:
“The youthful dancers in a circle bound
To the soft flute, and cittern’s silver sound;
Through the fair streets, the matrons in a row
Stand in their porches, and enjoy the show.”
When the chariot arrived at the bridegroom’s dwelling, the axletree was
burnt, to signify that the bride was never to return to the paternal
roof. As they entered, figs and various kinds of fruit were poured on
their heads, as an indication of future plenty. A sumptuous banquet was
prepared for relations and friends, after which the company diverted
themselves with dances and hymeneal songs.
At Athens, it was customary for a boy to come in during the feast,
covered with thorn boughs and scorns, bearing a basket full of bread,
and singing, “I have left the worse and found the better.” Some have
supposed this was in commemoration of their change of diet from acorns
to corn, but Dr. Potter’s supposition seems much more probable; viz.
that it was intended to indicate the superiority of marriage over
single life.
In Athens, the bride’s feet were always washed in water brought
from the fountain of Callirhoe, which was supposed to possess some
peculiar virtue. She was lighted to her apartment with several torches.
Around one of these flambeaux, the mother tied the hair-lace of her
newly wedded daughter, taken from her head for that purpose. Mothers
considered it a great misfortune if illness, or any accident, prevented
them from performing this ceremony. The married couple ate a quince
together, to remind them that their conversation with each other should
be sweet and agreeable. The company remained until late at night,
dancing and singing songs filled with praises of the bridegroom and
bride, and wishes for their happiness. In the morning they returned,
and again saluted them with songs. The solemnities continued several
days; during which relations and friends offered gifts, consisting of
golden vessels, couches, ointment boxes, combs, sandals, &c., carried
in great state to the house of the bridegroom by women, preceded by a
boy in white apparel, with a torch in his hand, and another bearing a
basket of flowers. It was likewise customary for the bridegroom and
his friends to give presents to the bride, on the third day after the
wedding, which was the first time she appeared unveiled.
The old Athenian laws ordered that men should be thirty-five and
women twenty-six, before they married; but Plato considered thirty a
suitable age for the bridegroom, and other writers approved of brides
as young as eighteen, or fifteen. Grecian women never changed the
name they received when infants: thus Xantippe would be distinguished
from another of the same name, by being called Xantippe, the wife of
Socrates.
In the primitive ages women were purchased by their husbands, and
received no dowry from relations; but with the progress of civilization
and wealth this custom disappeared, and wives were respected in
proportion to the value of their marriage portion. Medea, in Euripides,
complains that women were the most miserable of the human race, because
they were obliged to buy their own masters at a dear rate. Those who
brought no dowry were liable to be spoken of contemptuously, as if they
were slaves rather than lawful wives. Hence, when men married women
without fortune, they generally gave a written instrument acknowledging
the receipt of a dowry. Those who received munificent portions required
a greater degree of respect, and expected additional privileges on
that account. Hermione, in Euripides, is enraged that the captive
Andromache should pretend to rival her in the affections of Pyrrhus;
and she thus addresses her:
“With these resplendent ornaments of gold
Decking my tresses, in this robe arrayed,
Which bright with various tinctured radiance flames,
Not from the house of Peleus or Achilles
A bridal gift, I come. In Sparta this
From Menelaus, my father, I received
With a rich dowry: therefore I may speak
Freely, and thus to you address my words.
Woman! would’st thou, a slave, beneath the spear
A captive, keep possession of this house,
And drive me out?”
Some have supposed that Solon intended to forbid dowries, because
one of his laws declares, “A bride shall not carry with her to her
husband above three garments, and vessels of small value.” But this
was probably intended merely to prevent extravagance in dress and
furniture; for he allowed men who had no sons to leave their estates
to daughters, and express laws were made to secure the property in
the family, by regulating the marriage of heiresses. The daughters of
several Grecian monarchs carried their husbands whole kingdoms for a
dowry. When distinguished men died in poverty, the state sometimes
provided for their children. Thus the Athenians gave three hundred
drachmas to each of the orphan daughters of Aristides, and bestowed
a farm belonging to the city upon the grand-daughter of their famous
patriot, Aristogiton. Phares, of Chalcedon, made a law that rich
men should give a portion to their daughters when they married poor
men, but receive none with their sons’ wives. As luxury increased, it
followed, as an inevitable consequence, that marriages were more and
more made with a view to the acquisition of wealth; and fathers were
disappointed at the birth of a daughter, on account of the expense
attending her establishment. It was customary for the bridegroom
to build and furnish the house, and to make a settlement large in
proportion to her dowry, for the support of his wife in case of death
or divorce; but unless a written receipt of dowry could be produced
by the woman’s friends, the husband could not be compelled to allow a
separate maintenance. Heirs were bound by law to support the wives of
those from whom they received estates.
When sons became of age, they enjoyed their mother’s fortune during her
lifetime, affording her a maintenance in proportion to her rank. If a
woman died without children, her dowry returned to the relative by whom
it had been bestowed.
Girls who had no fathers were disposed of by their brothers; and
if they had neither parents nor brethren, the duty devolved upon
grandfathers, or guardians. Sometimes husbands betrothed their wives
to other persons on their death-beds. The father of Demosthenes gave
his wife to one Aphobus, with a considerable portion. Aphobus took the
portion, but refused to marry the woman after the death of her husband;
in consequence of which her son appealed to the magistrates. The same
orator engaged in the defence of Phormio, who having been a faithful
slave, his master, before he died, bestowed upon him freedom and his
wife.
The forms of betrothing varied in some particulars in different cities,
but bore a general resemblance. The parties took each other by the
right hand, promised fidelity, and sometimes kissed each other, while
the relative of the woman pronounced these, or similar words: “I bestow
upon thee, ----, my daughter, or my sister, or my ward, with such and
such money, lands, cattle, or flocks, for her dowry.”
In case of divorce, a man was obliged to restore his wife’s portion,
and was required to pay monthly interest upon it, so long as he
detained it from her.
In general the Grecian laws allowed men to put away their wives upon
slight occasions; even the fear of having too large a family was
considered sufficient ground for divorce. A woman incurred great
scandal in departing from her husband. In Athens, if wives had reason
to complain of their husbands, they could appeal to the appointed
magistrate, by appearing publicly in court, and placing in his hands
a written statement of their grievances. Hipparete, the wife of
Alcibiades, losing all patience with his continued profligacy, availed
herself of this privilege; but when she presented herself before the
archon, Alcibiades seized her by force, and carried her off; no person
presuming to interfere with his authority.
It was not unusual for the marriage tie to be dissolved with consent of
both parties. Thus Pericles and his wife being weary of each other’s
society, he bestowed her upon another man, with her own free will
and consent. There is likewise reason to suppose that men sometimes
lent their wives to each other, without any of the parties incurring
blame by the transaction; but when intrigues were carried on without
the husband’s sanction, severe penalties were incurred. Women were
sometimes put to death, but more generally sold into slavery. They were
never after allowed to enter the temples, or wear any but the most
ordinary clothing. Whoever found them disobeying these laws, might tear
off their garments, and beat them with any degree of severity that did
not endanger their life or limbs.
Wealthy paramours generally brought themselves out of difficulty by
paying a heavy fine; but those unable to do this, were liable to very
severe and disgraceful punishments.
Although the law allowed but one wife, it was thought no dishonor
to keep a train of mistresses, who were usually captives taken in
war, or women stolen by Grecian sailors and brought home for sale.
The public class of women was composed of individuals derived from
similar sources; hence the term “_strange woman_,” (meaning a _foreign
woman_,) was a term of reproach with the Grecians, as well as the
Jews. This shameless class were required by Grecian laws to wear
flowered garments, by way of distinction from the modest apparel of
virtuous women; and various texts of Scripture lead to the supposition
that a similar custom prevailed among the Israelites. Some of them
acquired immense wealth; and, what is much more singular, they in some
instances enjoyed a degree of influence and consideration unattainable
by women of purer manners.
When Thebes was demolished by Alexander, Phryne agreed to rebuild the
entire walls at her own expense, if they would engrave on them this
inscription: “These walls were destroyed by Alexander, but raised again
by Phryne the courtesan.” Phryne had a statue of gold at Delphi, placed
between two kings. Theopompus, in his letter to Alexander, speaking of
a magnificent mausoleum near Athens, says: “This distinguished mark of
public respect a courtesan has received; while not one of all those who
perished in Asia, fighting for the general safety of Greece, has been
thought worthy to receive a similar honor.” Aspasia, first the mistress
and afterward the wife of Pericles, obtained unrivalled influence and
distinction. The most celebrated of the Athenian philosophers, orators,
and poets, delighted in her society, and statesmen consulted her in
political emergencies. They even carried their wives and daughters to
her house, that they might there study agreeable manners and graceful
deportment. This, together with the fact that Pericles made her his
wife, and to the day of his death retained such a strong affection for
her, that he never left her to go to the senate without bestowing a
parting kiss, seems to imply that she could not have been so shockingly
depraved as many writers have supposed. It is more probable that she
deserves to rank in the same class as the Gabrielles, and Pompadours
of modern times. The public and distinguished attention such women
received in Greece, was no doubt owing to the fact that they alone
dared to throw off the rigorous restraints imposed upon the sex, and
devote themselves to graceful accomplishments, seductive manners, and
agreeable learning. For this reason it was generally taken for granted
that women of very strong, well-cultivated minds were less scrupulous
about modesty, than those who lived in ignorance and seclusion. Sappho,
the celebrated poetess, has by no means descended to posterity with an
untarnished name. But a degree of injustice is no doubt done to her
memory, by understanding the fervent language of the Greeks as similar
epithets would be understood in the dialect of colder climes. Had
Sappho been the most profligate of woman-kind, she would not have been
likely to destroy herself for love of one individual. She was the first
woman who jumped from the famous promontory of Leucate, called the
Lover’s Leap. The superstition prevailed that those who could perform
this feat, and be taken up alive, would be cured of their passion.
Many ceremonies were performed by Grecian women in the temple of
Eleutho, who presided over the birth of children. During the hours of
illness it was customary to hold palm branches in their hands, and
invoke the favor of this goddess. The old laws of Athens expressly
forbade that women or slaves should practise physic; but one Agnodice,
having disguised herself in male attire, studied the art under a
skilful professor, and made the fact known to many of her own sex, who
gladly agreed to employ her in preference to all others. The jealousy
of the physicians led to a discovery of the plot, and Agnodice would
have been ruined, had not all the principal matrons of Athens appeared
in court and pleaded strongly in her favor. In consequence of their
entreaties, the old law was repealed, and women were allowed the
attendance of female physicians.
The Grecians generally wrapped infants in swaddling bands, lest their
tender limbs should become distorted. In Athens newly born babes were
covered with a cloth on which a gorgon’s head was embroidered, because
that was represented on the shield of Minerva, to whose care the child
was consigned. It was likewise customary to lay boys upon bucklers,
as a prognostic of future valor. Infants were often placed upon other
things bearing some resemblance to the sort of life for which they
were designed. It was common to put them in vans made to winnow corn,
and therefore considered as emblems of agricultural plenty. Sometimes
instead of a real van, an image of it was made of gold or silver.
Wealthy Athenians universally laid young infants upon dragons of gold,
in memory of one of their kings, who, when an unprotected babe, was
said to have been watched by dragons. When a child was five days old,
the nurse took it in her arms and ran round the hearth, thus putting it
under the protection of the household gods, to whom the hearth served
as an altar. This festival was celebrated with great joy. Friends
brought in their gifts, and partook of a feast, peculiar to the
occasion. If the child was a boy, the door was decorated with an olive
garland; if a girl, wool was a substitute for the olive, in token of
the spinning and weaving destined to occupy her maturer years. On the
tenth day, another entertainment was given, and the child received its
name, which was usually bestowed by the father. It was common to choose
the name of some illustrious or beloved ancestor; but names describing
personal and moral qualities were frequently given, such as _the ruddy
faced_, _the eagle-nosed_, _the ox-eyed_, _the gifted_, _the lover of
his brethren_, &c.
When the child was forty days old, another festival was kept, and the
mother offered sacrifices in Diana’s temple. Athenian nurses quieted
fretful babes with sponges dipped in honey.
It was common to expose children, especially females, on account of the
expense attending their settlement. Posidippus says:
‘A man, though poor, will not expose his son,
But if he’s rich, will scarce preserve his daughter.’
The children thus exposed were wrapped in swaddling bands, and placed
in a sort of ark, or basket. Sometimes jewels were attached to them, as
a means of discovery, if any person should find and nourish them; or,
as some have supposed, from the superstition that it was important for
the child to die with some of the parents’ property in its possession.
The Thebans disliked this cruel practice, and their laws made it a
capital offence. Those who were too poor to rear their children, were
ordered to carry them to the magistrates, who nourished them, and
afterwards received their services in payment.
The Grecians believed in the power of the _evil eye_, especially over
little children. It was generally attributed to one under the influence
of malice or envy; and they endeavored to protect an infant from its
baneful effects, by tying threads of various colors round the neck, and
touching its forehead and lips with spittle mixed with earth.
Filial respect and affection, the distinguishing virtue of olden times,
was in high repute among the Grecians. The story of the daughter who
nourished her imprisoned father with her own milk, is too well known
to need repetition. Alexander the Great having received a letter from
Antipater full of charges against Olympias, for her interference with
public affairs, the monarch read it, and said, “Antipater knows not
that one tear from a mother can blot out a thousand such complaints.”
Solon made a law that women should not join in the public funeral
solemnities even of their nearest relations, unless they were
threescore years old; but this law did not continue to be observed;
for gallants are described as falling in love with young women whom
they saw at funerals. It is supposed that men and women formed separate
portions of the procession; the former preceding the corpse, the latter
following it. Mourning women were employed to sing dirges, and bewail
the dead. They beat their breasts, disfigured their faces, and made
use of other violent demonstrations of grief. The female relatives of
the departed often joined in these excesses, altogether regardless of
the hideous scars produced thereby; but this practice was forbidden by
Solon. In many places it was the custom for women to shave their heads,
and spread their tresses over the corpse. They laid aside all ornaments
and rich attire, and wore black garments made of coarse materials.
Those who were joined by near relationship, or strong affection,
generally shared the same funeral urn. Thus Halcyone, whose husband
perished at sea, says:
“Though in one urn our ashes be not laid,
On the same marble shall our names be read;
In amorous folds the circling words shall join,
And show how much I loved--how you was only mine.”
A very beautiful _bas-relief_ found at Athens, represents a woman
seated, while a man with three little children seem bidding her an
affectionate farewell. It probably marked the sleeping-place of some
beloved wife and mother. At the funeral of a married woman, matrons
carried vases of water to pour upon her grave; girls performed this
office for maidens, and boys for young men. These processions of
water-bearers are often represented on ancient sepulchres. An owl, a
muzzle, and a pair of reins, were often carved on the tombs of women;
as emblems of watchfulness, silence, and careful superintendence of the
family.
It was not uncommon for widows to marry a second time; but those who
did otherwise were regarded with peculiar respect. Charondas excluded
from public councils those men who married a second wife, when they
already had children. “Those who do not consult the good of their own
family cannot advise well for the good of the country,” said he. “He
whose first marriage has been happy, ought to rest satisfied with his
share of good fortune; if unhappy, he is out of his senses to incur
another risk.”
In very early times the priestesses were allowed to marry; thus Homer
speaks of the beautiful Theano, wife of Antenor, who was unanimously
chosen priestess of Minerva. At later periods, all who were devoted to
the service of the temples were required to live unmarried.
The oracles of the gods were universally uttered by women. The most
celebrated was the Delphian oracle of Apollo. The priestess who uttered
the prophetic words was called Pythia, or Pythonissa. She was obliged
to observe the strictest rules of temperance and virtue, and to clothe
herself in simple, modest, and maidenly apparel. They neither anointed
nor wore purple garments, because such habits belonged to the rich and
luxurious. In early times the Pythia was chosen from young maidens; but
in consequence of a brutal insult offered to one of them, the selection
was ever after made from women more than fifty years old. Before the
prophetess ascended the tripus, where she was to receive inspiration,
she bathed herself, especially her hair, in the fountain of Castalia,
at the foot of Parnassus. When she seated herself upon the tripus, she
shook the laurel tree, that grew near it, and sometimes ate the leaves,
which were thought to contain some virtue favorable to prophecy. In
a short time she began to foam at the mouth, tear her hair, and cut
her flesh, like a maniac. The words she uttered during these paroxysms
were the oracles. The fits were more or less violent; sometimes
comparatively gentle. Plutarch speaks of one enraged to such a degree
that the terrified priests ran from her, and she died soon after. The
time of consulting the oracle was only one month, in the spring of the
year.
Women had their share in sacred festivals among the Greeks. In the
processions of the Panathenæa, in honor of Minerva, women clothed in
white carried torches and the sacred baskets. At the annual solemnity
in honor of Hyacinthus and Apollo, the Laconian women appeared in
magnificent covered chariots, and sometimes in open race-chariots.
At the processions in honor of Juno, her priestess, who was always a
matron of the highest rank, rode in a chariot drawn by white oxen.
Aristophanes describes the wife and daughter of a citizen as assisting
in the ceremonials of a rural sacrifice to Bacchus. The girl carried a
golden basket filled with fruit, and a ladle with which certain herbs
were poured over the sacred cakes. Her father followed, singing a hymn
to the god, while the mother, standing on the house-top, watched the
procession, and charged her daughter to conduct herself like a lady, as
she was, and to be cautious lest her golden ornaments were stolen in
the crowd.
One of the most ancient ceremonies among the Greek women was that of
bewailing annually, with dirges and loud cries, the death of Adonis.
Processions were formed, and images of Venus and Adonis carried aloft,
together with shells filled with earth, in which lettuces were growing.
This was done in commemoration of Adonis laid out by Venus on a bed of
lettuce.
In Attica, all girls not over ten or under five were consecrated to
the service of Diana, during a solemnity which took place once in five
years. On that occasion all female children of the proper age appeared
dressed in yellow robes, while victims were offered to the goddess, and
certain men sung one of Homer’s Iliads. No Athenian woman was allowed
to be married unless this ceremony had been performed.
The festival in honor of Ceres was observed with much solemnity at
Athens. None but free-born women were allowed to be present; and every
husband who received a portion of three talents with his wife, was
obliged to assist in defraying the expenses. The women were assisted
in the ceremonials by a priest, who wore a crown, and by certain
maidens, who were strictly secluded, kept under severe discipline,
and maintained at the public charge. The solemnity lasted four days.
All the women who aided in it were clothed in simple white garments,
without ornaments or flowers. Not the slightest immodesty or merriment
was permitted; but it was a custom to say jesting things to each other,
in memory of Jambe, who by a jest extorted a smile from Ceres, when
she was discouraged and melancholy. On one of the festival days, the
women walked in procession to Eleusis, carrying books on their heads,
in memory of Ceres, who was said to have first taught mankind the use
of laws; on this occasion it was against the law for any one to ride
in a chariot. There was likewise a mysterious sacrifice to Ceres, from
which all men were excluded; this was said to have been because in a
dangerous war, the prayers of women so prevailed with the gods, that
their enemies were driven away.
The custom of offering human beings as sacrifices to the gods was
regarded with great abhorrence by the primitive Greeks; but several
instances occurred in later times where captives taken in war were
devoted to this purpose. There is reason to suppose that the victims
were generally men; but there were exceptions to this remark. Bacchus
had an altar in Arcadia, upon which young damsels were beaten to death
with bundles of rods. Iphigenia, daughter of Agamemnon, was likewise
about to be sacrificed to Diana, because the soothsayer so decreed,
when the Greeks were kept back from the Trojan war by contrary winds;
and Macaria, the daughter of Hercules and Dejanira, voluntarily offered
herself as a victim, when the oracle declared that one of her father’s
family must die, to insure victory over their enemies. Great honors
were paid to the memory of this patriotic girl, and a fountain in
Marathon was called by her name.
The Athenian slaves were much protected by the laws. If a female slave
had cause to complain of any want of respect to the laws of modesty,
she could seek the protection of the temple, and demand a change of
owners; and such appeals were never discountenanced or neglected by the
magistrates.
The Milesian women being at one period much addicted to suicide, a
law was passed that all who died by their own hands should be exposed
to the public; and this effectually prevented an evil, which no other
means had been able to prevent.
The customs of Sparta differed in many respects from the rest of
Greece. When a match was decided upon, the mother, or nurse of the
bride, or some other woman who presided over the arrangements, shaved
the girl’s hair, dressed her in masculine attire, and left her alone in
an apartment at evening. The lover, in his every-day clothes, sought
an opportunity to enter by stealth, but took care to return to his own
abode before daylight, that his absence might not be detected by his
companions. In this manner only did custom allow them to visit their
wives, until they became mothers. Lycurgus passed a law forbidding
any dowry to be given to daughters, in order that marriage might take
place from motives of affection only. Marriage was much encouraged in
every part of Greece, and peculiarly so in Sparta. The age at which
both sexes might marry was prescribed by law, and any man who lived
without a wife beyond the limited time was liable to severe penalties.
Once every winter, they were compelled to run round the forum without
clothing, and sing a certain song, the words of which exposed them to
ridicule; they were not allowed to be present at the exercises where
beautiful young maidens contended; on a certain festival, the women
were allowed to drag them round an altar, beating them with their
fists; and young people were not required to treat them with the same
degree of respect that belonged to fathers of families.
Polygamy was not allowed, and divorces were extremely rare; but the
laws encouraged husbands to lend their wives when they thought proper.
Lycurgus reversed the Athenian custom, and allowed brother and sister
of the same mother to marry, while he forbade it if they both had
the same father. In Sparta there was a very ancient statue, called
Venus Juno, to which mothers offered sacrifice on the occasion of a
daughter’s marriage.
Damsels appeared abroad unveiled, but married women covered their
faces. Charilus, being asked the reason of this practice, replied,
“Girls wish to obtain husbands, and wives aim only at keeping those
they already have.” Lycurgus ordered that maidens should exercise
themselves with running, wrestling, throwing quoits, and casting darts,
with the view of making them healthy and vigorous; and for fear they
might have too much fastidiousness and refinement, he ordered them to
appear on these occasions without clothing. All the magistrates and
young men assembled to witness their performances, a part of which were
composed of dances and songs. These songs consisted of eulogiums upon
such men as had distinguished themselves by bravery, and satirical
allusions to those who had been cowardly or effeminate; and as they
were sung in hearing of the senate and people, no inconsiderable degree
of pride or shame was excited in those who were the subjects of them.