[1] The Aulic Council is the private court of the emperor, with its
members nominated by him; the Imperial Chamber is the public court of
the Empire, with its members nominated by the estates of the Empire.
AULIE-ATA, a town and fort of Russian Turkestan, province of Syr-darya,
152 m. N.E. of Tashkent, on the Talas river, at the western end of the
Alexander range, its altitude being 5700 ft. The inhabitants are mostly
Sarts and Tajiks, trading in cattle, horses and hides. Pop. (1897)
12,006.
AULIS, an ancient Boeotian town on the Euripus, situated on a rocky
peninsula between two bays, near the modern village of Vathy, about 3 m.
S. of Chalcis. Its fame was due to the tradition that it was the
starting-place of the Greek fleet before the Trojan War, the scene of
the sacrifice of Iphigenia. The temple of Artemis was still to be seen
in the time of Pausanias.
AULNOY (or AUNOY), MARIE CATHERINE LE JUMEL DE BARNEVILLE DE LA MOTTE,
BARONNE D' (c. 1650-1705), French author, was born about 1650 at
Barneville near Bourg-Achard (Eure). She was the niece of Marie Bruneau
des Loges, the friend of Malherbe and of J.G. de Balzac, who was called
the "tenth Muse." She married on the 8th of March 1666 Francois de la
Motte, a gentleman in the service of Cesar, duc de Vendome, who became
Baron d'Aulnoy in 1654. With her mother, who by a second marriage had
become marquise de Gudaigne, she instigated a prosecution for high
treason against her husband. The conspiracy was exposed, and the two
women saved themselves by a hasty flight to England. Thence they went
(February 1679) to Spain, but were eventually allowed to return to
France in reward for secret services rendered to the government. Mme.
d'Aulnoy died in Paris on the 14th of January 1705. She wrote fairy
tales, _Contes nouvelles ou les Fees a la mode_ (3 vols., 1698), in the
manner of Charles Perrault. This collection (24 tales) included
_L'Oiseau bleu, Finette Cendron, La Chatte blanche_ and others. The
originals of most of her admirable tales are to be found in the
_Pentamerone_ (1637) of Giovanni Battista Basile. Other works are:
_L'Histoire d'Hippolyte, comte de Duglas_ (1690), a romance in the style
of Madame de la Fayette, though much inferior to its model; _Memoires de
la cour d'Espagne_ (1679-1681); and a _Relation du voyage d'Espagne_
(1690 or 1691) in the form of letters, edited in 1874-1876 as _La Cour
et la ville de Madrid_ by Mme. B. Carey; _Histoire de Jean de Bourbon_
(1692); _Memoires sur la cour de France_ (1692); _Memoires de la cour
d'Angleterre_ (1695). Her historical writings are partly borrowed from
existing records, to which she adds much that must be regarded as
fiction, and some vivid descriptions of contemporary manners.
The _Diverting Works of the Countess d'Anois_, including some
extremely untrustworthy "Memoirs of her own life," were printed in
London in 1707. _The Fairy Tales of Madame d'Aulnoy_, with an
introduction by Lady Thackeray Ritchie, appeared in 1892. For
biographical particulars see M. de Lescure's introduction to the
_Contes des Fees_ (1881).
AULOS (Gr. [Greek: aulos]; Lat. _tibia_; Egyptian hieroglyphic, _Ma-it_;
medieval equivalents, _shalm, chalumeau, schalmei, hautbois_), in Greek
antiquities, a class of wood-wind instruments with single or with double
reed mouthpiece and either cylindrical or conical bore, thus
corresponding to both oboe and clarinet. In its widest acceptation the
_aulos_ was a generic term for instruments consisting of a tube in which
the air column was set in vibration either directly by the lips of the
performer, or through the medium of a mouthpiece containing a single or
a double reed. Even the pipes of the pan-pipes (_syrinx polycalamus_,[1]
[Greek: syrinx polykalamos]) were sometimes called auloi ([Greek:
auloi]). The aulos is also the earliest prototype of the organ, which,
by gradual assimilation of the principles of syrinx and bag-pipe,
reached the stage at which it became known as the _Tyrrhenian aulos_
(Pollux iv. 70) or the _hydraulos_, according to the method of
compressing the wind supply (see ORGAN: _Early History_; and SYRINX).
The aulos in its earliest form, the reed pipe, during the best classical
period had a cylindrical bore ([Greek: koilia]) like that of the modern
clarinet, and therefore had the acoustic properties of the stopped pipe,
whether the air column was set in vibration by means of a single or of a
double reed, for the mouthpiece does not affect the harmonic series.[2]
To the acoustic properties of open or stopped pipes are due those
essential differences which underlie the classification of modern wind
instruments. A stopped pipe produces its fundamental tone one octave
lower than the tone of an open pipe of corresponding length, and
overblows the harmonics of the twelfth, and of the third above the
second octave of the fundamental tone, i.e. the odd numbers of the
series; whereas the open pipe gives the whole series of harmonics, the
octave, the twelfth, the double octave, and the third above it, &c.
To produce the diatonic scale throughout the octaves of its compass, the
stopped pipe requires eleven lateral holes in the side of the pipe, at
appropriate distances from each other, and from the end of the pipe,
whereas the open pipe requires but six. The acoustic properties of the
open pipe can only be secured in combination with a reed mouthpiece by
making the bore conical. The late Romans (and therefore we may perhaps
assume the Greeks also, since the Romans acknowledge their indebtedness
to the Greeks in matters relating to musical instruments, and more
especially to the cithara and aulos) understood the acoustic principle
utilized to-day in making wind instruments, that a hole of small
diameter nearer the mouthpiece may be substituted for one of greater
diameter in the theoretically correct position. This is demonstrated by
the 4th-century grammarian Macrobius, who says (_Comm. in Somn. Scip._
ii. 4, 5): "Nec secus probamus in tibiis, de quarum foraminibus vicinis
inflantis ori sonus acutus emittitur, de longinquis autem et termino
proximis gravior; item acutior per patentiora foramina, gravior per
angusta" (see BASSOON). Aristotle gives directions for boring holes in
the aulos, which would apply only to a pipe of cylindrical bore
(_Probl_. xix. 23). At first the aulos had but three or four holes; to
Diodorus of Thebes is due the credit of having increased this number
(Pollux iv. 80). Pronomus, the musician, and teacher of Alcibiades (5th
century B.C.), further improved the aulos by making it possible to play
on one pair of instruments the three musical scales in use at his time,
the Dorian, the Phrygian, and the Lydian, whereas previously a separate
pair of pipes had been used for each scale (Pausanias ix. 12. 5;
Athenaeus xiv. 31). These three modes would require a compass of a tenth
in order to produce the fundamental octave in each.
There are two ways in which this increased compass might have been
obtained: (1) by increasing the number of holes and covering up those
not required, (2) by means of contrivances for lowering the pitch of
individual notes as required. We have evidence that both means were
known to the Greeks and Romans. The simplest device for closing holes
not in use was a band of metal left free to slide round the pipe, and
having a hole bored through it corresponding in diameter with the hole
in the pipe. Each hole was provided with a band, which was in some cases
prevented from slipping down the pipe by narrow fixed rings of metal.
The line on fig. 1 between r and s is thought to have been one of these
rings.
Some pipes had two holes pierced through the bands and the bone, in such
a manner that only one could be exposed at a time. This is clearly shown
in the diagram (fig. 1) of fragments of an aulos from the museum at
Candia, for which the writer is greatly indebted to Professor John L.
Myres, by whom measured drawings were made from the instrument in 1893.
These highly interesting remains, judging from the closed end (5), seem
to belong to a side-blown reed-pipe similar to the Maenad pipes in the
Castellani collection at the British Museum, illustrated below; they are
constructed like modern flutes, but played by means of a reed inserted
into the lateral embouchure.
In the Candia pipe, it seems likely that Nos. 1 and 2 represented the
bell end, slightly expanded, No. 3 joining the broken end of No. 2 at l;
there being a possible fit at the other end at s with a in No. 4 (the
drawings must in this case be imagined as reversed for parts 3 and 4),
and No. 5 joining on to No. 4 at k.
According to Professor Myres there are fragments of a pair of pipes in
the Cyprus Museum of precisely the same construction as the one in
Candia. In the drawing, the shape and relative position of the holes _on
the circumference_ is approximate only, but their position lengthways is
measured.
[Illustration: FIG. 1.--Diagram of the Fragments of an _Aulos_ (Candia
Mus.).
(From a drawing by Prof. John L. Myres.)
a, Triple wrapping of bronze as well as slide.
b, Slide with hole.
c, Slides with two holes not uncovered together.
d, Slides with two holes not uncovered together, one hole at back.
e, Slide.
f, Slide missing.
g, Slide missing, scars of slide holes.
h, Slide.
i and j, Slide.
k, Socket.
l, Male half of joint.
m, n, o, Slides, the top hole being in the slide only.
p and q, Slides, with two holes; the small hole shown is in the
pipe, there being a corresponding hole in the slide at the back.
r, Bronze covering (and slide?).
s, Male joint.
t, The wavy line shows the extreme length of fragment.
u, 13 mm. inside diameter, 14 mm. outside diameter.
w, Engraved lines and conical form of bronze covering.
x, Wavy line shows extreme length of fragment.
y, Stopped end of pipe with engraved lines.
The line between r and s is either a turned ring or part of bronze
cover. The double lines to the right of t are engraved lines.]
Bands of silver were found on the ivory pipes from Pompeii[3] (fig. 2),
as well as on two pipes belonging to the Castellani collection (fig. 4)
and on one from Halicarnassus, in the British Museum. In order to enable
the performer to use these bands conveniently, a contrivance such as a
little ring, a horn or a hook termed keras (Greek: keras) was attached
to the band.[4]
Thirteen of the bands on the Pompeian pipes still have sockets which
probably originally contained _kerata_. Pollux (iv. 80) mentions that
Diodorus of Thebes, in order to increase the range of the aulos, made
lateral channels for the air ([Greek: plagiai hodoi]). These consisted
of tubes inserted into the holes in the bands for the purpose of
lengthening the column of air, and lowering individual notes at will,
the sound being then produced at the extremity of the tube, instead of
at the surface of the pipe. It is possible that some of the double holes
in the slides of the Candia pipe were intended for the reception of
these tubes. These lateral tubes form the archetype of the modern crook
or piston.[5] The mouthpiece of the aulos was called _zeugos_ ([Greek:
zeugos]),[6] the reed tongue _glossa_[7] or _glotta_ ([Greek: glossa] or
[Greek: glotta]), and the socket into which the reed was fixed
_glottis_[8] ([Greek: glottis]).
The double reed was probably used at first, being the simplest form of
mouthpiece; the word _zeugos_, moreover, signifies a pair of like
things. There is, however, no difficulty in accepting the probability
that a single beating reed or clarinet mouthpiece was used by the
Greeks, since the ancient Egyptians used it with the as-it or arghoul
(q.v.).
[Illustration: FIG. 2.--Roman Ivory Aulos found at Pompeii (Naples
Mus.), showing slides and rings.
(Drawn from a photo by Brogi.)]
The beak-shaped mouthpiece of a pipe found at Pompeii (fig. 3) has all
the appearance of the beak of the clarinet, having, on the side not
shown, the lay on which to fix a single or beating reed.[9] It may,
however, have been the cap of a covered reed, or even a whistle
mouthpiece in which the lip does not show in the photograph. It is
difficult to form a conclusion without seeing the real instrument. On a
mosaic of Monnus in Treves[10] is represented an aulos which also
appears to have a beak-shaped mouthpiece.
The upper part of the aulos, as in the Pompeian pipes, frequently had
the form of a flaring cup supported on a pear-shaped bulb, respectively
identified as the _holmos_ ([Greek: holmos]) and the _hypholmion_
([Greek: hypholmion]), the support of the _holmos_. An explanation of
the original nature and construction of the bulb and flaring cup, so
familiar in the various representations of the aulos, and in the real
instruments found in Pompeii, is provided by an ancient Egyptian flute
belonging to the collection of G. Maspero, illustrated and described by
Victor Loret.[11] Loret calls the double bulb the beak mouthpiece of the
instrument, and describes its construction; it consists of a piece of
reed of larger diameter than that of the flute, and eight centimetres
long; this reed has been forcibly compressed a little more than half way
down by means of a ligature of twine, thus reducing the diameter from 6
mm. to 4 mm. The end of the pipe, covered by rows of waxed thread, fits
into the end of the smaller bulb, to which it was also bound by waxed
thread exactly as in the Elgin pipe at the British Museum, described
below. There is no indication of the manner in which the pipe was
sounded, and Loret assumes that there was once a whistle or flageolet
mouthpiece. To the present writer, however, it seems probable that the
constricted diameter between the two bulbs formed a socket into which
the double reed or straw was inserted, and that, in this case at least,
the reed was not taken into the mouth, but vibrated in the upper bulb or
air-chamber. This simple contrivance was probably also employed in the
earliest Greek pipes, and was later copied and elaborated in wood, bone
or metal, the upper bulb being made shorter and developing into the
flaring cup, in order that the reeds might be taken directly into the
mouth. During the best period of Greek music the reeds were taken
directly into the mouth[12] and not enclosed in an air-chamber. The two
pipes were kept in position while the fingers stopped the holes and
turned the bands by means of the [Greek: phorbeia] (Lat. _capistrum_), a
bandage encircling mouth and cheeks, and having holes through which the
reed-mouthpiece passed into the mouth of the performer; the _phorbeia_
also relieved the pressure of the breath on the cheeks and lips,[13]
which is felt more especially by performers on oboe and bassoon at the
present day.
[Illustration: FIG. 3.--Beak mouthpiece. Found at Pompeii (Naples Mus.).
(From a photo by Brogi.)]
In the pair of wooden pipes belonging to the Elgin collection at the
British Museum, one of the bulbs, partly broken, but preserved in the
same case as the pipes, was fastened to the pipes by means of waxed
thread, the indented lines being still visible on the rim of the bulb.
The aulos was kept in a case called _sybene_[14] ([Greek: sybaenae]) or
_aulotheke_[15] ([Greek: aulothaekae]), and the little bag or case in
which the delicate reeds were carried was known by the name of
_glottokomeion_[15] ([Greek: glottokomeion]).[16] Two Egyptian flute
cases are extant, one in the Louvre,[17] and the other in the museum at
Leiden. The latter case is of sycamore wood, cylindrical in shape, with
a stopper of the same wood; there is no legend or design upon it. The
case contained seven pipes, five pieces of reed without bore or holes,
and three pieces of straw suitable for making double-reed
mouthpieces.[18]
Aristoxenus gives the full compass of a single pipe or pair of pipes as
over three octaves:--"For doubtless we should find an interval greater
than the above mentioned three octaves between the highest note of the
soprano clarinet (aulos) and the lowest note of the bass-clarinet
(aulos); and again between the highest note of a clarinet player
performing with the speaker open, and the lowest note of a clarinet
player performing with the speaker closed."[19]
This, according to the tables of Alypius, would correspond to the full
range of the Greek scales, a little over three octaves from
[Illustration: low "E" below the staff, bass clef] to [Illustration:
high "F-sharp" on the fifth-stave, treble clef]. It is evident that the
ancient Greeks obtained this full compass on the aulos by means of the
harmonics. Proclus (_Comm. in Alcibiad._ chap. 68) states that from each
hole of the pipe at least three tones could be produced. Moreover,
classic writers maintain that if the performer press the _zeugos_ or the
_glottai_ of the pipes, a sharper tone is produced.[20] This is exactly
how a performer on a modern clarinet or oboe produces the higher
harmonics of the instrument.[21] The small bore of the aulos in
comparison to its length facilitated the production of the harmonics
(cf. Zamminer p. 218), as does also the use of a small hole near the
mouthpiece, called in Greek _syrinx_ ([Greek: syrinx]) and in the modern
clarinet the "speaker," which when open enables the performer to
overblow with ease the first harmonic of the lowest fundamental tones.
To Mr Albert A. Howard of Harvard University is due the credit of having
identified the _syrinx_ of the aulos with the speaker of the
clarinet.[22] This assumption is doubtless correct, and is supported by
classical grammarians,[23] who state that the _syrinx_ was one of the
holes of the aulos. It renders quite clear certain passages in
Aristoxenus, Aristotle and Plutarch, and a scholion to Pindar's 12th
_Pythian_, which before were difficult to understand (see SYRINX).
[Illustration: FIG. 4.--The Plagiaulos. Castellani Collection (Maenad
Pipes), British Museum.]
[Illustration: FIG. 5.--Ancient Greek Double Pipes. Elgin Collection,
British Museum.]
The aulos or tibia existed in a great number of varieties enumerated by
Pollux (_Onomast._ iv. 74 et seq.) and Athenaeus (iv. 76 et seq.). They
fall into two distinct classes, the single and the double pipes. There
were three principal single pipes, the _monaulos_, the _plagiaulos_ and
the _syrinx monocalamos_. The double pipes were used by the great
musicians of ancient Greece, and notably at the musical contests at
Delphi, and what has been said above concerning the construction of the
aulos refers mainly to the double pipes. The _monaulos_, a single pipe
of Egyptian origin, which, by inference, we assume to have been played
from the end by means of a reed, may have been the archetype of the oboe
or clarinet. The _plagiaulos photinx_ or _tibia obliqua_, invented by
the Libyans (Pollux iv. 74), or, according to Pliny (vii. 204), by Midas
of Phrygia, was held like the modern flute, but was played by means of a
mouthpiece containing a reed. Three of the existing pipes at the British
Museum (the two in the Castellani collection, and the pipe from
Halicarnassus) belong to this type. The mouthpiece projects from the
side of the pipe and communicates with the main bore by means of a
slanting passage; the end nearest the mouthpiece is stopped as in the
modern flute; in the latter, however, the embouchure is not closed by
the lips when playing, and therefore the flute has the acoustic
properties of the open pipe, whereas the _plagiaulos_ having a reed
mouthpiece gave the harmonics of a closed pipe. The double pipes existed
in five sizes according to pitch, in the days of Aristoxenus, who, in a
treatise on the construction of the auloi ([Greek: Peri aulon
traeseos]), unfortunately not extant,[24] divides them thus:--
(1) _Parthenioi auloi_ ([Greek: parthenioi auloi]), the maiden's
_auloi_, corresponding to the soprano compass.
(2) _Paidikoi auloi_ ([Greek: paidikoi auloi]), the boy's pipes or alto
_auloi_, used to accompany boys' songs and also in double pairs at
feasts.
(3) _Kitharisterioi auloi_ ([Greek: kitharistaerioi auloi]), used to
accompany the cithara.
(4) _Teleioi auloi_, the perfect aulos, or tenor's pipes; also known as
the _pythic auloi_ ([Greek: pythikoi auloi]); used for the paeans and
for solos at the Pythean games (without chorus). It was the _pythic
auloi_ and the _kitharisterioi auloi_ more especially which were
provided with the speaker (syrinx) in order to improve the harmonic
notes (see SYRINX).
(5) _Hyperteleioi auloi_ ([Greek: hyperteleioi auloi]) or _andreioi
auloi_ ([Greek: andreioi ayloi]) (see Athenaeus iv. 79), the bass-auloi.
The Phrygian pipes or _auloi Elymoi_[25] were made of box-wood and were
tipped with horn; they were double pipes, but differed from all others
in that the two pipes were unequal in length and in the diameter of
their bores;[26] sometimes one of the pipes was curved upwards and
terminated in a horn bell;[27] they seem to have had a conical bore, if
representations on monuments are to be trusted. We may conclude that the
archetype of the oboe with conical bore was not unknown to the Greeks;
it was frequently used by the Etruscans and Romans, and appears on many
has-reliefs, mural paintings and other monuments. For illustrations see
Wilhelm Froehner, _Les Musees de France_, pl. iii., "Marsyas playing the
double pipes." There the bore is decidedly conical in the ratio of at
least 1:4 between the mouthpiece and the end of the instrument; the vase
is Roman, from the south of France. See also _Bulletino della
Commissione Archeologica Comunale di Roma_, Rome, 1879, vol. vii., 2nd
series, pl. vii. and p. 119 et seq., "Le Nozze di Elena e Paride," from
a bas-relief in the monastery of S. Antonio on the Esquiline; Wilhelm
Zahn, _Die schonsten Ornamente und die merkwurdigsten Gemalde aus
Pompeji, Herkulaneum und Stabiae_ (German and French), vol. iii., pl. 43
and 51 (Berlin, 1828-1859).
For further information on the aulos, consult Albert A. Howard, "The
Aulos or Tibia," _Harvard Studies_, iv., 1893; Francois A. Gevaert,
_Histoire de la musique dans l'antiquite_, vol. ii. p. 273 et seq.;
Carl von Jan's article "Flote" in August Baumeister's _Denkmaler des
klassischen Altertums_ (Munich, 1884-1888), vol. i.; Dr Hugo Riemann,
_Handbuch der Musikgeschichte_, Bd. I.T. 1, pp. 93-112 (Leipzig,
1904); Caspar Bartholinus, _De Tibiis Veterum_ (Amsterdam, 1779).
(K. S.)