This page was last updated on 18 December, 2003

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@2028 Background

Afghanistan

Afghanistan's recent history is characterized by war and

civil unrest. The Soviet Union invaded in 1979, but was forced to

withdraw 10 years later by anti-Communist mujahidin forces supplied

and trained by the US, Saudi Arabia, Pakistan, and others. Fighting

subsequently continued among the various mujahidin factions, giving

rise to a state of warlordism that eventually spawned the Taliban.

Backed by foreign sponsors, the Taliban developed as a political

force and eventually seized power. The Taliban were able to capture

most of the country, aside from Northern Alliance strongholds

primarily in the northeast, until US and allied military action in

support of the opposition following the 11 September 2001 terrorist

attacks forced the group's downfall. In late 2001, major leaders

from the Afghan opposition groups and diaspora met in Bonn, Germany,

and agreed on a plan for the formulation of a new government

structure that resulted in the inauguration of Hamid KARZAI as

Chairman of the Afghan Interim Authority (AIA) on 22 December 2001.

The AIA held a nationwide Loya Jirga (Grand Assembly) in June 2002,

and KARZAI was elected President by secret ballot of the

Transitional Islamic State of Afghanistan (TISA). The Transitional

Authority has an 18-month mandate to hold a nationwide Loya Jirga to

adopt a constitution and a 24-month mandate to hold nationwide

elections. In December 2002, the TISA marked the one-year

anniversary of the fall of the Taliban. In addition to occasionally

violent political jockeying and ongoing military action to root out

remaining terrorists and Taliban elements, the country suffers from

enormous poverty, a crumbling infrastructure, and widespread land

mines.

Albania

Between 1990 and 1992 Albania ended 46 years of xenophobic

Communist rule and established a multiparty democracy. The

transition has proven difficult as corrupt governments have tried to

deal with high unemployment, a dilapidated infrastructure,

widespread gangsterism, and disruptive political opponents.

International observers judged legislative elections in 2001 to be

acceptable and a step toward democratic development, but identified

serious deficiencies that should be addressed through reforms in the

Albanian electoral code.

Algeria

After a century of rule by France, Algeria became

independent in 1962. The surprising first round success of the

fundamentalist FIS (Islamic Salvation Front) party in the December

1991 balloting caused the army to intervene, crack down on the FIS,

and postpone the subsequent elections. The fundamentalist response

has resulted in a continuous low-grade civil conflict with the

secular state apparatus, which nonetheless has allowed elections

featuring pro-government and moderate religious-based parties. The

FIS's armed wing, the Islamic Salvation Army, disbanded in January

2000 and many armed militants of other groups surrendered under an

amnesty program designed to promote national reconciliation.

Nevertheless, small numbers of armed militants persist in

confronting government forces and carrying out isolated attacks on

villages and other types of terrorist attacks. Other concerns

include Berber unrest, large-scale unemployment, a shortage of

housing, and the need to diversify the petroleum-based economy.

American Samoa

Settled as early as 1000 B.C., Samoa was "discovered"

by European explorers in the 18th century. International rivalries

in the latter half of the 19th century were settled by an 1899

treaty in which Germany and the US divided the Samoan archipelago.

The US formally occupied its portion - a smaller group of eastern

islands with the excellent harbor of Pago Pago - the following year.

Andorra

For 715 years, from 1278 to 1993, Andorrans lived under a

unique co-principality, ruled by the French chief of state and the

Spanish bishop of Urgel. In 1993, this feudal system was modified

with the titular heads of state retained, but the government

transformed into a parliamentary democracy. Long isolated and

impoverished, mountainous Andorra achieved considerable prosperity

since World War II through its tourist industry. Many immigrants

(legal and illegal) are attracted to the thriving economy with its

lack of income taxes.

Angola

Civil war has been the norm in Angola since independence from

Portugal in 1975. A 1994 peace accord between the government and the

National Union for the Total Independence of Angola (UNITA) provided

for the integration of former UNITA insurgents into the government

and armed forces. A national unity government was installed in April

of 1997, but serious fighting resumed in late 1998, rendering

hundreds of thousands of people homeless. Up to 1.5 million lives

may have been lost in fighting over the past quarter century. The

death of insurgent leader Jonas SAVIMBI in 2002 and a subsequent

cease-fire with UNITA may bode well for the country.

Anguilla

Colonized by English settlers from Saint Kitts in 1650,

Anguilla was administered by Great Britain until the early 19th

century, when the island - against the wishes of the inhabitants -

was incorporated into a single British dependency, along with Saint

Kitts and Nevis. Several attempts at separation failed. In 1971, two

years after a revolt, Anguilla was finally allowed to secede; this

arrangement was formally recognized in 1980, with Anguilla becoming

a separate British dependency.

Antarctica

Speculation over the existence of a "southern land" was

not confirmed until the early 1820s when British and American

commercial operators and British and Russian national expeditions

began exploring the Antarctic Peninsula region and other areas south

of the Antarctic Circle. Not until 1840 was it established that

Antarctica was indeed a continent and not just a group of islands.

Several exploration "firsts" were achieved in the early 20th

century. Following World War II, there was an upsurge in scientific

research on the continent. A number of countries have set up

year-round research stations on Antarctica. Seven have made

territorial claims, but no other country recognizes these claims. In

order to form a legal framework for the activities of nations on the

continent, an Antarctic Treaty was negotiated that neither denies

nor gives recognition to existing territorial claims; signed in

1959, it entered into force in 1961.

Antigua and Barbuda

The Siboney were the first to inhabit the

islands of Antigua and Barbuda in 2400 B.C., but Arawak and Carib

Indians populated the islands when Columbus landed on his second

voyage in 1493. Early settlements by the Spanish and French were

succeeded by the English who formed a colony in 1667. Slavery,

established to run the sugar plantations on Antigua, was abolished

in 1834. The islands became an independent state within the British

Commonwealth of Nations in 1981.

Arctic Ocean

The Arctic Ocean is the smallest of the world's five

oceans (after the Pacific Ocean, Atlantic Ocean, Indian Ocean, and

the recently delimited Southern Ocean). The Northwest Passage (US

and Canada) and Northern Sea Route (Norway and Russia) are two

important seasonal waterways. A sparse network of air, ocean, river,

and land routes circumscribes the Arctic Ocean.

Argentina

Following independence from Spain in 1816, Argentina

experienced periods of internal political conflict between

conservatives and liberals and between civilian and military

factions. After World War II, a long period of Peronist

authoritarian rule and interference in subsequent governments was

followed by a military junta that took power in 1976. Democracy

returned in 1983, and numerous elections since then have underscored

Argentina's progress in democratic consolidation.

Armenia

Armenia prides itself on being the first nation to formally

adopt Christianity (early 4th century). Despite periods of autonomy,

over the centuries Armenia came under the sway of various empires

including the Roman, Byzantine, Arab, Persian, and Ottoman. It was

incorporated into Russia in 1828 and the USSR in 1920. Armenian

leaders remain preoccupied by the long conflict with Muslim

Azerbaijan over Nagorno-Karabakh, a primarily Armenian-populated

region, assigned to Soviet Azerbaijan in the 1920s by Moscow.

Armenia and Azerbaijan began fighting over the area in 1988; the

struggle escalated after both countries attained independence from

the Soviet Union in 1991. By May 1994, when a cease-fire took hold,

Armenian forces held not only Nagorno-Karabakh but also a

significant portion of Azerbaijan proper. The economies of both

sides have been hurt by their inability to make substantial progress

toward a peaceful resolution.

Aruba

Discovered and claimed for Spain in 1499, Aruba was acquired

by the Dutch in 1636. The island's economy has been dominated by

three main industries. A 19th century gold rush was followed by

prosperity brought on by the opening in 1924 of an oil refinery. The

last decades of the 20th century saw a boom in the tourism industry.

Aruba seceded from the Netherlands Antilles in 1986 and became a

separate, autonomous member of the Kingdom of the Netherlands.

Movement toward full independence was halted at Aruba's request in

1990.

Ashmore and Cartier Islands

These uninhabited islands came under

Australian authority in 1931; formal administration began two years

later. Ashmore Reef supports a rich and diverse avian and marine

habitat; in 1983, it became a National Nature Reserve. Cartier

Island, a former bombing range, is now a marine reserve.

Atlantic Ocean

The Atlantic Ocean is the second largest of the

world's five oceans (after the Pacific Ocean, but larger than the

Indian Ocean, Southern Ocean, and Arctic Ocean). The Kiel Canal

(Germany), Oresund (Denmark-Sweden), Bosporus (Turkey), Strait of

Gibraltar (Morocco-Spain), and the Saint Lawrence Seaway (Canada-US)

are important strategic access waterways. The decision by the

International Hydrographic Organization in the spring of 2000 to

delimit a fifth world ocean, the Southern Ocean, removed the portion

of the Atlantic Ocean south of 60 degrees south.

Australia

Australia became a commonwealth of the British Empire in

1901. It was able to take advantage of its natural resources to

rapidly develop its agricultural and manufacturing industries and to

make a major contribution to the British effort in World Wars I and

II. Long-term concerns include pollution, particularly depletion of

the ozone layer, and management and conservation of coastal areas,

especially the Great Barrier Reef. A referendum to change

Australia's status, from a commonwealth headed by the British

monarch to a republic, was defeated in 1999.

Austria

Once the center of power for the large Austro-Hungarian

Empire, Austria was reduced to a small republic after its defeat in

World War I. Following annexation by Nazi Germany in 1938 and

subsequent occupation by the victorious Allies in 1945, Austria's

status remained unclear for a decade. A State Treaty signed in 1955

ended the occupation, recognized Austria's independence, and forbade

unification with Germany. A constitutional law that same year

declared the country's "perpetual neutrality" as a condition for

Soviet military withdrawal. This neutrality, once ingrained as part

of the Austrian cultural identity, has been called into question

since the Soviet collapse of 1991 and Austria's entry into the

European Union in 1995. A prosperous country, Austria entered the

European Monetary Union in 1999.

Azerbaijan

Azerbaijan - a nation with a Turkic and majority-Muslim

population - regained its independence after the collapse of the

Soviet Union in 1991. Despite a 1994 cease-fire, Azerbaijan has yet

to resolve its conflict with Armenia over the Azerbaijani

Nagorno-Karabakh enclave (largely Armenian populated). Azerbaijan

has lost 16% of its territory and must support some 800,000 refugees

and internally displaced persons as a result of the conflict.

Corruption is ubiquitous and the promise of widespread wealth from

Azerbaijan's undeveloped petroleum resources remains largely

unfulfilled.

Bahamas, The

Arawak Indians inhabited the islands when Christopher

Columbus first set foot in the New World on San Salvador in 1492.

British settlement of the islands began in 1647; the islands became

a colony in 1783. Since attaining independence from the UK in 1973,

The Bahamas have prospered through tourism and international banking

and investment management. Because of its geography, the country is

a major transshipment point for illegal drugs, particularly

shipments to the US, and its territory is used for smuggling illegal

migrants into the US.

Bahrain

Bahrain's small size and central location among Persian Gulf

countries require it to play a delicate balancing act in foreign

affairs among its larger neighbors. Facing declining oil reserves,

Bahrain has turned to petroleum processing and refining and has

transformed itself into an international banking center. The new

amir, installed in 1999, has pushed economic and political reforms

and has worked to improve relations with the Shi'a community. In

February 2001, Bahraini voters approved a referendum on the National

Action Charter - the centerpiece of the amir's political

liberalization program. In February 2002, Amir HAMAD bin Isa Al

Khalifa proclaimed himself king. In October 2002, Bahrainis elected

members of the lower house of Bahrain's reconstituted bicameral

legislature, the National Assembly.

Baker Island

The US took possession of the island in 1857, and its

guano deposits were mined by US and British companies during the

second half of the 19th century. In 1935, a short-lived attempt at

colonization was begun on this island - as well as on nearby Howland

Island - but was disrupted by World War II and thereafter abandoned.

Presently the island is a National Wildlife Refuge run by the US

Department of the Interior; a day beacon is situated near the middle

of the west coast.

Bangladesh

Bangladesh came into existence in 1971 when Bengali East

Pakistan seceded from its union with West Pakistan. About a third of

this extremely poor country floods annually during the monsoon rainy

season, hampering economic development.

Barbados

The island was uninhabited when first settled by the

British in 1627. Slaves worked the sugar plantations established on

the island until 1834 when slavery was abolished. The economy

remained heavily dependent on sugar, rum, and molasses production

through most of the 20th century. The gradual introduction of social

and political reforms in the 1940s and 1950s led to complete

independence from the UK in 1966. In the 1990s, tourism and

manufacturing surpassed the sugar industry in economic importance.

Bassas da India

This atoll is a volcanic rock surrounded by reefs

and is awash at high tide. A French possession since 1897, it was

placed under the administration of a commissioner residing in

Reunion in 1968.

Belarus

After seven decades as a constituent republic of the USSR,

Belarus attained its independence in 1991. It has retained closer

political and economic ties to Russia than any of the other former

Soviet republics. Belarus and Russia signed a treaty on a two-state

union on 8 December 1999 envisioning greater political and economic

integration. Although Belarus agreed to a framework to carry out the

accord, serious implementation has yet to take place.

Belgium

Belgium became independent from the Netherlands in 1830 and

was occupied by Germany during World Wars I and II. It has prospered

in the past half century as a modern, technologically advanced

European state and member of NATO and the EU. Tensions between the

Dutch-speaking Flemings of the north and the French-speaking

Walloons of the south have led in recent years to constitutional

amendments granting these regions formal recognition and autonomy.

Belize

Territorial disputes between the UK and Guatemala delayed the

independence of Belize (formerly British Honduras) until 1981.

Guatemala refused to recognize the new nation until 1992. Tourism

has become the mainstay of the economy. The country remains plagued

by high unemployment, growing involvement in the South American drug

trade, and increased urban crime.

Benin

Present day Benin was the site of Dahomey, a prominent West

African kingdom that rose in the 15th century. The territory became

a French Colony in 1872 and achieved independence on 1 August 1960,

as the Republic of Benin. A succession of military governments ended

in 1972 with the rise to power of Mathieu KEREKOU and the

establishment of a government based on Marxist-Leninist principles.

A move to representative government began in 1989. Two years later,

free elections ushered in former Prime Minister Nicephore SOGLO as

president, marking the first successful transfer of power in Africa

from a dictatorship to a democracy. KEREKOU was returned to power by

elections held in 1996 and 2001, though some irregularities were

alleged.

Bermuda

Bermuda was first settled in 1609 by shipwrecked English

colonists headed for Virginia. Tourism to the island to escape North

American winters first developed in Victorian times. Tourism

continues to be important to the island's economy, although

international business has overtaken it in recent years. Bermuda has

developed into a highly successful offshore financial center. A

referendum on independence was soundly defeated in 1995.

Bhutan

In 1865, Britain and Bhutan signed the Treaty of Sinchulu,

under which Bhutan would receive an annual subsidy in exchange for

ceding some border land. Under British influence, a monarchy was set

up in 1907; three years later, a treaty was signed whereby the

British agreed not to interfere in Bhutanese internal affairs and

Bhutan allowed Britain to direct its foreign affairs. This role was

assumed by independent India after 1947. Two years later, a formal

Indo-Bhutanese accord returned the areas of Bhutan annexed by the

British, formalized the annual subsidies the country received, and

defined India's responsibilities in defense and foreign relations. A

refugee issue of some 100,000 Bhutanese in Nepal remains unresolved;

90% of the refugees are housed in seven United Nations Office of the

High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR) camps. Maoist Assamese

separatists from India, who have established themselves in the

southeast portion of Bhutan, have drawn Indian cross-border

incursions.

Bolivia

Bolivia, named after independence fighter Simon BOLIVAR,

broke away from Spanish rule in 1825; much of its subsequent history

has consisted of a series of nearly 200 coups and counter-coups.

Comparatively democratic civilian rule was established in the 1980s,

but leaders have faced difficult problems of deep-seated poverty,

social unrest, and drug production. Current goals include attracting

foreign investment, strengthening the educational system, resolving

disputes with coca growers over Bolivia's counterdrug efforts,

continuing the privatization program, and waging an anticorruption

campaign.

Bosnia and Herzegovina

Bosnia and Herzegovina's declaration of

sovereignty in October 1991, was followed by a declaration of

independence from the former Yugoslavia on 3 March 1992 after a

referendum boycotted by ethnic Serbs. The Bosnian Serbs - supported

by neighboring Serbia and Montenegro - responded with armed

resistance aimed at partitioning the republic along ethnic lines and

joining Serb-held areas to form a "greater Serbia." In March 1994,

Bosniaks and Croats reduced the number of warring factions from

three to two by signing an agreement creating a joint Bosniak/Croat

Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina. On 21 November 1995, in

Dayton, Ohio, the warring parties initialed a peace agreement that

brought to a halt three years of interethnic civil strife (the final

agreement was signed in Paris on 14 December 1995). The Dayton

Agreement retained Bosnia and Herzegovina's international boundaries

and created a joint multi-ethnic and democratic government. This

national government was charged with conducting foreign, economic,

and fiscal policy. Also recognized was a second tier of government

comprised of two entities roughly equal in size: the Bosniak/Croat

Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina and the Bosnian Serb-led

Republika Srpska (RS). The Federation and RS governments were

charged with overseeing internal functions. In 1995-96, a NATO-led

international peacekeeping force (IFOR) of 60,000 troops served in

Bosnia to implement and monitor the military aspects of the

agreement. IFOR was succeeded by a smaller, NATO-led Stabilization

Force (SFOR) whose mission is to deter renewed hostilities. SFOR

remains in place although troop levels were reduced to approximately

12,000 by the close of 2002.

Botswana

Formerly the British protectorate of Bechuanaland, Botswana

adopted its new name upon independence in 1966. Four decades of

uninterrupted civilian leadership, progressive social policies, and

significant capital investment have created one of the most dynamic

economies in Africa. Mineral extraction, principally diamond mining,

dominates economic activity, though tourism is a growing sector due

to the country's conservation practices and extensive nature

preserves. Botswana has the world's highest known rate of HIV/AIDS

infection, but also one of Africa's most progressive and

comprehensive programs for dealing with the disease.

Bouvet Island

This uninhabited volcanic island is almost entirely

covered by glaciers and is difficult to approach. It was discovered

in 1739 by a French naval officer after whom the island was named.

No claim was made until 1825, when the British flag was raised. In

1928, the UK waived its claim in favor of Norway, which had occupied

the island the previous year. In 1971, Bouvet Island and the

adjacent territorial waters were designated a nature reserve. Since

1977, Norway has run an automated meteorological station on the

island.

Brazil

Following three centuries under the rule of Portugal, Brazil

became an independent nation in 1822. By far the largest and most

populous country in South America, Brazil has overcome more than

half a century of military intervention in the governance of the

country to pursue industrial and agricultural growth and development

of the interior. Exploiting vast natural resources and a large labor

pool, Brazil is today South America's leading economic power and a

regional leader. Highly unequal income distribution remains a

pressing problem.

British Indian Ocean Territory

Established as a territory of the UK

in 1965, a number of the British Indian Ocean Territory (BIOT)

islands were transferred to the Seychelles when it attained

independence in 1976. Subsequently, BIOT has consisted only of the

six main island groups comprising the Chagos Archipelago. The

largest and most southerly of the islands, Diego Garcia, contains a

joint UK-US naval support facility. All of the remaining islands are

uninhabited. Former agricultural workers, earlier residents in the

islands, were relocated primarily to Mauritius but also to the

Seychelles, between 1967 and 1973. In 2000, a British High Court

ruling invalidated the local immigration order that had excluded

them from the archipelago, but upheld the special military status of

Diego Garcia.

British Virgin Islands

First settled by the Dutch in 1648, the

islands were annexed in 1672 by the English. The economy is closely

tied to the larger and more populous US Virgin Islands to the west;

the US dollar is the legal currency.

Brunei

The Sultanate of Brunei's influence peaked between the 15th

and 17th centuries when its control extended over coastal areas of

northwest Borneo and the southern Philippines. Brunei subsequently

entered a period of decline brought on by internal strife over royal

succession, colonial expansion of European powers, and piracy. In

1888, Brunei became a British protectorate; independence was

achieved in 1984. The same family has ruled Brunei for over six

centuries. Brunei benefits from extensive petroleum and natural gas

fields, the source of one of the highest per capita GDPs in the

developing world.

Bulgaria

The Bulgars, a Central Asian Turkic tribe, merged with the

local Slavic inhabitants in the late 7th century to form the first

Bulgarian state. In succeeding centuries, Bulgaria struggled with

the Byzantine Empire to assert its place in the Balkans, but by the

end of the 14th century the country was overrun by the Ottoman

Turks. Bulgaria regained its independence in 1878, but having fought

on the losing side in both World Wars, it fell within the Soviet

sphere of influence and became a People's Republic in 1946.

Communist domination ended in 1990, when Bulgaria held its first

multiparty election since World War II and began the contentious

process of moving toward political democracy and a market economy

while combating inflation, unemployment, corruption, and crime.

Today, reforms and democratization keep Bulgaria on a path toward

eventual integration into NATO and the EU - with which it began

accession negotiations in 2000.

Burkina Faso

Independence from France came to Burkina Faso (formerly

Upper Volta) in 1960. Repeated military coups during the 1970s and

1980s were followed by multiparty elections in the early 1990s.

Burkina Faso's high population density and limited natural resources

result in poor economic prospects for the majority of its citizens.

Every year, several hundred thousand seasonal farm workers seek

employment in Cote d'Ivoire and Ghana and are adversely affected by

instability in those regions.

Burma

Britain conquered Burma over a period of 62 years (1824-1886)

and incorporated it into its Indian Empire. Burma was administered

as a province of India until 1937 when it became a separate,

self-governing colony; independence outside of the Commonwealth was

attained in 1948. Gen. NE WIN dominated the government from 1962 to

1988, first as military ruler, then as president, and later as

political kingmaker. Despite multiparty elections in 1990 that

resulted in the main opposition party winning a decisive victory,

the ruling military junta refused to hand over power. Key opposition

leader and Nobel Peace Prize recipient AUNG SAN SUU KYI, under house

arrest from 1989 to 1995, was again placed under house detention

from September 2000 to May 2002 and again in May 2003; her

supporters are routinely harassed or jailed.

Burundi

Burundi's first democratically elected president was

assassinated in October 1993 after only four months in office. Since

then, some 200,000 Burundians have perished in widespread, often

intense ethnic violence between Hutu and Tutsi factions. Hundreds of

thousands have been internally displaced or have become refugees in

neighboring countries. Burundi troops, seeking to secure their

borders, intervened in the conflict in the Democratic Republic of

the Congo in 1998. More recently, many of these troops have been

redeployed back to Burundi to deal with periodic upsurges in rebel

activity. A new transitional government, inaugurated on 1 November

2001, was to be the first step toward holding national elections in

three years. While the Government of Burundi signed a cease-fire

agreement in December 2002 with three of Burundi's four Hutu rebel

groups, implementation of the agreement has been problematic and one

rebel group refuses to sign on, clouding prospects for a sustainable

peace.

Cambodia

Following a five-year struggle, Communist Khmer Rouge

forces captured Phnom Penh in 1975 and ordered the evacuation of all

cities and towns; over 1 million displaced people died from

execution or enforced hardships. A 1978 Vietnamese invasion drove

the Khmer Rouge into the countryside and touched off almost 20 years

of fighting. UN-sponsored elections in 1993 helped restore some

semblance of normalcy as did the rapid diminishment of the Khmer

Rouge in the mid-1990s. A coalition government, formed after

national elections in 1998, brought renewed political stability and

the surrender of remaining Khmer Rouge forces in 1998.

Cameroon

The former French Cameroon and part of British Cameroon

merged in 1961 to form the present country. Cameroon has generally

enjoyed stability, which has permitted the development of

agriculture, roads, and railways, as well as a petroleum industry.

Despite movement toward democratic reform, political power remains

firmly in the hands of an ethnic oligarchy.

Canada

A land of vast distances and rich natural resources, Canada

became a self-governing dominion in 1867 while retaining ties to the

British crown. Economically and technologically the nation has

developed in parallel with the US, its neighbor to the south across

an unfortified border. Its paramount political problem continues to

be the relationship of the province of Quebec, with its

French-speaking residents and unique culture, to the remainder of

the country.

Cape Verde

The uninhabited islands were discovered and colonized by

the Portuguese in the 15th century; they subsequently became a

trading center for African slaves and later an important coaling and

resupply stop for whaling and transatlantic shipping. Following

independence in 1975, and a tentative interest in unification with

Guinea-Bissau, a one-party system was established and maintained

until multi-party elections were held in 1990. Cape Verde continues

to exhibit one of Africa's most stable democratic governments.

Repeated droughts during the second half of the 20th century caused

significant hardship and prompted heavy emigration. As a result,

Cape Verde's expatriate population is greater than its domestic one.

Most Cape Verdeans have both African and Portuguese antecedents.

Cayman Islands

The Cayman Islands were colonized from Jamaica by the

British during the 18th and 19th centuries. Administered by Jamaica

since 1863, they remained a British dependency after 1962 when the

former became independent.

Central African Republic

The former French colony of Ubangi-Shari

became the Central African Republic upon independence in 1960. After

three tumultuous decades of misrule - mostly by military governments

- civilian rule was established in 1993 and lasted for one decade.

In March 2003 a military coup deposed the civilian government of

President Ange-Felix PATASSE and has since established a new

government.

Chad

Chad, part of France's African holdings until 1960, endured

three decades of ethnic warfare as well as invasions by Libya before

a semblance of peace was finally restored in 1990. The government

eventually suppressed or came to terms with most political-military

groups, settled a territorial dispute with Libya on terms favorable

to Chad, drafted a democratic constitution, and held multiparty

presidential and National Assembly elections in 1996 and 1997,

respectively. In 1998, a new rebellion broke out in northern Chad,

which continued to escalate throughout 2000. A peace agreement,

signed in January 2002 between the government and the rebels,

provides for the demobilization of the rebels and their

reintegration into the political system. Despite movement toward

democratic reform, power remains in the hands of a northern ethnic

oligarchy.

Chile

A three-year-old Marxist government was overthrown in 1973 by

a dictatorial military regime led by Augusto PINOCHET, who ruled

until a freely elected president was installed in 1990. Sound

economic policies, first implemented by the PINOCHET dictatorship,

led to unprecedented growth in 1991-97 and have helped secure the

country's commitment to democratic and representative government.

China

For centuries China stood as a leading civilization, outpacing

the rest of the world in the arts and sciences. But in the 19th and

early 20th centuries, China was beset by civil unrest, major

famines, military defeats, and foreign occupation. After World War

II, the Communists under MAO Zedong established a dictatorship that,

while ensuring China's sovereignty, imposed strict controls over

everyday life and cost the lives of tens of millions of people.

After 1978, his successor DENG Xiaoping gradually introduced

market-oriented reforms and decentralized economic decision-making.

Output quadrupled by 2000. Political controls remain tight while

economic controls continue to be relaxed.

Christmas Island

Named in 1643 for the day of its discovery, the

island was annexed and settlement was begun by the UK in 1888.

Phosphate mining began in the 1890s. The UK transferred sovereignty

to Australia in 1958. Almost two-thirds of the island has been

declared a national park.

Clipperton Island

This isolated island was named for John

CLIPPERTON, a pirate who made it his hideout early in the 18th

century. Annexed by France in 1855, it was seized by Mexico in 1897.

Arbitration eventually awarded the island to France, which took

possession in 1935.

Cocos (Keeling) Islands

There are 27 coral islands in the group.

Captain William Keeling discovered the islands in 1609, but they

remained uninhabited until the 19th century. Annexed by the UK in

1857, they were transferred to the Australian Government in 1955.

The population on the two inhabited islands generally is split

between the ethnic Europeans on West Island and the ethnic Malays on

Home Island.

Colombia

Colombia was one of the three countries that emerged from

the collapse of Gran Colombia in 1830 (the others being Ecuador and

Venezuela). A 40-year insurgent campaign to overthrow the Colombian

Government escalated during the 1990s, undergirded in part by funds

from the drug trade. Although the violence is deadly and large

swaths of the countryside are under guerrilla influence, the

movement lacks the military strength or popular support necessary to

overthrow the government. An anti-insurgent army of paramilitaries

has grown to be several thousand strong in recent years, challenging

the insurgents for control of territory and illicit industries such

as the drug trade and the government's ability to exert its dominion

over rural areas. While Bogota steps up efforts to reassert

government control throughout the country, neighboring countries

worry about the violence spilling over their borders.

Comoros

Unstable Comoros has endured 19 coups or attempted coups

since gaining independence from France in 1975. In 1997, the islands

of Anjouan and Moheli declared their independence from Comoros. In

1999, military chief Col. AZALI seized power. He pledged to resolve

the secessionist crisis through a confederal arrangement named the

2000 Fomboni Accord. In December 2001, voters approved a new

constitution and presidential elections took place in the spring of

2002. Each island in the archipelago elected its own president and a

new union president was sworn in on May 26, 2002.

Congo, Democratic Republic of the

Since 1997, the Democratic

Republic of the Congo (DROC; formerly called Zaire) has been rent by

ethnic strife and civil war, touched off by a massive inflow in 1994

of refugees from the fighting in Rwanda and Burundi. The government

of former president MOBUTU Sese Seko was toppled by a rebellion led

by Laurent KABILA in May 1997; his regime was subsequently

challenged by a Rwanda- and Uganda-backed rebellion in August 1998.

Troops from Zimbabwe, Angola, Namibia, Chad, and Sudan intervened to

support the Kinshasa regime. A cease-fire was signed on 10 July 1999

by the DROC, Zimbabwe, Angola, Uganda, Namibia, Rwanda, and

Congolese armed rebel groups, but sporadic fighting continued.

KABILA was assassinated on 16 January 2001 and his son Joseph KABILA

was named head of state ten days later. In October 2002, the new

president was successful in getting occupying Rwandan forces to

withdraw from eastern Congo; two months later, an agreement was

signed by all remaining warring parties to end the fighting and set

up a government of national unity.

Congo, Republic of the

Upon independence in 1960, the former French

region of Middle Congo became the Republic of the Congo. A quarter

century of experimentation with Marxism was abandoned in 1990 and a

democratically elected government installed in 1992. A brief civil

war in 1997 restored former Marxist President SASSOU-NGUESSO, but

ushered in a period of ethnically based unrest. Southern-based rebel

groups agreed to a final peace accord in March 2003. The Republic of

Congo is one of Africa's largest petroleum producers with

significant potential for offshore development.

Cook Islands

Named after Captain Cook, who sighted them in 1770, the

islands became a British protectorate in 1888. By 1900,

administrative control was transferred to New Zealand; in 1965

residents chose self-government in free association with New

Zealand. The emigration of skilled workers to New Zealand and

government deficits are continuing problems.

Coral Sea Islands

Scattered over some 1 million square kilometers of

ocean, the Coral Sea Islands were declared a territory of Australia

in 1969. They are uninhabited except for a small meteorological

staff on the Willis Islets. Automated weather stations, beacons, and

a lighthouse occupy many other islands and reefs.

Costa Rica

Costa Rica is a Central American success story: since the

late 19th century, only two brief periods of violence have marred

its democratic development. Although still a largely agricultural

country, it has expanded its economy to include strong technology

and tourism sectors. The standard of living is relatively high. Land

ownership is widespread.

Cote d'Ivoire

Close ties to France since independence in 1960, the

development of cocoa production for export, and foreign investment

made Cote d'Ivoire one of the most prosperous of the tropical

African states, but did not protect it from political turmoil. On 25

December 1999, a military coup - the first ever in Cote d'Ivoire's

history - overthrew the government led by President Henri Konan

BEDIE. Junta leader Robert GUEI held elections in late 2000, but

excluded prominent opposition leader Alassane OUATTARA, blatantly

rigged the polling results, and declared himself winner. Popular

protest forced GUEI to step aside and brought runner-up Laurent

GBAGBO into power. GBAGBO spent his first two years in office trying

to consolidate power to strengthen his weak mandate, but he was

unable to appease his opponents, who launched a failed coup attempt

in September 2002. Rebel forces claimed the northern half of the

country and in January 2003 were granted ministerial positions in a

unity government. However, the central government has yet to exert

control over the northern regions and tension remains high between

GBAGBO and rebel leaders. Several thousand French and West African

troops remain in Cote d'Ivoire to maintain peace and help implement

the peace accords.

Croatia

In 1918, the Croats, Serbs, and Slovenes formed a kingdom

known after 1929 as Yugoslavia. Following World War II, Yugoslavia

became a federal independent Communist state under the strong hand

of Marshal TITO. Although Croatia declared its independence from

Yugoslavia in 1991, it took four years of sporadic, but often

bitter, fighting before occupying Serb armies were mostly cleared

from Croatian lands. Under UN supervision, the last Serb-held

enclave in eastern Slavonia was returned to Croatia in 1998.

Cuba

Fidel CASTRO led a rebel army to victory in 1959; his iron rule

has held the country together since then. Cuba's Communist

revolution, with Soviet support, was exported throughout Latin

America and Africa during the 1960s, 1970s, and 1980s. The country

is now slowly recovering from a severe economic recession in 1990,

following the withdrawal of former Soviet subsidies, worth $4

billion to $6 billion annually. Cuba portrays its difficulties as

the result of the US embargo in place since 1961. Illicit migration

to the US - using homemade rafts, alien smugglers, or falsified

visas - is a continuing problem. Some 2,500 Cubans attempted the

crossing of the Straits of Florida in 2002; the US Coast Guard

apprehended about 60% of the individuals.

Cyprus

Independence from the UK was approved in 1960, with

constitutional guarantees by the Greek Cypriot majority to the

Turkish Cypriot minority. In 1974, a Greek-sponsored attempt to

seize the government was met by military intervention from Turkey,

which soon controlled almost 40% of the island. In 1983, the

Turkish-held area declared itself the "Turkish Republic of Northern

Cyprus," but it is recognized only by Turkey. UN-led direct talks

between the two sides to reach a comprehensive settlement to the

division of the island began in January 2002.

Czech Republic

Following the First World War, the closely related

Czechs and Slovaks of the former Austro-Hungarian Empire merged to

form Czechoslovakia. During the interwar years, the new country's

leaders were frequently preoccupied with meeting the demands of

other ethnic minorities within the republic, most notably the

Sudeten Germans and the Ruthenians (Ukrainians). After World War II,

a truncated Czechoslovakia fell within the Soviet sphere of

influence. In 1968, an invasion by Warsaw Pact troops ended the

efforts of the country's leaders to liberalize Communist party rule

and create "socialism with a human face." Anti-Soviet demonstrations

the following year ushered in a period of harsh repression. With the

collapse of Soviet authority in 1989, Czechoslovakia regained its

freedom through a peaceful "Velvet Revolution." On 1 January 1993,

the country underwent a "velvet divorce" into its two national

components, the Czech Republic and Slovakia. Now a member of NATO,

the Czech Republic has moved toward integration in world markets, a

development that poses both opportunities and risks. In December

2002, the Czech Republic was invited to join the European Union

(EU). It is expected that the Czech Republic will accede to the EU

in 2004.

Denmark

Once the seat of Viking raiders and later a major north

European power, Denmark has evolved into a modern, prosperous nation

that is participating in the general political and economic

integration of Europe. It joined NATO in 1949 and the EEC (now the

EU) in 1973. However, the country has opted out of certain elements

of the European Union's Maastricht Treaty, including the European

Economic and Monetary Union (EMU) and issues concerning certain

justice and home affairs.

Djibouti

The French Territory of the Afars and the Issas became

Djibouti in 1977. Hassan Gouled APTIDON installed an authoritarian

one-party state and proceeded to serve three consecutive six-year

terms as president. Unrest among the Afars minority during the

1990's led to multi-party elections resulting in President Ismail

Omar GUELLEH attaining office in May 1999. A peace accord in 2001

ended the final phases of a ten-year uprising by Afar rebels.

Djibouti occupies a very strategic geographic location at the mouth

of the Red Sea and serves as an important transshipment location for

goods entering and leaving the east African highlands. GUELLEH

favors close ties to France, which maintains a significant military

presence in the country.

Dominica

Dominica was the last of the Caribbean islands to be

colonized by Europeans, due chiefly to the fierce resistance of the

native Caribs. France ceded possession to Great Britain in 1763,

which made the island a colony in 1805. In 1980, two years after

independence, Dominica's fortunes improved when a corrupt and

tyrannical administration was replaced by that of Mary Eugenia

CHARLES, the first female prime minister in the Caribbean, who

remained in office for 15 years. Some 3,000 Carib Indians still

living on Dominica are the only pre-Columbian population remaining

in the eastern Caribbean.

Dominican Republic

Explored and claimed by Columbus on his first

voyage in 1492, the island of Hispaniola became a springboard for

Spanish conquest of the Caribbean and the American mainland. In

1697, Spain recognized French dominion over the western third of the

island, which in 1804 became Haiti. The remainder of the island, by

then known as Santo Domingo, sought to gain its own independence in

1821, but was conquered and ruled by the Haitians for 22 years; it

finally attained independence as the Dominican Republic in 1844. A

legacy of unsettled, mostly non-representative, rule for much of its

subsequent history was brought to an end in 1966 when Joaquin

BALAGUER became president. He maintained a tight grip on power for

most of the next 30 years when international reaction to flawed

elections forced him to curtail his term in 1996. Since then,

regular competitive elections have been held in which opposition

candidates have won the presidency. The Dominican economy has had

one of the fastest growth rates in the hemisphere over the past

decade.

East Timor

The Portuguese colony of Timor declared itself

independent from Portugal on 28 November 1975 and was invaded and

occupied by Indonesian forces nine days later. It was incorporated

into Indonesia in July 1976 as the province of East Timor. A

campaign of pacification followed over the next two decades, during

which an estimated 100,000 to 250,000 individuals lost their lives.

On 30 August 1999, in a UN-supervised popular referendum, the people

of East Timor voted for independence from Indonesia. During

1999-2001, pro-integrationist militias - supported by Indonesia -

conducted indiscriminate violence. On 20 May 2002, East Timor was

internationally recognized as an independent state and the world's

newest democracy.

Ecuador

The "Republic of the Equator" was one of three countries

that emerged from the collapse of Gran Colombia in 1830 (the others

being Colombia and Venezuela). Between 1904 and 1942, Ecuador lost

territories in a series of conflicts with its neighbors. A border

war with Peru that flared in 1995 was resolved in 1999.

Egypt

The regularity and richness of the annual Nile River flood,

coupled with semi-isolation provided by deserts to the east and

west, allowed for the development of one of the world's great

civilizations. A unified kingdom arose circa 3200 B.C. and a series

of dynasties ruled in Egypt for the next three millennia. The last

native dynasty fell to the Persians in 341 B.C., who in turn were

replaced by the Greeks, Romans, and Byzantines. It was the Arabs who

introduced Islam and the Arabic language in the 7th century and who

ruled for the next six centuries. A local military caste, the

Mamluks took control about 1250 and continued to govern after the

conquest of Egypt by the Ottoman Turks in 1517. Following the

completion of the Suez Canal in 1869, Egypt became an important

world transportation hub, but also fell heavily into debt.

Ostensibly to protect its investments, Britain seized control of

Egypt's government in 1882, but nominal allegiance to the Ottoman

Empire continued until 1914. Partially independent from the UK in

1922, Egypt acquired full sovereignty following World War II. The

completion of the Aswan High Dam in 1971 and the resultant Lake

Nasser have altered the time-honored place of the Nile River in the

agriculture and ecology of Egypt. A rapidly growing population (the

largest in the Arab world), limited arable land, and dependence on

the Nile all continue to overtax resources and stress society. The

government has struggled to ready the economy for the new millennium

through economic reform and massive investment in communications and

physical infrastructure.

El Salvador

El Salvador achieved independence from Spain in 1821 and

from the Central American Federation in 1839. A 12-year civil war,

which cost about 75,000 lives, was brought to a close in 1992 when

the government and leftist rebels signed a treaty that provided for

military and political reforms.

Equatorial Guinea

Equatorial Guinea gained independence in 1968

after 190 years of Spanish rule. President OBIANG NGUEM MBASOGO has

ruled the tiny country, composed of a mainland portion plus five

inhabited islands and one of the smallest countries on the African

continent, since he seized power in a coup in 1979. Although

nominally a constitutional democracy since 1991, the 1996 and 2002

presidential elections - as well as the 1999 legislative elections -

were widely seen as being flawed.

Eritrea

Eritrea was awarded to Ethiopia in 1952 as part of a

federation. Ethiopia's annexation of Eritrea as a province 10 years

later sparked a 30-year struggle for independence that ended in 1991

with Eritrean rebels defeating governmental forces; independence was

overwhelmingly approved in a 1993 referendum. A two-and-a-half-year

border war with Ethiopia that erupted in 1998 ended under UN

auspices on 12 December 2000. Eritrea currently hosts a UN

peacekeeping operation that is monitoring the border region. An

international commission, organized to resolve the border dispute,

posted its findings in 2002 but final demarcation is on hold due to

Ethiopian objections.

Estonia

After centuries of Danish, Swedish, German, and Russian

rule, Estonia attained independence in 1918. Forcibly incorporated

into the USSR in 1940, it regained its freedom in 1991, with the

collapse of the Soviet Union. Since the last Russian troops left in

1994, Estonia has been free to promote economic and political ties

with Western Europe. Estonia received invitations to join NATO and

the EU in 2002.

Ethiopia

Unique among African countries, the ancient Ethiopian

monarchy maintained its freedom from colonial rule, one exception

being the Italian occupation of 1936-41. In 1974 a military junta,

the Derg, deposed Emperor Haile SELASSIE (who had ruled since 1930)

and established a socialist state. Torn by bloody coups, uprisings,

wide-scale drought, and massive refugee problems, the regime was

finally toppled by a coalition of rebel forces, the Ethiopian

People's Revolutionary Democratic Front (EPRDF), in 1991. A

constitution was adopted in 1994 and Ethiopia's first multiparty

elections were held in 1995. A two and a half year border war with

Eritrea ended with a peace treaty on 12 December 2000. Final

demarcation of the boundary is currently on hold due to Ethiopian

objections to an international commission's finding requiring it to

surrender sensitive territory.

Europa Island

A French possession since 1897, the island is heavily

wooded; it is the site of a small military garrison that staffs a

weather station.

Falkland Islands (Islas Malvinas)

Although first sighted by an

English navigator in 1592, the first landing (English) did not occur

until almost a century later in 1690, and the first settlement

(French) was not established until 1764. The colony was turned over

to Spain two years later and the islands have since been the subject

of a territorial dispute, first between Britain and Spain, then

between Britain and Argentina. The UK asserted its claim to the

islands by establishing a naval garrison there in 1833. Argentina

invaded the islands on 2 April 1982. The British responded with an

expeditionary force that landed seven weeks later and after fierce

fighting forced Argentine surrender on 14 June 1982.

Faroe Islands

The population of the Faroe Islands is largely

descended from Viking settlers who arrived in the 9th century. The

islands have been connected politically to Denmark since the 14th

century. A high degree of self-government was attained in 1948.

Fiji

Fiji became independent in 1970, after nearly a century as a

British colony. Democratic rule was interrupted by two military

coups in 1987, caused by concern over a government perceived as

dominated by the Indian community (descendants of contract laborers

brought to the islands by the British in the 19th century). A 1990

constitution favored native Melanesian control of Fiji, but led to

heavy Indian emigration; the population loss resulted in economic

difficulties, but ensured that Melanesians became the majority.

Amendments enacted in 1997 made the constitution more equitable.

Free and peaceful elections in 1999 resulted in a government led by

an Indo-Fijian, but a coup in May 2000 ushered in a prolonged period

of political turmoil. Parliamentary elections held in August 2001

provided Fiji with a democratically elected government and gave a

mandate to the government of Prime Minister Laisenia QARASE.

Finland

Finland was a province and then a grand duchy under Sweden

from the 12th to the 19th centuries and an autonomous grand duchy of

Russia after 1809. It finally won its complete independence in 1917.

During World War II, it was able to successfully defend its freedom

and resist invasions by the Soviet Union - albeit with some loss of

territory. In the subsequent half century, the Finns made a

remarkable transformation from a farm/forest economy to a

diversified modern industrial economy; per capita income is now on

par with Western Europe. As a member of the European Union, Finland

was the only Nordic state to join the euro system at its initiation

in January 1999.

France

Although ultimately a victor in World Wars I and II, France

suffered extensive losses in its empire, wealth, manpower, and rank

as a dominant nation-state. Nevertheless, France today is one of the

most modern countries in the world and is a leader among European

nations. Since 1958, it has constructed a presidential democracy

resistant to the instabilities experienced in earlier parliamentary

democracies. In recent years, its reconciliation and cooperation

with Germany have proved central to the economic integration of

Europe, including the introduction of the euro in January 2002. At

present, France is at the forefront of European states seeking to

exploit the momentum of monetary union to advance the creation of a

more unified and capable European defense and security apparatus.

French Guiana

First settled by the French in 1604, French Guiana was

the site of notorious penal settlements until 1951. The European

Space Agency launches its communication satellites from Kourou.

French Polynesia

The French annexed various Polynesian island groups

during the 19th century. In September 1995, France stirred up

widespread protests by resuming nuclear testing on the Mururoa atoll

after a three-year moratorium. The tests were suspended in January

1996.

French Southern and Antarctic Lands

The Southern Lands consist of

two archipelagos, Iles Crozet and Iles Kerguelen, and two volcanic

islands, Ile Amsterdam and Ile Saint-Paul. They contain no permanent

inhabitants and are visited only by researchers studying the native

fauna. The Antarctic portion consists of "Adelie Land," a thin slice

of the Antarctic continent discovered and claimed by the French in

1840.

Gabon

Ruled by autocratic presidents since independence from France

in 1960, Gabon introduced a multiparty system and a new constitution

in the early 1990s that allowed for a more transparent electoral

process and for reforms of governmental institutions. A small

population, abundant natural resources, and considerable foreign

support have helped make Gabon one of the more prosperous black

African countries.

Gambia, The

The Gambia gained its independence from the UK in 1965;

it formed a short-lived federation of Senegambia with Senegal

between 1982 and 1989. In 1991 the two nations signed a friendship

and cooperation treaty. A military coup in 1994 overthrew the

president and banned political activity, but a 1996 constitution and

presidential elections, followed by parliamentary balloting in 1997,

completed a nominal return to civilian rule. The country undertook

another round of presidential and legislative elections in late 2001

and early 2002.

Gaza Strip

The Israel-PLO Declaration of Principles on Interim

Self-Government Arrangements (the DOP), signed in Washington on 13

September 1993, provided for a transitional period not exceeding

five years of Palestinian interim self-government in the Gaza Strip

and the West Bank. Under the DOP, Israel agreed to transfer certain

powers and responsibilities to the Palestinian Authority, which

includes the Palestinian Legislative Council elected in January

1996, as part of the interim self-governing arrangements in the West

Bank and Gaza Strip. A transfer of powers and responsibilities for

the Gaza Strip and Jericho took place pursuant to the Israel-PLO 4

May 1994 Cairo Agreement on the Gaza Strip and the Jericho Area and

in additional areas of the West Bank pursuant to the Israel-PLO 28

September 1995 Interim Agreement, the Israel-PLO 15 January 1997

Protocol Concerning Redeployment in Hebron, the Israel-PLO 23

October 1998 Wye River Memorandum, and the 4 September 1999 Sharm

el-Sheikh Agreement. The DOP provides that Israel will retain

responsibility during the transitional period for external and

internal security and for public order of settlements and Israeli

citizens. Direct negotiations to determine the permanent status of

Gaza and West Bank had begun in September 1999 after a three-year

hiatus, but have been derailed by a second intifadah that broke out

in September 2000. The resulting widespread violence in the West

Bank and Gaza Strip, Israel's military response, and instability

within the Palestinian Authority continue to undermine progress

toward a permanent agreement.

Georgia

Georgia was absorbed into the Russian Empire in the 19th

century. Independent for three years (1918-1921) following the

Russian revolution, it was forcibly incorporated into the USSR until

the Soviet Union dissolved in 1991. Ethnic separation in Abkhazia

and South Ossetia, poor governance, and Russian military bases deny

the government effective control over the entirety of the state's

internationally recognized territory. Despite myriad problems, some

progress on market reforms and democratization has been made. An

attempt by the government to manipulate legislative elections in

November 2003 touched off widespread protests that led to the

resignation of President Eduard SHEVARDNADZE.

Germany

As Europe's largest economy and most populous nation,

Germany remains a key member of the continent's economic, political,

and defense organizations. European power struggles immersed the

country in two devastating World Wars in the first half of the 20th

century and left the country occupied by the victorious Allied

powers of the US, UK, France, and the Soviet Union in 1945. With the

advent of the Cold War, two German states were formed in 1949: the

western Federal Republic of Germany (FRG) and the eastern German

Democratic Republic (GDR). The democratic FRG embedded itself in key

Western economic and security organizations, the EC, which became

the EU, and NATO, while the Communist GDR was on the front line of

the Soviet-led Warsaw Pact. The decline of the USSR and the end of

the Cold War allowed for German unification in 1990. Since then,

Germany has expended considerable funds to bring eastern

productivity and wages up to western standards. In January 2002,

Germany and 11 other EU countries introduced a common European

currency, the euro.

Ghana

Formed from the merger of the British colony of the Gold Coast

and the Togoland trust territory, Ghana in 1957 became the first

country in colonial Africa to gain its independence. A long series

of coups resulted in the suspension of the constitution in 1981 and

the banning of political parties. A new constitution, restoring

multiparty politics, was approved in 1992. Lt. Jerry RAWLINGS, head

of state since 1981, won presidential elections in 1992 and 1996,

but was constitutionally prevented from running for a third term in

2000. He was succeeded by John KUFUOR, who defeated former Vice

President Atta MILLS in a free and fair election.

Gibraltar

Strategically important, Gibraltar was ceded to Great

Britain by Spain in the 1713 Treaty of Utrecht; the British garrison

was formally declared a colony in 1830. In referendums held in 1967

and 2002, Gibraltarians ignored Spanish pressure and voted

overwhelmingly to remain a British dependency.

Glorioso Islands

A French possession since 1892, the Glorioso

Islands are composed of two lushly vegetated coral islands (Ile

Glorieuse and Ile du Lys) and three rock islets. A military garrison

operates a weather and radio station on Ile Glorieuse.

Greece

Greece achieved its independence from the Ottoman Empire in

1829. During the second half of the 19th century and the first half

of the 20th century, it gradually added neighboring islands and

territories, most with Greek-speaking populations. Following the

defeat of Communist rebels in 1949, Greece joined NATO in 1952. A

military dictatorship, which in 1967 suspended many political

liberties and forced the king to flee the country, lasted seven

years. Democratic elections in 1974 and a referendum created a

parliamentary republic and abolished the monarchy; Greece joined the

European Community or EC in 1981 (which became the EU in 1992).

Greenland

The world's largest non-continental island, about 81%

ice-capped, Greenland was granted self-government in 1978 by the

Danish parliament. The law went into effect the following year.

Denmark continues to exercise control of Greenland's foreign affairs.

Grenada

One of the smallest independent countries in the western

hemisphere, Grenada was seized by a Marxist military council on 19

October 1983. Six days later the island was invaded by US forces and

those of six other Caribbean nations, which quickly captured the

ringleaders and their hundreds of Cuban advisers. Free elections

were reinstituted the following year.

Guadeloupe

Guadeloupe has been a French possession since 1635. The

island of Saint Martin is shared with the Netherlands; its southern

portion is named Sint Maarten and is part of the Netherlands

Antilles and its northern portion is named Saint-Martin and is part

of Guadeloupe

Guam

Guam was ceded to the US by Spain in 1898. Captured by the

Japanese in 1941, it was retaken by the US three years later. The

military installation on the island is one of the most strategically

important US bases in the Pacific.

Guatemala

Guatemala was freed of Spanish colonial rule in 1821.

During the second half of the 20th century, it experienced a variety

of military and civilian governments as well as a 36-year guerrilla

war. In 1996, the government signed a peace agreement formally

ending the conflict, which had led to the death of more than 100,000

people and had created some 1 million refugees.

Guernsey

The island of Guernsey and the other Channel Islands

represent the last remnants of the medieval Dukedom of Normandy,

which held sway in both France and England. The islands were the

only British soil occupied by German troops in World War II.

Guinea

Independent from France since 1958, Guinea did not hold

democratic elections until 1993 when Gen. Lansana CONTE (head of the

military government) was elected president of the civilian

government. He was reelected in 1998. Unrest in Sierra Leone has

spilled over into Guinea, threatening stability and creating a

humanitarian emergency.

Guinea-Bissau

In 1994, 20 years after independence from Portugal,

the country's first multiparty legislative and presidential

elections were held. An army uprising that triggered a bloody civil

war in 1998 created hundreds of thousands of displaced persons. A

military junta ousted the president in May 1999. An interim

government turned over power in February 2000 when opposition leader

Kumba YALA took office following two rounds of transparent

presidential elections. Guinea-Bissau's transition back to democracy

will be complicated by its crippled economy, devastated in the civil

war.

Guyana

Originally a Dutch colony in the 17th century, by 1815 Guyana

had become a British possession. The abolition of slavery led to

black settlement of urban areas and the importation of indentured

servants from India to work the sugar plantations. This

ethnocultural divide has persisted and has led to turbulent

politics. Guyana achieved independence from the UK in 1966, but

until the early 1990s it was ruled mostly by socialist-oriented

governments. In 1992, Cheddi JAGAN was elected president, in what is

considered the country's first free and fair election since

independence. Upon his death five years later, he was succeeded by

his wife Janet, who resigned in 1999 due to poor health. Her

successor, Bharrat JAGDEO, was reelected in 2001.

Haiti

The native Arawak Amerindians - who inhabited the island of

Hispaniola when it was discovered by Columbus in 1492 - were

virtually annihilated by Spanish settlers within 25 years. In the

early 17th century, the French established a presence on Hispaniola,

and in 1697, Spain ceded to the French the western third of the

island - Haiti. The French colony, based on forestry and

sugar-related industries, became one of the wealthiest in the

Caribbean, but only through the heavy importation of African slaves

and considerable environmental degradation. In the late 18th

century, Haiti's nearly half million slaves revolted under Toussaint

L'OUVERTURE and after a prolonged struggle, became the first black

republic to declare its independence in 1804. Haiti has been plagued

by political violence for most of its history since then, and it is

now one of the poorest countries in the Western Hemisphere. Over

three decades of dictatorship followed by military rule ended in

1990 when Jean-Bertrand ARISTIDE was elected president. Most of his

term was usurped by a military takeover, but he was able to return

to office in 1994 and oversee the installation of a close associate

to the presidency in 1996. ARISTIDE won a second term as president

in 2000, and took office early in 2001. However, a political crisis

stemming from fraudulent legislative elections in 2000 has not yet

been resolved.

Heard Island and McDonald Islands

These uninhabited, barren,

sub-Antarctic islands were transferred from the UK to Australia in

1947. Populated by large numbers of seal and bird species, the

islands have been designated a nature preserve.

Holy See (Vatican City)

Popes in their secular role ruled portions

of the Italian peninsula for more than a thousand years until the

mid 19th century, when many of the Papal States were seized by the

newly united Kingdom of Italy. In 1870, the pope's holdings were

further circumscribed when Rome itself was annexed. Disputes between

a series of "prisoner" popes and Italy were resolved in 1929 by

three Lateran Treaties, which established the independent state of

Vatican City and granted Roman Catholicism special status in Italy.

In 1984, a concordat between the Holy See and Italy modified certain

of the earlier treaty provisions, including the primacy of Roman

Catholicism as the Italian state religion. Present concerns of the

Holy See include the failing health of Pope John Paul II,

interreligious dialogue and reconciliation, and the application of

church doctrine in an era of rapid change and globalization. About 1

billion people worldwide profess the Catholic faith.

Honduras

Part of Spain's vast empire in the New World, Honduras

became an independent nation in 1821. After two and one-half decades

of mostly military rule, a freely elected civilian government came

to power in 1982. During the 1980s, Honduras proved a haven for

anti-Sandinista contras fighting the Marxist Nicaraguan Government

and an ally to Salvadoran Government forces fighting against leftist

guerrillas. The country was devastated by Hurricane Mitch in 1998,

which killed about 5,600 people and caused almost $1 billion in

damage.

Hong Kong

Occupied by the UK in 1841, Hong Kong was formally ceded

by China the following year; various adjacent lands were added later

in the 19th century. Pursuant to an agreement signed by China and

the UK on 19 December 1984, Hong Kong became the Hong Kong Special

Administrative Region (SAR) of China on 1 July 1997. In this

agreement, China has promised that, under its "one country, two

systems" formula, China's socialist economic system will not be

imposed on Hong Kong and that Hong Kong will enjoy a high degree of

autonomy in all matters except foreign and defense affairs for the

next 50 years.

Howland Island

Discovered by the US early in the 19th century, the

island was officially claimed by the US in 1857. Both US and British

companies mined for guano until about 1890. Earhart Light is a day

beacon near the middle of the west coast that was partially

destroyed during World War II, but has since been rebuilt; it is

named in memory of the famed aviatrix Amelia EARHART. The island is

administered by the US Department of the Interior as a National

Wildlife Refuge.

Hungary

Hungary was part of the polyglot Austro-Hungarian Empire,

which collapsed during World War I. The country fell under Communist

rule following World War II. In 1956, a revolt and announced

withdrawal from the Warsaw Pact were met with a massive military

intervention by Moscow. Under the leadership of Janos KADAR in 1968,

Hungary began liberalizing its economy, introducing so-called

"goulash Communism." Hungary held its first multiparty elections in

1990 and initiated a free market economy. It joined NATO in 1999 and

is scheduled to accede to the EU along with nine other states on 1

May 2004. In an April 2003 referendum, 84 percent voted in favor of

joining the EU.

Iceland

Settled by Norwegian and Celtic (Scottish and Irish)

immigrants during the late 9th and 10th centuries A.D., Iceland

boasts the world's oldest functioning legislative assembly, the

Althing, established in 930. Independent for over 300 years, Iceland

was subsequently ruled by Norway and Denmark. Fallout from the Askja

volcano of 1875 devastated the Icelandic economy and caused

widespread famine. Over the next quarter century, 20% of the

island's population emigrated, mostly to Canada and the US. Limited

home rule from Denmark was granted in 1874 and complete independence

attained in 1944. Literacy, longevity, income, and social cohesion

are first-rate by world standards.

India

The Indus Valley civilization, one of the oldest in the world,

goes back at least 5,000 years. Aryan tribes from the northwest

invaded about 1500 B.C.; their merger with the earlier inhabitants

created the classical Indian culture. Arab incursions starting in

the 8th century and Turkish in 12th were followed by European

traders, beginning in the late 15th century. By the 19th century,

Britain had assumed political control of virtually all Indian lands.

Nonviolent resistance to British colonialism under Mohandas GANDHI

and Jawaharlal NEHRU led to independence in 1947. The subcontinent

was divided into the secular state of India and the smaller Muslim

state of Pakistan. A third war between the two countries in 1971

resulted in East Pakistan becoming the separate nation of

Bangladesh. Fundamental concerns in India include the ongoing

dispute with Pakistan over Kashmir, massive overpopulation,

environmental degradation, extensive poverty, and ethnic and

religious strife, all this despite impressive gains in economic

investment and output.

Indian Ocean

The Indian Ocean is the third largest of the world's

five oceans (after the Pacific Ocean and Atlantic Ocean, but larger

than the Southern Ocean and Arctic Ocean). Four critically important

access waterways are the Suez Canal (Egypt), Bab el Mandeb

(Djibouti-Yemen), Strait of Hormuz (Iran-Oman), and Strait of

Malacca (Indonesia-Malaysia). The decision by the International

Hydrographic Organization in the spring of 2000 to delimit a fifth

ocean, the Southern Ocean, removed the portion of the Indian Ocean

south of 60 degrees south.

Indonesia

Indonesia is the world's largest archipelago; it achieved

independence from the Netherlands in 1949. Current issues include:

alleviating widespread poverty, implementing IMF-mandated reforms of

the banking sector, effecting a transition to a popularly-elected

government after four decades of authoritarianism, addressing

charges of cronyism and corruption, holding the military and police

accountable for human rights violations, and resolving growing

separatist pressures in Aceh and Papua.

Iran

Known as Persia until 1935, Iran became an Islamic republic in

1979 after the ruling shah was forced into exile. Conservative

clerical forces established a theocratic system of government with

ultimate political authority vested in a learned religious scholar.

A group of Iranian students seized the US Embassy in Tehran on 4

November 1979 and held it until 20 January 1981. During 1980-88,

Iran fought a bloody, indecisive war with Iraq over disputed

territory. Over the past decade, popular dissatisfaction with the

government, driven by demographic changes, restrictive social

policies, and poor economic conditions, has created a powerful and

enduring pressure for political reform.

Iraq

Formerly part of the Ottoman Empire, Iraq was occupied by

Britain during the course of World War I; in 1920, it was declared a

League of Nations mandate under UK administration. In stages over

the next dozen years, Iraq attained its independence as a kingdom in

1932. A "republic" was proclaimed in 1958, but in actuality a series

of military strongmen have ruled the country since then, the latest

being SADDAM Husayn. Territorial disputes with Iran led to an

inconclusive and costly eight-year war (1980-88). In August 1990,

Iraq seized Kuwait, but was expelled by US-led, UN coalition forces

during the Gulf War of January-February 1991. Following Kuwait's

liberation, the UN Security Council (UNSC) required Iraq to scrap

all weapons of mass destruction and long-range missiles and to allow

UN verification inspections. Continued Iraqi noncompliance with UNSC

resolutions over a period of 12 years resulted in the US-led

invasion of Iraq in March 2003 and the ouster of the SADDAM Husayn

regime. Coalition forces remain in Iraq, helping to restore degraded

infrastructure and facilitating the establishment of a freely

elected government.

Ireland

Celtic tribes settled on the island in the 4th century B.C.

Invasions by Norsemen that began in the late 8th century were

finally ended when King Brian BORU defeated the Danes in 1014.

English invasions began in the 12th century and set off more than

seven centuries of Anglo-Irish struggle marked by fierce rebellions

and harsh repressions. A failed 1916 Easter Monday Rebellion touched

off several years of guerrilla warfare that in 1921 resulted in

independence from the UK for 26 southern counties; six northern

(Ulster) counties remained part of the United Kingdom. In 1948

Ireland withdrew from the British Commonwealth; it joined the

European Community in 1973. Irish governments have sought the

peaceful unification of Ireland and have cooperated with Britain

against terrorist groups. A peace settlement for Northern Ireland,

known as the Good Friday Agreement and approved in 1998, is

currently being implemented.

Israel

Following World War II, the British withdrew from their

mandate of Palestine, and the UN partitioned the area into Arab and

Jewish states, an arrangement rejected by the Arabs. Subsequently,

the Israelis defeated the Arabs in a series of wars without ending

the deep tensions between the two sides. The territories occupied by

Israel since the 1967 war are not included in the Israel country

profile, unless otherwise noted. On 25 April 1982, Israel withdrew

from the Sinai pursuant to the 1979 Israel-Egypt Peace Treaty.

Outstanding territorial and other disputes with Jordan were resolved

in the 26 October 1994 Israel-Jordan Treaty of Peace. In addition,

on 25 May 2000, Israel withdrew unilaterally from southern Lebanon,

which it had occupied since 1982. In keeping with the framework

established at the Madrid Conference in October 1991, bilateral

negotiations were conducted between Israel and Palestinian

representatives (from the Israeli-occupied West Bank and Gaza Strip)

and Syria to achieve a permanent settlement. But progress toward a

permanent status agreement has been undermined by the outbreak of

Palestinian-Israeli violence since September 2000.

Italy

Italy became a nation-state in 1861 when the city-states of

the peninsula, along with Sardinia and Sicily, were united under

King Victor EMMANUEL. An era of parliamentary government came to a

close in the early 1920s when Benito MUSSOLINI established a Fascist

dictatorship. His disastrous alliance with Nazi Germany led to

Italy's defeat in World War II. A democratic republic replaced the

monarchy in 1946 and economic revival followed. Italy was a charter

member of NATO and the European Economic Community (EEC). It has

been at the forefront of European economic and political

unification, joining the European Monetary Union in 1999. Persistent

problems include illegal immigration, organized crime, corruption,

high unemployment, and the low incomes and technical standards of

southern Italy compared with the prosperous north.

Jamaica

Jamaica gained full independence within the British

Commonwealth in 1962. Deteriorating economic conditions during the

1970s led to recurrent violence and a dropoff in tourism. Elections

in 1980 saw the democratic socialists voted out of office.

Subsequent governments have been open market oriented. Political

violence marred elections during the 1990s.

Jan Mayen

This desolate, mountainous island was named after a Dutch

whaling captain who indisputably discovered it in 1614 (earlier

claims are inconclusive). Visited only occasionally by seal hunters

and trappers over the following centuries, the island came under

Norwegian sovereignty in 1929. The long dormant Haakon VII

Toppen/Beerenberg volcano resumed activity in 1970; it is the

northernmost active volcano on earth.

Japan

While retaining its time-honored culture, Japan rapidly

absorbed Western technology during the late 19th and early 20th

centuries. After its defeat in World War II, Japan recovered to

become an economic power and a staunch ally of the US. While the

emperor retains his throne as a symbol of national unity, actual

power rests in networks of powerful politicians, bureaucrats, and

business executives. The economy experienced a major slowdown

starting in the 1990s following three decades of unprecedented

growth.

Jarvis Island

First discovered by the British in 1821, the

uninhabited island was annexed by the US in 1858, but abandoned in

1879 after tons of guano had been removed. The UK annexed the island

in 1889, but never carried out plans for further exploitation. The

US occupied and reclaimed the island in 1935. Abandoned after World

War II, the island is currently a National Wildlife Refuge

administered by the US Department of the Interior; a day beacon is

situated near the middle of the west coast.

Jersey

The island of Jersey and the other Channel Islands represent

the last remnants of the medieval Dukedom of Normandy that held sway

in both France and England. These islands were the only British soil

occupied by German troops in World War II.

Johnston Atoll

Both the US and the Kingdom of Hawaii annexed

Johnston Atoll in 1858, but it was the US that mined the guano

deposits until the late 1880s. The US Navy took over the atoll in

1934, and subsequently the US Air Force assumed control in 1948. The

site was used for high-altitude nuclear tests in the 1950s and

1960s, and until late in 2000 the atoll was maintained as a storage

and disposal site for chemical weapons. Munitions destruction is now

complete. Cleanup and closure of the facility is progressing, with

completion anticipated in 2004.

Jordan

For most of its history since independence from British

administration in 1946, Jordan was ruled by King HUSSEIN (1953-99).

A pragmatic ruler, he successfully navigated competing pressures

from the major powers (US, USSR, and UK), various Arab states,

Israel, and a large internal Palestinian population, through several

wars and coup attempts. In 1989 he resumed parliamentary elections

and gradually permitted political liberalization; in 1994 a formal

peace treaty was signed with Israel. King ABDALLAH II - the eldest

son of King HUSSEIN and Princess MUNA - assumed the throne following

his father's death in February 1999. Since then, he has consolidated

his power and established his domestic priorities, including an

aggressive economic reform program. Jordan acceded to the World

Trade Organization in January 2000, and signed free trade agreements

with the United States in 2000, and with the European Free Trade

Association in 2001.

Juan de Nova Island

Named after a famous 15th century Spanish

navigator and explorer, the island has been a French possession

since 1897. It has been exploited for its guano and phosphate.

Presently a small military garrison oversees a meteorological

station.

Kazakhstan

Native Kazakhs, a mix of Turkic and Mongol nomadic tribes

who migrated into the region in the 13th century, were rarely united

as a single nation. The area was conquered by Russia in the 18th

century and Kazakhstan became a Soviet Republic in 1936. During the

1950s and 1960s agricultural "Virgin Lands" program, Soviet citizens

were encouraged to help cultivate Kazakhstan's northern pastures.

This influx of immigrants (mostly Russians, but also some other

deported nationalities) skewed the ethnic mixture and enabled

non-Kazakhs to outnumber natives. Independence has caused many of

these newcomers to emigrate. Current issues include: developing a

cohesive national identity; expanding the development of the

country's vast energy resources and exporting them to world markets;

achieving a sustainable economic growth outside the oil, gas, and

mining sectors; and strengthening relations with neighboring states

and other foreign powers.