Physiology and Hygiene for Secondary Schools
by Francis M. Walters, A.M.
Edition 1, (November 15, 2005)
D.C. Heath and Co. - Publishers
Original copyright 1909
"It is quite possible to give instruction in this subject in such
a manner as not only to confer knowledge which is useful in
itself, but to serve the purpose of a training in accurate
observation, and in the methods of reasoning of physical
science."--_Huxley._
PREFACE
The aim in the preparation of this treatise on the human body has been,
first, to set forth in a _teachable_ manner the actual science of
physiology; and second, to present the facts of hygiene largely as
_applied physiology_. The view is held that "right living" consists in the
harmonious adjustment of one's habits to the nature and plan of the body,
and that the best preparation for such living is a correct understanding
of the physical self. It is further held that the emphasizing of
physiology augments in no small degree the educative value of the subject,
greater opportunity being thus afforded for exercise of the reasoning
powers and for drill in the _modus operandi_ of natural forces. In the
study of physiology the facts of anatomy have a place, but in an
elementary course these should be restricted to such as are necessary for
revealing the general structure of the body.
Although no effort has been spared to bring this work within the
comprehension of the pupil, its success in the classroom will depend
largely upon the method of handling the subject by the teacher. It is
recommended, therefore, that the _relations_ which the different organs
and processes sustain to each other, and to the body as a whole, be given
special prominence. The pupil should be impressed with the essential unity
of the body and should see in the diversity of its activities the serving
of a common purpose. In creating such an impression the introductory
paragraphs at the beginning of many of the chapters and the summaries
throughout the book, as well as the general arrangement of the
subject-matter, will be found helpful.
Since the custom largely prevails of teaching physiology in advance of the
sciences upon which it rests--biology, physics, and chemistry--care should
be exercised to develop correct ideas of the principles and processes
derived from these sciences. Too much latitude has been taken in the past
in the use of comparisons and illustrations drawn from "everyday life." To
teach that the body is a "house," "machine," or "city"; that the nerves
carry "messages"; that the purpose of oxygen is to "burn up waste"; that
breathing is to "purify the blood," etc., may give the pupil phrases which
he can readily repeat, but teaching of this kind does not give him correct
ideas of his body.
The method of teaching, however, that uses the pupil's experience as a
basis upon which to build has a value not to be overlooked. The fact that
such expressions as those quoted above are so easily remembered proves the
value of connecting new knowledge with the pupil's experience. But _the
inadequacy of this experience must be recognized_ and taken into account.
The concepts of the average pupil are entirely too indefinite and limited
to supply the necessary _foundation for a science_ such as physiology.
Herein lies the great value of experiments and observations. They
supplement the pupil's experience, and increase both the number and
definiteness of his concepts. No degree of success can be attained if this
phase of the study is omitted.
The best results in physiology teaching are of course attained where
laboratory work is carried on by the pupils, but where this cannot be
arranged, class experiments and observations must suffice. The Practical
Work described at the close of most of the chapters is mainly for class
purposes. While these serve a necessary part in the development of the
subject, it is not essential that all of the experiments and observations
be made, the intention being to provide for some choice on the part of the
teacher. A note-book should be kept by the pupil.
To adapt the book to as wide a range of usefulness as possible, more
subject-matter is introduced than is usually included in an elementary
course. Such portions, however, as are unessential to a proper
understanding of the body by the pupil are set in small type, to be used
at the discretion of the teacher.
The use of books of reference is earnestly recommended. For this purpose
the usual high school texts may be employed to good advantage. A few more
advanced works should, however, be frequently consulted. For this purpose
Martin's _Human Body_ (Advanced Course), Rettger's _Advanced Lessons in
Physiology_, Thornton's _Human Physiology_, Huxley's _Lessons in
Elementary Physiology_, Howell's _A Text-book of Physiology_, Hough and
Sedgwick's _Hygiene and Sanitation_, and Pyle's _Personal Hygiene_ will be
found serviceable.
In the preparation of this work valuable assistance has been rendered by
Dr. C.N. McAllister, Department of Psychology, and by Professor B.M.
Stigall, Department of Biology, along the lines of their respective
specialties, and in a more general way by President W.J. Hawkins and
others of the Warrensburg, Missouri, State Normal School. Expert advice
from Professor S.D. Magers, Instructor in Physiology and Bacteriology,
State Normal School, Ypsilanti, Michigan, has been especially helpful, and
many practical suggestions from the high school teachers of physiology of
Kansas City, Missouri, Professor C.H. Nowlin, Central High School, Dr.
John W. Scott, Westport High School, and Professor A.E. Shirling, Manual
Training High School, all of whom read both manuscript and proofs, have
been incorporated. Considerable material for the Practical Work, including
the respiration experiment (page 101) and the reaction time experiment
(page 323), were contributed by Dr. Scott. Professor Nowlin's suggestions
on subject-matter and methods of presentation deserve special mention. To
these and many others the author makes grateful acknowledgment.
F.M.W.
MISSOURI STATE NORMAL SCHOOL,
SECOND DISTRICT, May 1, 1909.
CONTENTS
Preface
Contents
PART I: THE VITAL PROCESSES
CHAPTER I - INTRODUCTION
CHAPTER II - GENERAL VIEW OF THE BODY
CHAPTER III - THE BODY ORGANIZATION
CHAPTER IV - THE BLOOD
CHAPTER V - THE CIRCULATION
CHAPTER VI - THE LYMPH AND ITS MOVEMENT THROUGH THE BODY
CHAPTER VII - RESPIRATION
CHAPTER VIII - PASSAGE OF OXYGEN THROUGH THE BODY
CHAPTER IX - FOODS AND THE THEORY OF DIGESTION
CHAPTER X - ORGANS AND PROCESSES OF DIGESTION
CHAPTER XI - ABSORPTION, STORAGE, AND ASSIMILATION
CHAPTER XII - ENERGY SUPPLY OF THE BODY
CHAPTER XIII - GLANDS AND THE WORK OF EXCRETION
PART II: MOTION, COORDINATION, AND SENSATION
CHAPTER XIV - THE SKELETON
CHAPTER XV - THE MUSCULAR SYSTEM
CHAPTER XVI - THE SKIN
CHAPTER XVII - STRUCTURE OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM
CHAPTER XVIII - PHYSIOLOGY OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM
CHAPTER XIX - HYGIENE OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM
CHAPTER XX - PRODUCTION OF SENSATIONS
CHAPTER XXI - THE LARYNX AND THE EAR
CHAPTER XXII - THE EYE
CHAPTER XXIII - THE GENERAL PROBLEM OF KEEPING WELL
APPENDIX
INDEX
PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE
PART I: THE VITAL PROCESSES
CHAPTER I - INTRODUCTION
To derive strength equal to the daily task; to experience the advantages
of health and avoid the pain, inconvenience, and danger of disease; to
live out contentedly and usefully the natural span of life: these are
problems that concern all people. They are, however, but different phases
of one great problem--the problem of properly managing or caring for the
body. To supply knowledge necessary to the solution of this problem is the
chief reason why the body is studied in our public schools.
*Divisions of the Subject.*--The body is studied from three standpoints:
structure, use of parts, and care or management. This causes the main
subject to be considered under three heads, known as anatomy, physiology,
and hygiene.
_Anatomy_ treats of the construction of the body--the parts which compose
it, what they are like, and where located. Its main divisions are known as
gross anatomy and histology. _Gross anatomy_ treats of the larger
structures of the body, while _histology_ treats of the minute structures
of which these are composed--parts too small to be seen with the naked eye
and which have to be studied with the aid of the microscope.
_Physiology_ treats of the function, or use, of the different parts of the
body--the work which the parts do and how they do it--and of their relations
to one another and to the body as a whole.
_Hygiene_ treats of the proper care or management of the body. In a
somewhat narrower sense it treats of the "laws of health." Hygiene is said
to be _personal_, when applied by the individual to his own body;
_domestic_, when applied to a small group of people, as the family; and
public, or _general_, when applied to the community as a whole or to the
race.
*The General Aim of Hygiene.*--There are many so-called laws of health, and
for these laws it is essential in the management of the body to find a
common basis. This basic law, suggested by the nature of the body and
conditions that affect its well-being, may be termed the _Law of Harmony:
The mode of living must harmonize with the plan of the body_. To live
properly one must supply the conditions which his body, on account of its
nature and plan, requires. On the other hand, he must avoid those things
and conditions which are injurious, _i.e._, out of harmony with the body
plan. To secure these results, it is necessary to determine what is and
what is not in harmony with the plan of the body, and to find the means of
applying this knowledge to the everyday problems of living. Such is the
general aim of hygiene. Stated in other words: Hygiene has for its general
aim the bringing about of an essential harmony between the body and the
things and conditions that affect it.(1)
*Relation of Anatomy and Physiology to the Study of Hygiene.*--If the chief
object in studying the body is that of learning how to manage or care for
it, and hygiene supplies this information, why must we also study anatomy
and physiology? The answer to this question has already been in part
suggested. In order to determine what things and conditions are in harmony
with the plan of the body, we must know what that plan is. This knowledge
is obtained through a study of anatomy and physiology. The knowledge
gained through these subjects also renders the study of hygiene more
interesting and valuable. One is enabled to see _why_ and _how_ obedience
to hygienic laws benefits, and disobedience to them injures, the body.
This causes the teachings of hygiene to be taken more seriously and
renders them more practical. In short, anatomy and physiology supply a
necessary basis for the study of hygiene.
*Advantages of Properly Managing the Body.*--One result following the
mismanagement of the body is loss of health. But attending the loss of
health are other results which are equally serious and far-reaching.
Without good health, people fail to accomplish their aims and ambitions in
life; they miss the joy of living; they lose their ability to work and
become burdens on their friends or society. The proper management of the
body means health, and it also means the capacity for work and for
enjoyment. Not only should one seek to preserve his health from day to
day, but he should so manage his body as to use his powers to the best
advantage and prolong as far as possible the period during which he may be
a capable and useful citizen.