Kenya

Founding president and liberation struggle icon Jomo KENYATTA

led Kenya from independence until his death in 1978, when President

Daniel Toroitich arap MOI took power in a constitutional succession.

The country was a de facto one-party state from 1969 until 1982 when

the ruling Kenya African National Union (KANU) made itself the sole

legal party in Kenya. MOI acceded to internal and external pressure

for political liberalization in late 1991. The ethnically fractured

opposition failed to dislodge KANU from power in elections in 1992

and 1997, which were marred by violence and fraud, but are viewed as

having generally reflected the will of the Kenyan people. President

MOI stepped down in December of 2002 following fair and peaceful

elections. Mwai KIBAKI, running as the candidate of the multiethnic,

united opposition group, the National Rainbow Coalition, defeated

KANU candidate Uhuru KENYATTA and assumed the presidency following a

campaign centered on an anticorruption platform.

Kingman Reef

The US annexed the reef in 1922. Its sheltered lagoon

served as a way station for flying boats on Hawaii-to-American Samoa

flights during the late 1930s. There are no terrestrial plants on

the reef, which is frequently awash, but it does support abundant

and diverse marine fauna and flora. In 2001, the waters surrounding

the reef out to 12 NM around the reef were designated a US National

Wildlife Refuge.

Kiribati

The Gilbert Islands were granted self-rule by the UK in

1971 and complete independence in 1979 under the new name of

Kiribati. The US relinquished all claims to the sparsely inhabited

Phoenix and Line Island groups in a 1979 treaty of friendship with

Kiribati.

Korea, North

Following World War II, Korea was split, with the

northern half coming under Communist domination and the southern

portion becoming Western-oriented. KIM Chong-il has ruled North

Korea since his father and the country's founder, president KIM

Il-song, died in 1994. After decades of mismanagement, the North

relies heavily on international food aid to feed its population

while continuing to expend resources to maintain an army of about 1

million. North Korea's long-range missile development and research

into nuclear, chemical, and biological weapons and massive

conventional armed forces are of major concern to the international

community. In December 2002, North Korea repudiated a 1994 agreement

that shut down its nuclear reactors and expelled UN monitors,

further raising fears it would produce nuclear weapons.

Korea, South

After World War II, a republic was set up in the

southern half of the Korean Peninsula while a Communist-style

government was installed in the north. During the Korean War

(1950-1953), US and other UN forces intervened to defend South Korea

from North Korean attacks supported by the Chinese. An armistice was

signed in 1953, splitting the Peninsula along a demilitarized zone

at about the 38th parallel. Thereafter, South Korea achieved rapid

economic growth with per capita income rising to roughly 20 times

the level of North Korea. South Korea has maintained its commitment

to democratize its political processes. In June 2000, a historic

first North-South summit took place between the South's President

KIM Dae-jung and the North's leader KIM Chong-il.

Kuwait

Britain oversaw foreign relations and defense for the ruling

Kuwaiti AL-SABAH dynasty from 1899 until independence in 1961.

Kuwait was attacked and overrun by Iraq on 2 August 1990. Following

several weeks of aerial bombardment, a US-led, UN coalition began a

ground assault on 23 February 1991 that liberated Kuwait in four

days. Kuwait spent more than $5 billion to repair oil infrastructure

damaged during 1990-91.

Kyrgyzstan

A Central Asian country of incredible natural beauty and

proud nomadic traditions, Kyrgyzstan was annexed by Russia in 1864;

it achieved independence from the Soviet Union in 1991. Current

concerns include: privatization of state-owned enterprises,

expansion of democracy and political freedoms, interethnic

relations, and combating terrorism.

Laos

In 1975, the Communist Pathet Lao took control of the

government, ending a six-century-old monarchy. Initial closer ties

to Vietnam and socialization were replaced with a gradual return to

private enterprise, a liberalization of foreign investment laws, and

the admission into ASEAN in 1997.

Latvia

After a brief period of independence between the two World

Wars, Latvia was annexed by the USSR in 1940. It reestablished its

independence in 1991 following the breakup of the Soviet Union.

Although the last Russian troops left in 1994, the status of the

Russian minority (some 30% of the population) remains of concern to

Moscow. Latvia continues to revamp its economy for eventual

integration into various Western European political and economic

institutions and was invited to join NATO and the EU in 2002.

Lebanon

Lebanon has made progress toward rebuilding its political

institutions since 1991 and the end of the devastating 16-year civil

war. Under the Ta'if Accord - the blueprint for national

reconciliation - the Lebanese have established a more equitable

political system, particularly by giving Muslims a greater say in

the political process while institutionalizing sectarian divisions

in the government. Since the end of the war, the Lebanese have

conducted several successful elections, most of the militias have

been weakened or disbanded, and the Lebanese Armed Forces (LAF) have

extended central government authority over about two-thirds of the

country. Hizballah, the radical Shi'a party, retains its weapons.

Syria maintains about 16,000 troops in Lebanon, based mainly east of

Beirut and in the Bekaa Valley. Syria's troop deployment was

legitimized by the Arab League during Lebanon's civil war and in the

Ta'if Accord. Damascus justifies its continued military presence in

Lebanon by citing Beirut's requests and the failure of the Lebanese

Government to implement all of the constitutional reforms in the

Ta'if Accord. Israel's withdrawal from its security zone in southern

Lebanon in May 2000, however, has emboldened some Lebanese

Christians and Druze to demand that Syria withdraw its forces as

well.

Lesotho

Basutoland was renamed the Kingdom of Lesotho upon

independence from the UK in 1966. King MOSHOESHOE was exiled in

1990. Constitutional government was restored in 1993 after 23 years

of military rule. In 1998, violent protests and a military mutiny

following a contentious election prompted a brief but bloody South

African military intervention. Constitutional reforms have since

restored political stability; peaceful parliamentary elections were

held in 2002.

Liberia

Eight years of civil strife were brought to a close in 1997

when free and open presidential and legislative elections were held.

President TAYLOR now holds strong executive power with no real

political opposition. Years of fighting, coupled with the flight of

most businesses, have disrupted formal economic activity. A still

unsettled domestic security situation has slowed the process of

rebuilding the social and economic structure of this war-torn

country. In 2001, the UN imposed sanctions on Liberian diamonds,

along with an arms embargo and a travel ban on government officials,

for Liberia's support of the rebel insurgency in Sierra Leone.

Renewed rebel activity has further eroded stability and economic

activity. A regional peace initiative commenced in the spring of

2003 but was disrupted by the Special Court for Sierra Leone (SCSL)

indictment of President TAYLOR on war crimes charges.

Libya

Since he took power in a 1969 military coup, Col. Muammar Abu

Minyar al-QADHAFI has espoused his own political system - a

combination of socialism and Islam - which he calls the Third

International Theory. Viewing himself as a revolutionary leader, he

used oil funds during the 1970s and 1980s to promote his ideology

outside Libya, even supporting subversives and terrorists abroad to

hasten the end of Marxism and capitalism. Libyan military adventures

failed, e.g., the prolonged foray of Libyan troops into the Aozou

Strip in northern Chad was finally repulsed in 1987. Libyan support

for terrorism decreased after UN sanctions were imposed in 1992.

Those sanctions were suspended in April 1999.

Liechtenstein

The Principality of Liechtenstein was established

within the Holy Roman Empire in 1719; it became a sovereign state in

1806. Until the end of World War I, it was closely tied to Austria,

but the economic devastation caused by that conflict forced

Liechtenstein to enter into a customs and monetary union with

Switzerland. Since World War II (in which Liechtenstein remained

neutral), the country's low taxes have spurred outstanding economic

growth. However, shortcomings in banking regulatory oversight have

resulted in concerns about the use of the financial institutions for

money laundering.

Lithuania

Independent between the two World Wars, Lithuania was

annexed by the USSR in 1940. On 11 March 1990, Lithuania became the

first of the Soviet republics to declare its independence, but this

proclamation was not generally recognized until September of 1991

(following the abortive coup in Moscow). The last Russian troops

withdrew in 1993. Lithuania subsequently has restructured its

economy for eventual integration into Western European institutions

and was invited to join NATO and the EU in 2002.

Luxembourg

Founded in 963, Luxembourg became a grand duchy in 1815

and an independent state under the Netherlands. It lost more than

half of its territory to Belgium in 1839, but gained a larger

measure of autonomy. Full independence was attained in 1867. Overrun

by Germany in both World Wars, it ended its neutrality in 1948 when

it entered into the Benelux Customs Union and when it joined NATO

the following year. In 1957, Luxembourg became one of the six

founding countries of the European Economic Community (later the

European Union) and in 1999 it joined the euro currency area.

Macau

Colonized by the Portuguese in the 16th century, Macau was the

first European settlement in the Far East. Pursuant to an agreement

signed by China and Portugal on 13 April 1987, Macau became the

Macau Special Administrative Region (SAR) of China on 20 December

1999. China has promised that, under its "one country, two systems"

formula, China's socialist economic system will not be practiced in

Macau and that Macau will enjoy a high degree of autonomy in all

matters except foreign and defense affairs for the next 50 years.

Macedonia, The Former Yugoslav Republic of

International recognition

of The Former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia's (F.Y.R.O.M.)

independence from Yugoslavia in 1991 was delayed by Greece's

objection to the new state's use of what it considered a Hellenic

name and symbols. Greece finally lifted its trade blockade in 1995,

and the two countries agreed to normalize relations, despite

continued disagreement over F.Y.R.O.M.'s use of "Macedonia."

F.Y.R.O.M.'s large Albanian minority, an ethnic Albanian armed

insurgency in F.Y.R.O.M. in 2001, and the status of neighboring

Kosovo continue to be sources of ethnic tension.

Madagascar

Formerly an independent kingdom, Madagascar became a

French colony in 1886, but regained its independence in 1960. During

1992-93, free presidential and National Assembly elections were

held, ending 17 years of single-party rule. In 1997, in the second

presidential race, Didier RATSIRAKA, the leader during the 1970s and

1980s, was returned to the presidency. The 2001 presidential

election was contested between the followers of Didier RATSIRAKA and

Marc RAVALOMANANA, nearly causing secession of half of the country.

In April 2002, the High Constitutional Court announced RAVALOMANANA

the winner.

Malawi

Established in 1891, the British protectorate of Nyasaland

became the independent nation of Malawi in 1964. After three decades

of one-party rule, the country held multiparty elections in 1994

under a provisional constitution, which took full effect the

following year. National multiparty elections were held again in

1999.

Malaysia

Malaysia was formed in 1963 through a federation of the

former British colonies of Malaya and Singapore, including the East

Malaysian states of Sabah and Sarawak on the northern coast of

Borneo. The first several years of the country's history were marred

by Indonesian efforts to control Malaysia, Philippine claims to

Sabah, and Singapore's secession from the federation in 1965.

Maldives

The Maldives were long a sultanate, first under Dutch and

then under British protection. They became a republic in 1968, three

years after independence. Tourism and fishing are being developed on

the archipelago.

Mali

The Sudanese Republic and Senegal became independent of France

in 1960 as the Mali Federation. When Senegal withdrew after only a

few months, what formerly made up the Sudanese Republic was renamed

Mali. Rule by dictatorship was brought to a close in 1991 with a

transitional government and in 1992 when Mali's first democratic

presidential election was held. After his reelection in 1997,

President Alpha KONARE continued to push through political and

economic reforms and to fight corruption. In keeping with Mali's

two-term constitutional limit, he stepped down in 2002 and was

succeeded by Amadou TOURE.

Malta

Great Britain formally acquired possession of Malta in 1814.

The island staunchly supported the UK through both World Wars and

remained in the Commonwealth when it became independent in 1964. A

decade later Malta became a republic. Since about the mid-1980s, the

island has become a freight transshipment point, financial center,

and tourist destination. It is an official candidate for EU

membership.

Man, Isle of

Part of the Norwegian Kingdom of the Hebrides until the

13th century when it was ceded to Scotland, the isle came under the

British crown in 1765. Current concerns include reviving the almost

extinct Manx Celtic language.

Marshall Islands

After almost four decades under US administration

as the easternmost part of the UN Trust Territory of the Pacific

Islands, the Marshall Islands attained independence in 1986 under a

Compact of Free Association. Compensation claims continue as a

result of US nuclear testing on some of the atolls between 1947 and

1962. The Marshall Islands have been home to the US Army Base

Kwajalein (USAKA) since 1964.

Martinique

Colonized by France in 1635, the island has subsequently

remained a French possession except for three brief periods of

foreign occupation.

Mauritania

Independent from France in 1960, Mauritania annexed the

southern third of the former Spanish Sahara (now Western Sahara) in

1976, but relinquished it after three years of raids by the

Polisario guerrilla front seeking independence for the territory.

Opposition parties were legalized and a new constitution approved in

1991. Two multiparty presidential elections since then were widely

seen as flawed, but October 2001 legislative and municipal elections

were generally free and open. Mauritania remains, in reality, a

one-party state. The country continues to experience ethnic tensions

between its black minority population and the dominant Maur

(Arab-Berber) populace.

Mauritius

Discovered by the Portuguese in 1505, Mauritius was

subsequently held by the Dutch, French, and British before

independence was attained in 1968. A stable democracy with regular

free elections and a positive human rights record, the country has

attracted considerable foreign investment and has earned one of

Africa's highest per capita incomes. Recent poor weather and

declining sugar prices have slowed economic growth, leading to some

protests over standards of living in the Creole community.

Mayotte

Mayotte was ceded to France along with the other islands of

the Comoros group in 1843. It was the only island in the archipelago

that voted in 1974 to retain its link with France and forego

independence.

Mexico

The site of advanced Amerindian civilizations, Mexico came

under Spanish rule for three centuries before achieving independence

early in the 19th century. A devaluation of the peso in late 1994

threw Mexico into economic turmoil, triggering the worst recession

in over half a century. The nation continues to make an impressive

recovery. Ongoing economic and social concerns include low real

wages, underemployment for a large segment of the population,

inequitable income distribution, and few advancement opportunities

for the largely Amerindian population in the impoverished southern

states. Elections held in July 2000 marked the first time since the

1910 Mexican Revolution that the opposition defeated the party in

government, the Institutional Revolutionary Party (PRI). Vicente FOX

of the National Action Party (PAN) was sworn in on 1 December 2000

as the first chief executive elected in free and fair elections.

Micronesia, Federated States of

In 1979 the Federated States of

Micronesia, a UN Trust Territory under US administration, adopted a

constitution. In 1986 independence was attained under a Compact of

Free Association with the US. Present concerns include large-scale

unemployment, overfishing, and overdependence on US aid.

Midway Islands

The US took formal possession of the islands in 1867.

The laying of the trans-Pacific cable, which passed through the

islands, brought the first residents in 1903. Between 1935 and 1947,

Midway was used as a refueling stop for trans-Pacific flights. The

US naval victory over a Japanese fleet off Midway in 1942 was one of

the turning points of World War II. The islands continued to serve

as a naval station until closed in 1993. Today the islands are a

national wildlife refuge. From 1996 to 2001 the refuge was open to

the public. It is now temporarily closed.

Moldova

Formerly ruled by Romania, Moldova became part of the Soviet

Union at the close of World War II. Although independent from the

USSR since 1991, Russian forces have remained on Moldovan territory

east of the Dniester River supporting the Slavic majority

population, mostly Ukrainians and Russians, who have proclaimed a

"Transnistria" republic. One of the poorest nations in Europe,

Moldova became the first former Soviet state to elect a Communist as

its president in 2001.

Monaco

Economic development was spurred in the late 19th century

with a railroad linkup to France and the opening of a casino. Since

then, the principality's mild climate, splendid scenery, and

gambling facilities have made Monaco world famous as a tourist and

recreation center.

Mongolia

The Mongols gained fame in the 13th century when under

Genghis KHAN they conquered a huge Eurasian empire. After his death

the empire was divided into several powerful Mongol states, but

these broke apart in the 14th century. The Mongols eventually

retired to their original steppe homelands and came under Chinese

rule. Mongolia won its independence in 1921 with Soviet backing. A

Communist regime was installed in 1924. During the early 1990s, the

ex-Communist Mongolian People's Revolutionary Party (MPRP) gradually

yielded its monopoly on power to the Democratic Union Coalition

(DUC), which defeated the MPRP in a national election in 1996. Over

the next four years, the DUC put forward a number of key reforms to

modernize the economy and to democratize the political system. The

former Communists were a strong opposition that stalled additional

restructuring and made implementation difficult. In 2000, the MPRP

won an overwhelming victory in the legislature - with 72 of the 76

seats - and completely reshuffled the government. While it continues

many of the reform policies, the MPRP has focused on social welfare

and public order priorities.

Montserrat

Much of this island has been devastated and two-thirds of

the population has fled abroad due to the eruption of the Soufriere

Hills Volcano that began on 18 July 1995.

Morocco

Morocco's long struggle for independence from France ended

in 1956. The internationalized city of Tangier was turned over to

the new country that same year. Morocco virtually annexed Western

Sahara during the late 1970s, but final resolution on the status of

the territory remains unresolved. Gradual political reforms in the

1990s resulted in the establishment of a bicameral legislature in

1997.

Mozambique

Almost five centuries as a Portuguese colony came to a

close with independence in 1975. Large-scale emigration by whites,

economic dependence on South Africa, a severe drought, and a

prolonged civil war hindered the country's development. The ruling

party formally abandoned Marxism in 1989, and a new constitution the

following year provided for multiparty elections and a free market

economy. A UN-negotiated peace agreement with rebel forces ended the

fighting in 1992. Heavy flooding in both 1999 and 2000 severely hurt

the economy. Political stability and sound economic policies have

encouraged recent foreign investment.

Namibia

South Africa occupied the German colony of South-West Africa

during World War I and administered it as a mandate until after

World War II, when it annexed the territory. In 1966 the Marxist

South-West Africa People's Organization (SWAPO) guerrilla group

launched a war of independence for the area that was soon named

Namibia, but it was not until 1988 that South Africa agreed to end

its administration in accordance with a UN peace plan for the entire

region. Independence came in 1990 following multi-party elections

and the establishment of a constitution. President NUJOMA is

currently serving his third term as president.

Nauru

Nauru's phosphate deposits began to be mined early in the 20th

century by a German-British consortium; the island was occupied by

Australian forces in World War I. Nauru achieved independence in

1968 and joined the UN in 1999. Nauru is the world's smallest

independent republic.

Navassa Island

This uninhabited island was claimed by the US in 1857

for its guano, and mining took place between 1865 and 1898. The

lighthouse, built in 1917, was shut down in 1996 and administration

of Navassa Island transferred from the Coast Guard to the Department

of the Interior. A 1998 scientific expedition to the island

described it as a unique preserve of Caribbean biodiversity; the

following year it became a National Wildlife Refuge.

Nepal

In 1951, the Nepalese monarch ended the century-old system of

rule by hereditary premiers and instituted a cabinet system of

government. Reforms in 1990 established a multiparty democracy

within the framework of a constitutional monarchy. A Maoist

insurgency, launched in 1996, has gained traction and is threatening

to bring down the regime. In 2001, the Crown Prince massacred ten

members of the royal family, including the king and queen, and then

took his own life. In October 2002, the new king dismissed the prime

minister and his cabinet for "incompetence" after they dissolved the

parliament and were subsequently unable to hold elections because of

the ongoing insurgency. The country is now governed by the king and

his appointed cabinet, which has negotiated a cease-fire with the

Maoist insurgents, until elections can be held at some unspecified

future date.

Netherlands

The Kingdom of the Netherlands was formed in 1815. In

1830 Belgium seceded and formed a separate kingdom. The Netherlands

remained neutral in World War I, but suffered invasion and

occupation by Germany in World War II. A modern, industrialized

nation, the Netherlands is also a large exporter of agricultural

products. The country was a founding member of NATO and the EC (now

the EU), and participated in the introduction of the Economic and

Monetary Union (EMU) in 1999.

Netherlands Antilles

Once the center of the Caribbean slave trade,

the island of Curacao was hard hit by the abolition of slavery in

1863. Its prosperity (and that of neighboring Aruba) was restored in

the early 20th century with the construction of oil refineries to

service the newly discovered Venezuelan oil fields. The island of

Saint Martin is shared with France; its northern portion is named

Saint-Martin and is part of Guadeloupe, and its southern portion is

named Sint Maarten and is part of the Netherlands Antilles.

New Caledonia

Settled by both Britain and France during the first

half of the 19th century, the island was made a French possession in

1853. It served as a penal colony for four decades after 1864.

Agitation for independence during the 1980s and early 1990s seems to

have dissipated.

New Zealand

The Polynesian Maori reached New Zealand in about A.D.

800. In 1840, their chieftains entered into a compact with Britain,

the Treaty of Waitangi, in which they ceded sovereignty to Queen

Victoria while retaining territorial rights. In that same year, the

British began the first organized colonial settlement. A series of

land wars between 1843 and 1872 ended with the defeat of the native

peoples. The British colony of New Zealand became an independent

dominion in 1907 and supported the UK militarily in both World Wars.

New Zealand's full participation in a number of defense alliances

lapsed by the 1980s. In recent years, the government has sought to

address longstanding Maori grievances.

Nicaragua

The Pacific Coast of Nicaragua was settled as a Spanish

colony from Panama in the early 16th century. Independence from

Spain was declared in 1821 and the country became an independent

republic in 1838. Britain occupied the Caribbean Coast in the first

half of the 19th century, but gradually ceded control of the region

in subsequent decades. Violent opposition to governmental

manipulation and corruption spread to all classes by 1978 and

resulted in a short-lived civil war that brought the Marxist

Sandinista guerrillas to power in 1979. Nicaraguan aid to leftist

rebels in El Salvador caused the US to sponsor anti-Sandinista

contra guerrillas through much of the 1980s. Free elections in 1990,

1996, and again in 2001 saw the Sandinistas defeated. The country

has slowly rebuilt its economy during the 1990s, but was hard hit by

Hurricane Mitch in 1998.

Niger

Not until 1993, 33 years after independence from France, did

Niger hold it's first free and open elections. A 1995 peace accord

ended a five-year Tuareg insurgency in the north. Coups in 1996 and

1999 were followed by the creation of a National Reconciliation

Council that effected a transition to civilian rule by December 1999.

Nigeria

Following nearly 16 years of military rule, a new

constitution was adopted in 1999, and a peaceful transition to

civilian government was completed. The president faces the daunting

task of rebuilding a petroleum-based economy, whose revenues have

been squandered through corruption and mismanagement, and

institutionalizing democracy. In addition, the OBASANJO

administration must defuse longstanding ethnic and religious

tensions, if it is to build a sound foundation for economic growth

and political stability. Despite some irregularities the April 2003

elections marked the first civilian transfer of power in Nigeria's

history.

Niue

Niue's remoteness, as well as cultural and linguistic

differences between its Polynesian inhabitants and those of the rest

of the Cook Islands, have caused it to be separately administered.

The population of the island continues to drop (from a peak of 5,200

in 1966 to about 2,100 in 2002), with substantial emigration to New

Zealand, 2,400 km to the southwest.

Norfolk Island

Two British attempts at establishing the island as a

penal colony (1788-1814 and 1825-55) were ultimately abandoned. In

1856, the island was resettled by Pitcairn Islanders, descendants of

the Bounty mutineers and their Tahitian companions.

Northern Mariana Islands

Under US administration as part of the UN

Trust Territory of the Pacific, the people of the Northern Mariana

Islands decided in the 1970s not to seek independence but instead to

forge closer links with the US. Negotiations for territorial status

began in 1972. A covenant to establish a commonwealth in political

union with the US was approved in 1975. A new government and

constitution went into effect in 1978.

Norway

Two centuries of Viking raids into Europe tapered off

following the adoption of Christianity by King Olav TRYGGVASON in

994. Conversion of the Norwegian kingdom occurred over the next

several decades. In 1397, Norway was absorbed into a union with

Denmark that was to last for more than four centuries. In 1814,

Norwegians resisted the cession of their country to Sweden and

adopted a new constitution. Sweden then invaded Norway but agreed to

let Norway keep its constitution in return for accepting the union

under a Swedish king. Rising nationalism throughout the 19th century

led to a 1905 referendum granting Norway independence. Norway

remained neutral in World War I and proclaimed its neutrality at the

outset of World War II. Nevertheless, it was not able to avoid a

five-year occupation by Nazi Germany (1940-1945). In 1949,

neutrality was abandoned and Norway became a member of NATO.

Discovery of oil and gas in adjacent waters in the late 1960s

boosted Norway's economic fortunes. The current focus is on

containing spending on the extensive welfare system and planning for

the time when petroleum reserves are depleted. In referenda held in

1972 and 1994, Norway rejected joining the EU.

Oman

In 1970, QABOOS bin Said Al Said ousted his father and has

ruled as sultan ever since. His extensive modernization program has

opened the country to the outside world and has preserved a

long-standing political and military relationship with the UK.

Oman's moderate, independent foreign policy has sought to maintain

good relations with all Middle Eastern countries.

Pacific Ocean

The Pacific Ocean is the largest of the world's five

oceans (followed by the Atlantic Ocean, Indian Ocean, Southern

Ocean, and Arctic Ocean). Strategically important access waterways

include the La Perouse, Tsugaru, Tsushima, Taiwan, Singapore, and

Torres Straits. The decision by the International Hydrographic

Organization in the spring of 2000 to delimit a fifth ocean, the

Southern Ocean, removed the portion of the Pacific Ocean south of 60

degrees south.

Pakistan

The separation in 1947 of British India into the Muslim

state of Pakistan (with two sections West and East) and largely

Hindu India was never satisfactorily resolved. A third war between

these countries in 1971 resulted in East Pakistan seceding and

becoming the separate nation of Bangladesh. A dispute over the state

of Kashmir is ongoing. In response to Indian nuclear weapons

testing, Pakistan conducted its own tests in 1998.

Palau

After three decades as part of the UN Trust Territory of the

Pacific under US administration, this westernmost cluster of the

Caroline Islands opted for independence in 1978 rather than join the

Federated States of Micronesia. A Compact of Free Association with

the US was approved in 1986, but not ratified until 1993. It entered

into force the following year, when the islands gained independence.

Palmyra Atoll

The Kingdom of Hawaii claimed the atoll in 1862, and

the US included it among the Hawaiian Islands when it annexed the

archipelago in 1898. The Hawaii Statehood Act of 1959 did not

include Palmyra Atoll, which is now privately owned by the Nature

Conservancy. This organization is managing the atoll as a nature

preserve. The lagoons and surrounding waters within the 12 nautical

mile US territorial seas were transferred to the US Fish and

Wildlife Service and were designated a National Wildlife Refuge in

January 2001.

Panama

With US backing, Panama seceded from Colombia in 1903 and

promptly signed a treaty with the US allowing for the construction

of a canal and US sovereignty over a strip of land on either side of

the structure (the Panama Canal Zone). The Panama Canal was built by

the US Army Corps of Engineers between 1904 and 1914. On 7 September

1977, an agreement was signed for the complete transfer of the Canal

from the US to Panama by the end of 1999. Certain portions of the

Zone and increasing responsibility over the Canal were turned over

in the intervening years. With US help, dictator Manuel NORIEGA was

deposed in 1989. The entire Panama Canal, the area supporting the

Canal, and remaining US military bases were turned over to Panama by

or on 31 December 1999.

Papua New Guinea

The eastern half of the island of New Guinea -

second largest in the world - was divided between Germany (north)

and the UK (south) in 1885. The latter area was transferred to

Australia in 1902, which occupied the northern portion during World

War I and continued to administer the combined areas until

independence in 1975. A nine-year secessionist revolt on the island

of Bougainville ended in 1997, after claiming some 20,000 lives.

Paracel Islands

The Paracel Islands are surrounded by productive

fishing grounds and by potential oil and gas reserves. In 1932,

French Indochina annexed the islands and set up a weather station on

Pattle Island; maintenance was continued by its successor, Vietnam.

China has occupied the Paracel Islands since 1974, when its troops

seized a South Vietnamese garrison occupying the western islands.

The islands are claimed by Taiwan and Vietnam.

Paraguay

In the disastrous War of the Triple Alliance (1865-70),

Paraguay lost two-thirds of all adult males and much of its

territory. It stagnated economically for the next half century. In

the Chaco War of 1932-35, large, economically important areas were

won from Bolivia. The 35-year military dictatorship of Alfredo

STROESSNER was overthrown in 1989, and, despite a marked increase in

political infighting in recent years, relatively free and regular

presidential elections have been held since then.

Peru

Ancient Peru was the seat of several prominent Andean

civilizations, most notably that of the Incas whose empire was

captured by the Spanish conquistadores in 1533. Peruvian

independence was declared in 1821, and remaining Spanish forces

defeated in 1824. After a dozen years of military rule, Peru

returned to democratic leadership in 1980, but experienced economic

problems and the growth of a violent insurgency. President Alberto

FUJIMORI's election in 1990 ushered in a decade that saw a dramatic

turnaround in the economy and significant progress in curtailing

guerrilla activity. Nevertheless, the president's increasing

reliance on authoritarian measures and an economic slump in the late

1990s generated mounting dissatisfaction with his regime. FUJIMORI

won reelection to a third term in the spring of 2000, but

international pressure and corruption scandals led to his ouster by

Congress in November of that year. A caretaker government oversaw

new elections in the spring of 2001, which ushered in Alejandro

TOLEDO as the new head of government.

Philippines

The Philippines were ceded by Spain to the US in 1898

following the Spanish-American War. They attained independence in

1946 after Japanese occupation in World War II. The 21-year rule of

Ferdinand MARCOS ended in 1986, when a widespread popular rebellion

forced him into exile. In 1992, the US closed its last military

bases on the islands. The Philippines has had two electoral

presidential transitions since the removal of MARCOS. In January

2001, the Supreme Court declared Joseph ESTRADA unable to rule in

view of mass resignations from his government and administered the

oath of office to Vice President Gloria MACAPAGAL-ARROYO as his

constitutional successor. The government continues to struggle with

Muslim insurgencies in the south.

Pitcairn Islands

Pitcairn Island was discovered in 1767 by the

British and settled in 1790 by the Bounty mutineers and their

Tahitian companions. Pitcairn was the first Pacific island to become

a British colony (in 1838) and today remains the last vestige of

that empire in the South Pacific. Outmigration, primarily to New

Zealand, has thinned the population from a peak of 233 in 1937 to

less than 50 today.

Poland

Poland is an ancient nation that was conceived around the

middle of the 10th century. Its golden age occurred in the 16th

century. During the following century, the strengthening of the

gentry and internal disorders weakened the nation, until an

agreement in 1772 between Russia, Prussia, and Austria partitioned

Poland. Poland regained its independence in 1918 only to be overrun

by Germany and the Soviet Union in World War II. It became a Soviet

satellite state following the war, but its government was

comparatively tolerant and progressive. Labor turmoil in 1980 led to

the formation of the independent trade union "Solidarity" that over

time became a political force and by 1990 had swept parliamentary

elections and the presidency. A "shock therapy" program during the

early 1990s enabled the country to transform its economy into one of

the most robust in Central Europe, but Poland currently suffers low

GDP growth and high unemployment. Solidarity suffered a major defeat

in the 2001 parliamentary elections when it failed to elect a single

deputy to the lower house of Parliament, and the new leaders of the

Solidarity Trade Union subsequently pledged to reduce the Trade

Union's political role. Poland joined NATO in 1999 and is scheduled

to accede to the European Union along with nine other states on 1

May 2004.

Portugal

Following its heyday as a world power during the 15th and

16th centuries, Portugal lost much of its wealth and status with the

destruction of Lisbon in a 1755 earthquake, occupation during the

Napoleonic Wars, and the independence in 1822 of Brazil as a colony.

A 1910 revolution deposed the monarchy; for most of the next six

decades, repressive governments ran the country. In 1974, a

left-wing military coup installed broad democratic reforms. The

following year, Portugal granted independence to all of its African

colonies. Portugal entered the EC (now the EU) in 1986.

Puerto Rico

Populated for centuries by aboriginal peoples, the

island was claimed by the Spanish Crown in 1493 following Columbus'

second voyage to the Americas. In 1898, after 400 years of colonial

rule that saw the indigenous population nearly exterminated and

African slave labor introduced, Puerto Rico was ceded to the US as a

result of the Spanish-American War. Puerto Ricans were granted US

citizenship in 1917 and popularly elected governors have served

since 1948. In 1952, a constitution was enacted providing for

internal self-government. In plebiscites held in 1967, 1993, and

1998 voters chose to retain commonwealth status.

Qatar

Ruled by the Al Thani family since the mid-1800s, Qatar

transformed itself from a poor British protectorate noted mainly for

pearling into an independent state with significant oil and natural

gas revenues. During the late 1980s and early 1990s, the Qatari

economy was crippled by a continuous siphoning off of petroleum

revenues by the amir, who had ruled the country since 1972. He was

overthrown by his son, the current Amir HAMAD bin Khalifa Al Thani,

in a bloodless coup in 1995. In 2001, Qatar resolved its

longstanding border disputes with both Bahrain and Saudi Arabia. Oil

and natural gas revenues enable Qatar to have a per capita income

not far below the leading industrial countries of Western Europe.

Reunion

The Portuguese discovered the uninhabited island in 1513.

From the 17th to the 19th centuries, French immigration,

supplemented by influxes of Africans, Chinese, Malays, and Malabar

Indians, gave the island its ethnic mix. The opening of the Suez

Canal in 1869 cost the island its importance as a stopover on the

East Indies trade route.

Romania

Soviet occupation following World War II led to the

formation of a Communist "peoples republic" in 1947 and the

abdication of the king. The decades-long rule of dictator Nicolae

CEAUSESCU, who took power in 1965, and his Securitate police state

became increasingly oppressive and draconian through the 1980s.

CEAUSESCU was overthrown and executed in late 1989. Former

Communists dominated the government until 1996, when they were swept

from power by a fractious coalition of centrist parties. Currently,

the Social Democratic Party forms a nominally minority government,

which governs with the support of the opposition Democratic Union of

Hungarians in Romania. Bucharest must address rampant corruption,

while invigorating lagging economic and democratic reforms, before

Romania can achieve its hope of joining the European Union.

Russia

Repeated devastating defeats of the Russian army in World War

I led to widespread rioting in the major cities of the Russian

Empire and to the overthrow in 1917 of the 300-year old Romanov

Dynasty. The Communists under Vladimir LENIN seized power soon after

and formed the USSR. The brutal rule of Josef STALIN (1928-53)

strengthened Russian dominance of the Soviet Union at a cost of tens

of millions of lives. The Soviet economy and society stagnated in

the following decades until General Secretary Mikhail GORBACHEV

(1985-91) introduced glasnost (openness) and perestroika

(restructuring) in an attempt to modernize Communism, but his

initiatives inadvertently released forces that by December 1991

splintered the USSR into 15 independent republics. Since then,

Russia has struggled in its efforts to build a democratic political

system and market economy to replace the strict social, political,

and economic controls of the Communist period. A determined

guerrilla conflict still plagues Russia in Chechnya.

Rwanda

In 1959, three years before independence from Belgium, the

majority ethnic group, the Hutus, overthrew the ruling Tutsi king.

Over the next several years, thousands of Tutsis were killed, and

some 150,000 driven into exile in neighboring countries. The

children of these exiles later formed a rebel group, the Rwandan

Patriotic Front, and began a civil war in 1990. The war, along with

several political and economic upheavals, exacerbated ethnic

tensions, culminating in April 1994 in the genocide of roughly

800,000 Tutsis and moderate Hutus. The Tutsi rebels defeated the

Hutu regime and ended the killing in July 1994, but approximately 2

million Hutu refugees - many fearing Tutsi retribution - fled to

neighboring Burundi, Tanzania, Uganda, and Zaire. Since then, most

of the refugees have returned to Rwanda. Despite substantial

international assistance and political reforms - including Rwanda's

first local elections in March 1999 - the country continues to

struggle to boost investment and agricultural output and to foster

reconciliation. A series of massive population displacements, a

nagging Hutu extremist insurgency, and Rwandan involvement in two

wars over the past four years in the neighboring DROC continue to

hinder Rwanda's efforts.

Saint Helena

Uninhabited when first discovered by the Portuguese in

1502, Saint Helena was garrisoned by the British during the 17th

century. It acquired fame as the place of Napoleon BONAPARTE's

exile, from 1815 until his death in 1821, but its importance as a

port of call declined after the opening of the Suez Canal in 1869.

Ascension Island is the site of a US Air Force auxiliary airfield;

Gough Island has a meteorological station.

Saint Kitts and Nevis

First settled by the British in 1623, the

islands became an associated state with full internal autonomy in

1967. The island of Anguilla rebelled and was allowed to secede in

1971. Saint Kitts and Nevis achieved independence in 1983. In 1998,

a vote in Nevis on a referendum to separate from Saint Kitts fell

short of the two-thirds majority needed.

Saint Lucia

The island, with its fine natural harbor at Castries,

was contested between England and France throughout the 17th and

early 18th centuries (changing possession 14 times); it was finally

ceded to the UK in 1814. Self-government was granted in 1967 and

independence in 1979.

Saint Pierre and Miquelon

First settled by the French in the early

17th century, the islands represent the sole remaining vestige of

France's once vast North American possessions.

Saint Vincent and the Grenadines

Disputed between France and the

United Kingdom in the 18th century, Saint Vincent was ceded to the

latter in 1783. Autonomy was granted in 1969 and independence in

1979.

Samoa

New Zealand occupied the German protectorate of Western Samoa

at the outbreak of World War I in 1914. It continued to administer

the islands as a mandate and then as a trust territory until 1962,

when the islands became the first Polynesian nation to reestablish

independence in the 20th century. The country dropped the "Western"

from its name in 1997.

San Marino

The third smallest state in Europe (after the Holy See

and Monaco) also claims to be the world's oldest republic. According

to tradition, it was founded by a Christian stonemason named Marinus

in 301 A.D. San Marino's foreign policy is aligned with that of

Italy. Social and political trends in the republic also track

closely with those of its larger neighbor.

Sao Tome and Principe

Discovered and claimed by Portugal in the late

15th century, the islands' sugar-based economy gave way to coffee

and cocoa in the 19th century - all grown with plantation slave

labor, a form of which lingered into the 20th century. Although

independence was achieved in 1975, democratic reforms were not

instituted until the late 1980s. Though the first free elections

were held in 1991, the political environment has been one of

continued instability with frequent changes in leadership and coup

attempts in 1995 and 2003. The recent discovery of oil in the Gulf

of Guinea is likely to have a significant impact on the country's

economy.

Saudi Arabia

In 1902, ABD AL-AZIZ bin Abd al-Rahman Al Saud captured

Riyadh and set out on a 30-year campaign to unify the Arabian

Peninsula. In the 1930s, the discovery of oil transformed the

country. Following Iraq's invasion of Kuwait in 1990, Saudi Arabia

accepted the Kuwaiti royal family and 400,000 refugees while

allowing Western and Arab troops to deploy on its soil for the

liberation of Kuwait the following year. A burgeoning population,

aquifer depletion, and an economy largely dependent on petroleum

output and prices are all major governmental concerns.

Senegal

Independent from France in 1960, Senegal joined with The

Gambia to form the nominal confederation of Senegambia in 1982.

However, the envisaged integration of the two countries was never

carried out, and the union was dissolved in 1989. Despite peace

talks, a southern separatist group sporadically has clashed with

government forces since 1982. Senegal has a long history of

participating in international peacekeeping.

Serbia and Montenegro

The Kingdom of Serbs, Croats, and Slovenes was

formed in 1918; its name was changed to Yugoslavia in 1929.

Occupation by Nazi Germany in 1941 was resisted by various

paramilitary bands that fought themselves as well as the invaders.

The group headed by Marshal TITO took full control upon German

expulsion in 1945. Although Communist, his new government

successfully steered its own path between the Warsaw Pact nations

and the West for the next four and a half decades. In the early

1990s, post-TITO Yugoslavia began to unravel along ethnic lines:

Slovenia, Croatia, and The Former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia all

declared their independence in 1991; Bosnia and Herzegovina in 1992.

The remaining republics of Serbia and Montenegro declared a new

"Federal Republic of Yugoslavia" (FRY) in 1992 and, under President

Slobodan MILOSEVIC, Serbia led various military intervention efforts

to unite Serbs in neighboring republics into a "Greater Serbia." All

of these efforts were ultimately unsuccessful. In 1999, massive

expulsions by FRY forces and Serb paramilitaries of ethnic Albanians

living in Kosovo provoked an international response, including the

NATO bombing of Serbia and the stationing of NATO, Russian, and

other peacekeepers in Kosovo. Federal elections in the fall of 2000,

brought about the ouster of MILOSEVIC and installed Vojislav

KOSTUNICA as president. The arrest of MILOSEVIC in 2001 allowed for

his subsequent transfer to the International Criminal Tribunal for

the Former Yugoslavia in The Hague to be tried for crimes against

humanity. In 2001, the country's suspension was lifted, and it was

once more accepted into UN organizations under the name of

Yugoslavia. Kosovo has been governed by the UN Interim

Administration Mission in Kosovo (UNMIK) since June 1999, under the

authority of UN Security Council Resolution 1244. In 2002, the

Serbian and Montenegrin components of Yugoslavia began negotiations

to forge a looser relationship. These talks became a reality in

February 2003 when lawmakers restructured the country into a loose

federation of two republics called Serbia and Montenegro. An

agreement was also reached to hold a referendum in each republic in

three years on full independence.

Seychelles

A lengthy struggle between France and Great Britain for

the islands ended in 1814, when they were ceded to the latter.

Independence came in 1976. Socialist rule was brought to a close

with a new constitution and free elections in 1993. The most recent

presidential elections were held 31 August-2 September 2001.

President RENE, who has served since 1977, was re-elected.

Sierra Leone

Since 1991, civil war between the government and the

Revolutionary United Front (RUF) has resulted in tens of thousands

of deaths and the displacement of more than 2 million people (well

over one-third of the population), many of whom are now refugees in

neighboring countries. After several setbacks, the end to the

11-year conflict in Sierra Leone may finally be near at hand. With

the support of the UN peacekeeping force and contributions from the

World Bank and international community, demobilization and

disarmament of the RUF and Civil Defense Forces (CDF) combatants has

been completed. National elections were held in May 2002 and the

government continues to slowly reestablish its authority.

Singapore

Singapore was founded as a British trading colony in 1819.

It joined the Malaysian Federation in 1963 but separated two years

later and became independent. It subsequently became one of the

world's most prosperous countries with strong international trading

links (its port is one of the world's busiest) and with per capita

GDP equal to that of the leading nations of Western Europe.

Slovakia

In 1918 the Slovaks joined the closely related Czechs to

form Czechoslovakia. Following the chaos of World War II,

Czechoslovakia became a Communist nation within Soviet-ruled Eastern

Europe. Soviet influence collapsed in 1989 and Czechoslovakia once

more became free. The Slovaks and the Czechs agreed to separate

peacefully on 1 January 1993. Slovakia was invited to join NATO and

the EU in 2002.

Slovenia

The Slovene lands were part of the Holy Roman Empire and

Austria until 1918 when the Slovenes joined the Serbs and Croats in

forming a new nation, renamed Yugoslavia in 1929. After World War

II, Slovenia became a republic of the renewed Yugoslavia, which

though Communist, distanced itself from Moscow's rule. Dissatisfied

with the exercise of power of the majority Serbs, the Slovenes

succeeded in establishing their independence in 1991 after a short

10-day war. Historical ties to Western Europe, a strong economy, and

a stable democracy have assisted in Slovenia's transformation to a

modern state. In December 2002, Slovenia received an invitation to

join NATO, and it is scheduled to accede to the EU along with nine

other states on 1 May 2004. In a March 2003 referendum on NATO and

EU membership, Slovenes voted 90% in favor of joining the EU and 66%

in favor of joining NATO.

Solomon Islands

The UK established a protectorate over the Solomon

Islands in the 1890s. Some of the bitterest fighting of World War II

occurred on these islands. Self-government was achieved in 1976 and

independence two years later. Ethnic violence, government

malfeasance, and endemic crime have undermined stability and civil

society.

Somalia

The SIAD BARRE regime was ousted in January 1991; turmoil,

factional fighting, and anarchy have followed for twelve years. In

May of 1991, northern clans declared an independent Republic of

Somaliland that now includes the administrative regions of Awdal,

Woqooyi Galbeed, Togdheer, Sanaag, and Sool. Although not recognized

by any government, this entity has maintained a stable existence,

aided by the overwhelming dominance of a ruling clan and economic

infrastructure left behind by British, Russian, and American

military assistance programs. The regions of Bari and Nugaal and

northern Mudug comprise a neighboring self-declared autonomous state

of Puntland, which has been self-governing since 1998, but does not

aim at independence; it has also made strides towards reconstructing

a legitimate, representative government, but has suffered civil

strife in 2002. Puntland disputes its border with Somaliland as it

also claims portions of eastern Sool and Sanaag. Beginning in 1993,

a two-year UN humanitarian effort (primarily in the south) was able

to alleviate famine conditions, but when the UN withdrew in 1995,

having suffered significant casualties, order still had not been

restored. The mandate of the Transitional National Government (TNG),

created in August 2000 in Arta, Djibouti, expires in August 2003 and

a new interim government was being created at peace talks held in

Kenya. Numerous warlords and factions are still fighting for control

of Mogadishu and the other southern regions. Suspicion of Somali

links with global terrorism further complicates the picture.

South Africa

After the British seized the Cape of Good Hope area in

1806, many of the Dutch settlers (the Boers) trekked north to found

their own republics. The discovery of diamonds (1867) and gold

(1886) spurred wealth and immigration and intensified the

subjugation of the native inhabitants. The Boers resisted British

encroachments, but were defeated in the Boer War (1899-1902). The

resulting Union of South Africa operated under a policy of apartheid

- the separate development of the races. The 1990s brought an end to

apartheid politically and ushered in black majority rule.

South Georgia and the South Sandwich Islands

The islands lie

approximately 1,000 km east of the Falkland Islands and have been

under British administration since 1908, except for a brief period

in 1982 when Argentina occupied them. Grytviken, on South Georgia,

was a 19th and early 20th century whaling station. Famed explorer

Ernest SHACKLETON stopped there in 1914 en route to his ill-fated

attempt to cross Antarctica on foot. He returned some 20 months

later with a few companions in a small boat and arranged a

successful rescue for the rest of his crew, stranded off the

Antarctic Peninsula. He died in 1922 on a subsequent expedition and

is buried in Grytviken. Today, the station houses scientists from

the British Antarctic Survey. The islands have large bird and seal

populations, and, recognizing the importance of preserving the

marine stocks in adjacent waters, the UK, in 1993, extended the

exclusive fishing zone from 12 NM to 200 NM around each island.

Southern Ocean

A decision by the International Hydrographic

Organization in the spring of 2000 delimited a fifth world ocean -

the Southern Ocean - from the southern portions of the Atlantic

Ocean, Indian Ocean, and Pacific Ocean. The Southern Ocean extends

from the coast of Antarctica north to 60 degrees south latitude,

which coincides with the Antarctic Treaty Limit. The Southern Ocean

is now the fourth largest of the world's five oceans (after the

Pacific Ocean, Atlantic Ocean, and Indian Ocean, but larger than the

Arctic Ocean).

Spain

Spain's powerful world empire of the 16th and 17th centuries

ultimately yielded command of the seas to England. Subsequent

failure to embrace the mercantile and industrial revolutions caused

the country to fall behind Britain, France, and Germany in economic

and political power. Spain remained neutral in World Wars I and II,

but suffered through a devastating civil war (1936-39). In the

second half of the 20th century, Spain has played a catch-up role in

the western international community; it joined the EU in 1986.

Continuing concerns are Basque Fatherland and Liberty (ETA)

terrorism and further reductions in unemployment.

Spratly Islands

The Spratly Islands consist of more than 100 small

islands or reefs. They are surrounded by rich fishing grounds and

potentially by gas and oil deposits. They are claimed in their

entirety by China, Taiwan, and Vietnam, while portions are claimed

by Malaysia and the Philippines. About 50 islands are occupied by

China (about 450 soldiers), Malaysia (70-90), the Philippines (about

100), and Vietnam (about 1,500). Brunei is a claimant but has no

outposts. (2002)

Sri Lanka

The Sinhalese arrived in Sri Lanka late in the 6th century

B.C., probably from northern India. Buddhism was introduced

beginning in about the mid-third century B.C., and a great

civilization developed at the cities of Anuradhapura (kingdom from

circa 200 B.C. to circa 1000 A.D.) and Polonnaruwa (from about 1070

to 1200). In the 14th century, a south Indian dynasty seized power

in the north and established a Tamil kingdom. Occupied by the

Portuguese in the 16th century and by the Dutch in the 17th century,

the island was ceded to the British in 1796, became a crown colony

in 1802, and was united under British rule by 1815. As Ceylon, it

became independent in 1948; its name was changed to Sri Lanka in

1972. Tensions between the Sinhalese majority and Tamil separatists

erupted in violence in the mid-1980s. Tens of thousands have died in

an ethnic war that continues to fester. After two decades of

fighting, the government and Liberation Tigers of Tamil Eelam began

a ceasefire in December 2001, with Norway brokering peace

negotiations.

Sudan

Military regimes favoring Islamic-oriented governments have

dominated national politics since independence from the UK in 1956.

Sudan has been embroiled in a civil war for all but 10 years of this

period (1972-82). The wars are rooted in northern economic,

political, and social domination of non-Muslim, non-Arab southern

Sudanese. Since 1983, the war and war- and famine-related effects

have led to more than 2 million deaths and over 4 million people

displaced. The ruling regime is a mixture of military elite and an

Islamist party that came to power in a 1989 coup. Some northern

opposition parties have made common cause with the southern rebels

and entered the war as a part of an anti-government alliance. Peace

talks gained momentum in 2002-03 with the signing of several

accords, including a cease-fire agreement.

Suriname

Independence from the Netherlands was granted in 1975. Five

years later the civilian government was replaced by a military

regime that soon declared a socialist republic. It continued to rule

through a succession of nominally civilian administrations until

1987, when international pressure finally forced a democratic

election. In 1989, the military overthrew the civilian government,

but a democratically-elected government returned to power in 1991.

Svalbard

First discovered by the Norwegians in the 12th century, the

islands served as an international whaling base during the 17th and

18th centuries. Norway's sovereignty was recognized in 1920; five

years later it officially took over the territory.

Swaziland

Autonomy for the Swazis of southern Africa was guaranteed

by the British in the late 19th century; independence was granted

1968. Student and labor unrest during the 1990s have pressured the

monarchy (one of the oldest on the continent) to grudgingly allow

political reform and greater democracy.

Sweden

A military power during the 17th century, Sweden has not

participated in any war in almost two centuries. An armed neutrality

was preserved in both World Wars. Sweden's long-successful economic

formula of a capitalist system interlarded with substantial welfare

elements was challenged in the 1990s by high unemployment, rising

maintenance costs, and a declining position in world markets.

Indecision over the country's role in the political and economic

integration of Europe delayed Sweden's entry into the EU until 1995,

and waived the introduction of the euro in 1999.

Switzerland

Switzerland's independence and neutrality have long been

honored by the major European powers, and Switzerland was not

involved in either of the two World Wars. The political and economic

integration of Europe over the past half century, as well as

Switzerland's role in many UN and international organizations, has

strengthened Switzerland's ties with its neighbors. However, the

country did not officially become a UN member until 2002.

Switzerland remains active in many UN and international

organizations, but retains a strong commitment to neutrality.

Syria

Following the breakup of the Ottoman Empire during World War

I, Syria was administered by the French until independence in 1946.

In the 1967 Arab-Israeli War, Syria lost the Golan Heights to

Israel. Since 1976, Syrian troops have been stationed in Lebanon,

ostensibly in a peacekeeping capacity. In recent years, Syria and

Israel have held occasional peace talks over the return of the Golan

Heights.

Taiwan

In 1895, military defeat forced China to cede Taiwan to

Japan. It reverted to Chinese control after World War II. Following

the Communist victory on the mainland in 1949, 2 million

Nationalists fled to Taiwan and established a government using the

1947 constitution drawn up for all of China. Over the next five

decades, the ruling authorities gradually democratized and

incorporated the native population within the governing structure.

In 2000, Taiwan underwent its first peaceful transfer of power from

the Nationalist to the Democratic Progressive Party. Throughout this

period, the island prospered and became one of East Asia's economic

"Tigers." The dominant political issues continue to be the

relationship between Taiwan and China - specifically the question of

eventual unification - as well as domestic political and economic

reform.

Tajikistan

Tajikistan has experienced three changes in government

and a five-year civil war since it gained independence in 1991 from

the USSR. A peace agreement among rival factions was signed in 1997,

and implemented in 2000. The central government's less than total

control over some areas of the country has forced it to compromise

and forge alliances among factions. Attention by the international

community in the wake of the war in Afghanistan has brought

increased economic development assistance, which could create jobs

and increase stability in the long term. Tajikistan is in the early

stages of seeking World Trade Organization membership and has joined

NATO's Partnership for Peace.

Tanzania

Shortly after independence, Tanganyika and Zanzibar merged

to form the nation of Tanzania in 1964. One-party rule came to an

end in 1995 with the first democratic elections held in the country

since the 1970s. Zanzibar's semi-autonomous status and popular

opposition have led to two contentious elections since 1995, which

the ruling party won despite international observers' claims of

voting irregularities.

Thailand

A unified Thai kingdom was established in the mid-14th

century. Known as Siam until 1939, Thailand is the only Southeast

Asian country never to have been taken over by a European power. A

bloodless revolution in 1932 led to a constitutional monarchy. In

alliance with Japan during World War II, Thailand became a US ally

following the conflict.

Togo

French Togoland became Togo in 1960. Gen. Gnassingbe EYADEMA,

installed as military ruler in 1967, is Africa's longest-serving

head of state. Despite the facade of multiparty elections instituted

in the early 1990s, the government continues to be dominated by

President EYADEMA, whose Rally of the Togolese People (RPT) party

has maintained power almost continually since 1967. In addition,

Togo has come under fire from international organizations for human

rights abuses and is plagued by political unrest. Most bilateral and

multilateral aid to Togo remains frozen.

Tokelau

Originally settled by Polynesian emigrants from surrounding

island groups, the Tokelau Islands were made a British protectorate

in 1889. They were transferred to New Zealand administration in 1925.

Tonga

The archipelago of "The Friendly Islands" was united into a

Polynesian kingdom in 1845. It became a constitutional monarchy in

1875 and a British protectorate in 1900. Tonga acquired its

independence in 1970 and became a member of the Commonwealth of

Nations. It remains the only monarchy in the Pacific.

Trinidad and Tobago

The islands came under British control in the

19th century; independence was granted in 1962. The country is one

of the most prosperous in the Caribbean, thanks largely to petroleum

and natural gas production and processing. Tourism, mostly in

Tobago, is targeted for expansion and is growing.

Tromelin Island

First explored by the French in 1776, the island

came under the jurisdiction of Reunion in 1814. At present, it

serves as a sea turtle sanctuary and is the site of an important

meteorological station.

Tunisia

Following independence from France in 1956, President Habib

BOURGUIBA established a strict one-party state. He dominated the

country for 31 years, repressing Islamic fundamentalism and

establishing rights for women unmatched by any other Arab nation. In

recent years, Tunisia has taken a moderate, non-aligned stance in

its foreign relations. Domestically, it has sought to defuse rising

pressure for a more open political society.

Turkey

Present-day Turkey was created in 1923 from the Turkish

remnants of the Ottoman Empire. Soon thereafter, the country

instituted secular laws to replace traditional religious fiats. In

1945 Turkey joined the UN, and in 1952 it became a member of NATO.

Turkey intervened militarily on Cyprus in 1974 to protect Turkish

Cypriots and prevent a Greek takeover of the island; the northern 37

percent of the island remains under Turkish Cypriot control.

Relations between the two countries remain strained, but have begun

to improve over the past few years. In 1984, the Kurdistan Workers'

Party (PKK), a Marxist-Leninist, separatist group, initiated an

insurgency in southeast Turkey, often using terrorist tactics to try

to attain its goal of an independent Kurdistan. The group - whose

leader, Abdullah OCALAN, was captured in Kenya in February 1999 -

has observed a unilateral cease-fire since September 1999, although

there have been occasional clashes between Turkish military units

and some of the 4,000-5,000 armed PKK militants, most of whom

currently are encamped in northern Iraq. The PKK changed its name to

the Kurdistan Freedom and Democracy Congress (KADEK) in April 2002.

Turkmenistan

Annexed by Russia between 1865 and 1885, Turkmenistan

became a Soviet republic in 1925. It achieved its independence upon

the dissolution of the USSR in 1991. President NIYAZOV retains

absolute control over the country and opposition is not tolerated.

Extensive hydrocarbon/natural gas reserves could prove a boon to

this underdeveloped country if extraction and delivery projects can

be worked out.

Turks and Caicos Islands

The islands were part of the UK's Jamaican

colony until 1962, when they assumed the status of a separate crown

colony upon Jamaica's independence. The governor of The Bahamas

oversaw affairs from 1965 to 1973. With Bahamian independence, the

islands received a separate governor in 1973. Although independence

was agreed upon for 1982, the policy was reversed and the islands

are presently a British overseas territory.

Tuvalu

In 1974, ethnic differences within the British colony of the

Gilbert and Ellice Islands caused the Polynesians of the Ellice

Islands to vote for separation from the Micronesians of the Gilbert

Islands. The following year, the Ellice Islands became the separate

British colony of Tuvalu. Independence was granted in 1978. In 2000,

Tuvalu negotiated a contract leasing its Internet domain name ".tv"

for $50 million in royalties over the next dozen years.

Uganda

Uganda achieved independence from the UK in 1962. The

dictatorial regime of Idi AMIN (1971-79) was responsible for the

deaths of some 300,000 opponents; guerrilla war and human rights

abuses under Milton OBOTE (1980-85) claimed at least another 100,000

lives. During the 1990s, the government promulgated non-party

presidential and legislative elections.

Ukraine

Ukraine was the center of the first Slavic state, Kievan

Rus, which during the 10th and 11th centuries was the largest and

most powerful state in Europe. Weakened by internecine quarrels and

Mongol invasions, Kievan Rus was incorporated into the Grand Duchy

of Lithuania and eventually into the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth.

The cultural and religious legacy of Kievan Rus laid the foundation

for Ukrainian nationalism through subsequent centuries. A new

Ukrainian state, the Cossack Hetmanate, was established during the

mid-17th century after an uprising against the Poles. Despite

continuous Muscovite pressure, the Hetmanate managed to remain

autonomous for well over 100 years. During the latter part of the

18th century, most Ukrainian ethnographic territory was absorbed by

the Russian Empire. Following the collapse of czarist Russia in

1917, Ukraine was able to bring about a short-lived period of

independence (1917-1920), but was reconquered and forced to endure a

brutal Soviet rule that engineered two artificial famines (1921-22

and 1932-33) in which over 8 million died. In World War II, German

and Soviet armies were responsible for some 7 to 8 million more

deaths. Although independence was achieved in 1991 with the

dissolution of the USSR, true freedom remains elusive, as many of

the former Soviet elite remain entrenched, stalling efforts at

economic reform, privatization, and civil liberties.

United Arab Emirates

The Trucial States of the Persian Gulf coast

granted the UK control of their defense and foreign affairs in 19th

century treaties. In 1971, six of these states - Abu Zaby, 'Ajman,

Al Fujayrah, Ash Shariqah, Dubayy, and Umm al Qaywayn - merged to

form the United Arab Emirates (UAE). They were joined in 1972 by

Ra's al Khaymah. The UAE's per capita GDP is not far below those of

leading West European nations. Its generosity with oil revenues and

its moderate foreign policy stance have allowed the UAE to play a

vital role in the affairs of the region.

United Kingdom

Great Britain, the dominant industrial and maritime

power of the 19th century, played a leading role in developing

parliamentary democracy and in advancing literature and science. At

its zenith, the British Empire stretched over one-fourth of the

earth's surface. The first half of the 20th century saw the UK's

strength seriously depleted in two World Wars. The second half

witnessed the dismantling of the Empire and the UK rebuilding itself

into a modern and prosperous European nation. As one of five

permanent members of the UN Security Council, a founding member of

NATO, and of the Commonwealth, the UK pursues a global approach to

foreign policy; it currently is weighing the degree of its

integration with continental Europe. A member of the EU, it chose to

remain outside the European Monetary Union for the time being.

Constitutional reform is also a significant issue in the UK. The

Scottish Parliament, the National Assembly for Wales, and the

Northern Ireland Assembly were established in 1999.

United States

Britain's American colonies broke with the mother

country in 1776 and were recognized as the new nation of the United

States of America following the Treaty of Paris in 1783. During the

19th and 20th centuries, 37 new states were added to the original 13

as the nation expanded across the North American continent and

acquired a number of overseas possessions. The two most traumatic

experiences in the nation's history were the Civil War (1861-65) and

the Great Depression of the 1930s. Buoyed by victories in World Wars

I and II and the end of the Cold War in 1991, the US remains the

world's most powerful nation-state. The economy is marked by steady

growth, low unemployment and inflation, and rapid advances in

technology.

Uruguay

A violent Marxist urban guerrilla movement, the Tupamaros,

launched in the late 1960s, led Uruguay's president to agree to

military control of his administration in 1973. By yearend, the

rebels had been crushed, but the military continued to expand its

hold throughout the government. Civilian rule was not restored until

1985. Uruguay's political and labor conditions are among the freest

on the continent.

Uzbekistan

Russia conquered Uzbekistan in the late 19th century.

Stiff resistance to the Red Army after World War I was eventually

suppressed and a socialist republic set up in 1924. During the

Soviet era, intensive production of "white gold" (cotton) and grain

led to overuse of agrochemicals and the depletion of water supplies,

which have left the land poisoned and the Aral Sea and certain

rivers half dry. Independent since 1991, the country seeks to

gradually lessen its dependence on agriculture while developing its

mineral and petroleum reserves. Current concerns include terrorism

by Islamic militants, a nonconvertible currency, and the curtailment

of human rights and democratization.

Vanuatu

The British and French, who settled the New Hebrides in the

19th century, agreed in 1906 to an Anglo-French Condominium, which

administered the islands until independence in 1980.

Venezuela

Venezuela was one of three countries that emerged from the

collapse of Gran Colombia in 1830 (the others being Colombia and

Ecuador). For most of the first half of the 20th century, Venezuela

was ruled by generally benevolent military strongmen, who promoted

the oil industry and allowed for some social reforms. Democratically

elected governments have held sway since 1959. Current concerns

include: an embattled president who is losing his once solid support

among Venezuelans, a divided military, drug-related conflicts along

the Colombian border, increasing internal drug consumption,

overdependence on the petroleum industry with its price

fluctuations, and irresponsible mining operations that are

endangering the rain forest and indigenous peoples.

Vietnam

France occupied all of Vietnam by 1884. Independence was

declared after World War II, but the French continued to rule until

1954 when they were defeated by Communist forces under Ho Chi MINH,

who took control of the North. US economic and military aid to South

Vietnam grew through the 1960s in an attempt to bolster the

government, but US armed forces were withdrawn following a

cease-fire agreement in 1973. Two years later, North Vietnamese

forces overran the South. Economic reconstruction of the reunited

country has proven difficult as aging Communist Party leaders have

only grudgingly initiated reforms necessary for a free market.

Virgin Islands

During the 17th century, the archipelago was divided

into two territorial units, one English and the other Danish.

Sugarcane, produced by slave labor, drove the islands' economy

during the 18th and early 19th centuries. In 1917, the US purchased

the Danish portion, which had been in economic decline since the

abolition of slavery in 1848.

Wake Island

The US annexed Wake Island in 1899 for a cable station.

An important air and naval base was constructed in 1940-41. In

December 1941, the island was captured by the Japanese and held

until the end of World War II. In subsequent years, Wake was

developed as a stopover and refueling site for military and

commercial aircraft transiting the Pacific. Since 1974, the island's

airstrip has been used by the US military and some commercial cargo

planes, as well as for emergency landings. There are over 700

landings a year on the island.

Wallis and Futuna

Although discovered by the Dutch and the British

in the 17th and 18th centuries, it was the French who declared a

protectorate over the islands in 1842. In 1959, the inhabitants of

the islands voted to become a French overseas territory.

West Bank

The Israel-PLO Declaration of Principles on Interim

Self-Government Arrangements (the DOP), signed in Washington on 13

September 1993, provided for a transitional period not exceeding

five years of Palestinian interim self-government in the Gaza Strip

and the West Bank. Under the DOP, Israel agreed to transfer certain

powers and responsibilities to the Palestinian Authority, which

includes the Palestinian Legislative Council elected in January

1996, as part of the interim self-governing arrangements in the West

Bank and Gaza Strip. A transfer of powers and responsibilities for

the Gaza Strip and Jericho took place pursuant to the Israel-PLO 4

May 1994 Cairo Agreement on the Gaza Strip and the Jericho Area and

in additional areas of the West Bank pursuant to the Israel-PLO 28

September 1995 Interim Agreement, the Israel-PLO 15 January 1997

Protocol Concerning Redeployment in Hebron, the Israel-PLO 23

October 1998 Wye River Memorandum, and the 4 September 1999 Sharm

el-Sheikh Agreement. The DOP provides that Israel will retain

responsibility during the transitional period for external security

and for internal security and public order of settlements and

Israeli citizens. Direct negotiations to determine the permanent

status of Gaza and West Bank had begun in September 1999 after a

three-year hiatus, but have been derailed by a second intifadah that

broke out in September 2000. The resulting widespread violence in

the West Bank and Gaza Strip, Israel's military response, and

instability within the Palestinian Authority continue to undermine

progress toward a permanent agreement.

Western Sahara

Morocco virtually annexed the northern two-thirds of

Western Sahara (formerly Spanish Sahara) in 1976, and the rest of

the territory in 1979, following Mauritania's withdrawal. A

guerrilla war with the Polisario Front contesting Rabat's

sovereignty ended in a 1991 UN-brokered cease-fire; a UN-organized

referendum on final status has been repeatedly postponed.

World

Globally, the 20th century was marked by: (a) two devastating

world wars; (b) the Great Depression of the 1930s; (c) the end of

vast colonial empires; (d) rapid advances in science and technology,

from the first airplane flight at Kitty Hawk, North Carolina (US) to

the landing on the moon; (e) the Cold War between the Western

alliance and the Warsaw Pact nations; (f) a sharp rise in living

standards in North America, Europe, and Japan; (g) increased

concerns about the environment, including loss of forests, shortages

of energy and water, the decline in biological diversity, and air

pollution; (h) the onset of the AIDS epidemic; and (i) the ultimate

emergence of the US as the only world superpower. The planet's

population continues to explode: from 1 billion in 1820, to 2

billion in 1930, 3 billion in 1960, 4 billion in 1974, 5 billion in

1988, and 6 billion in 2000. For the 21st century, the continued

exponential growth in science and technology raises both hopes

(e.g., advances in medicine) and fears (e.g., development of even

more lethal weapons of war).

Yemen

North Yemen became independent of the Ottoman Empire in 1918.

The British, who had set up a protectorate area around the southern

port of Aden in the 19th century, withdrew in 1967 from what became

South Yemen. Three years later, the southern government adopted a

Marxist orientation. The massive exodus of hundreds of thousands of

Yemenis from the south to the north contributed to two decades of

hostility between the states. The two countries were formally

unified as the Republic of Yemen in 1990. A southern secessionist

movement in 1994 was quickly subdued. In 2000, Saudi Arabia and

Yemen agreed to a delimitation of their border.

Zambia

The territory of Northern Rhodesia was administered by the

South Africa Company from 1891 until it was taken over by the UK in

1923. During the 1920s and 1930s, advances in mining spurred

development and immigration. The name was changed to Zambia upon

independence in 1964. In the 1980s and 1990s, declining copper

prices and a prolonged drought hurt the economy. Elections in 1991

brought an end to one-party rule, but the subsequent vote in 1996

saw blatant harassment of opposition parties. The election in 2001

was marked by administrative problems with three parties filing a

legal petition challenging the election of ruling party candidate

Levy MWANAWASA. The new president launched a far-reaching

anti-corruption campaign in 2002, which resulted in the 2003 arrest

of the previous president Frederick CHILUBA and many of his

supporters. Opposition parties currently hold a majority of seats in

the National Assembly.

Zimbabwe

The UK annexed Southern Rhodesia from the South Africa

Company in 1923. A 1961 constitution was formulated that favored

whites in power. In 1965 the government unilaterally declared its

independence, but the UK did not recognize the act and demanded more

complete voting rights for the black African majority in the country

(then called Rhodesia). UN sanctions and a guerrilla uprising

finally led to free elections in 1979 and independence (as Zimbabwe)

in 1980. Robert MUGABE, the nation's first prime minister, has been

the country's only ruler (as president since 1987) and has dominated

the country's political system since independence. His chaotic land

redistribution campaign begun in 2000 caused an exodus of white

farmers, crippled the economy, and ushered in widespread shortages

of basic commodities. Ignoring international condemnation, MUGABE

rigged the 2002 presidential election to ensure his reelection.

Opposition and labor groups launched general strikes in 2003 to

pressure MUGABE to retire early; security forces continued their

brutal repression of regime opponents.