tubes (all of the same diameter), filled with water. It is thoroughly
tested under a hydraulic pressure of about 3000 lb. per sq. in.,
so as to ensure that the joints, and all parts of the apparatus,
are perfectly safe and sound. The fire being lighted, the water
circulation commences, as the water in the furnace-coil becomes
heated, it ascends to the top of the apparatus, whilst the cold
water, being heavier, descends, to supply the place of the ascending
heated water, and thus a continuous circulation of hot water is kept
up, which rapidly increases in velocity, through the pipes, as the
heat in the furnace becomes greater. The tubes are kept absolutely
full without the possibility of a higher pressure than that at which
the expansion valve is set, and this setting corresponds with the
temperature the pipes are intended to give off. As will be seen,
a very large margin of safety is provided for in every case, much
beyond the maximum pressure by heat that can possibly be obtained.
Formation of steam is impossible, as is also the stoppage of the
circulation through air locking.
The superior quality and small diameter of the tubes, and the ready
manner in which they can be bent, makes it the most complete system
extant. The “Acme” apparatus is equally well adapted to old or new
buildings, as it may be introduced without disturbance of existing
arrangements, and does not necessarily require the construction of
trenches or channels, an inconvenience in other systems which often
prevents their adoption. The preliminary expenses in introducing the
“Acme” system are very trifling, and as the circulation does not
depend upon the tubes being laid at an incline, the apparatus is not
unsightly or in the way.
All the difficulties arising from condensation, air stoppage, and
the consequent necessity for attention to valves and air-cocks (as
in other systems) are avoided--so simple, indeed, is the apparatus
that it may safely be left to the care of any ordinary house-servant.
Fixed close to the expansion (or safety) tube is another tube for
supplying the apparatus with water. Beyond the necessity of attending
to the furnace, it is only requisite to see that the tube is supplied
with a proper quantity of water about once a week (when in constant
operation), this, in an ordinary sized apparatus, is about ½ pint.
If this arrangement is not convenient, a small cistern of sufficient
capacity to hold the expanded water can be fixed, inside of which
is placed an expansion and in-take valve. The expansion tube and
the water supply pipe are so arranged that when the water is level
with the top of the filling pipe it is only up to the bottom of
the expansion tube, leaving the whole of the tube empty. It is,
therefore, impossible to fill the tube by pouring water into it,
the expansion tube being always empty when the apparatus is cold.
Before the fire is lit, the apparatus is filled with water, and the
two screw-plugs seal them; as the water rises in the tube, when the
furnace becomes heated, it compresses the air that is left in it, and
so automatically regulates the pressure that no undue strain is put
upon the apparatus.
Instances are known where Acme apparatus have been in use for over 20
years without entailing the least expense for repairs. When erected,
they are tested by hydraulic means to a pressure of 150 atmospheres,
and the valve is regulated to blow off at six atmospheres--it is
manifest that, with proper care, leaks or accidents are of very rare
occurrence. The material throughout being of best wrought iron,
breakage is impossible, even with the roughest usage; hence the
cost of maintenance, often such a heavy item incidental to other
systems, is avoided. With the “Acme” system repairs are practically
nil; further there is no trouble and no sulphurous smells. Where
trouble and expense have been experienced with small pipes, they have
invariably been the result of bad workmanship, or of neglect by the
attendant of the simple instructions given.
The heating surfaces can be regulated to the utmost nicety, and may
be raised to very high temperatures without the formation of steam.
The system is, therefore, specially applicable for drying-closets and
stoves for manufacturing purposes, where great heat is required, and
where systems of hot-air flues are not expedient on account of danger
from fire or damage by noxious vapours. Any degree of temperature up
to 500° F. may be obtained.
In the “Acme” system the ordinary boiler is replaced by a series of
specially constructed tubes, bent in tiers one over the other. The
fire and heat are induced to travel over the whole surface of the
tubes. The temperature of the tubes steadily increases throughout
their entire length; hence great economy of fuel is secured. It is
manifest that the temperature of the smoke, as it passes into the
flue, need only be slightly in excess of the temperature of the
return pipes, say about 190° F., whereas in the ordinary boiler,
where perfectly free circulation is possible, and the temperature
of the water is practically the same throughout, the heat of the
flow-pipes governs that of the chimney. As the practical result, it
may be said that about 90 per cent. of the calorific power of the
fuel consumed is actually taken up and distributed by the heating
surfaces of the “Acme” apparatus. This, as against 40 to 70 per
cent. in the case of hot water, and steam boilers, or of cast-iron
hot water apparatus (low pressure large bore-pipes), is a source
of economy. Another notable source of economy is the remarkably
small amount of fuel necessary to the effective working of the
“Acme” system. The comparison between the two stands as 8 to 1, in
consequence of the difference in the weight of the materials used in
each system to obtain like results.
Buildings warmed by the “Acme” system are more thoroughly under
control than where large pipes are used; the tubes being so small,
contain but little water, consequently are more quickly heated,
causing much greater rapidity of circulation. The temperature can
be easily raised or lowered--automatically if desired--and the heat
maintained for any length of time at pleasure. This is an obvious
advantage in warming conservatories, as the temperature can be
quickly raised when frost suddenly sets in, or lowered without
opening the windows when a thaw commences. The heat of the house
may be maintained at the requisite temperature without attention
during the night, it simply being necessary to make the fire-place
large enough to contain sufficient quantity of fuel, as the damper
regulates the combustion. Where a moist heat is desired, such can
readily be obtained at any given point by placing trays of water
upon the pipes, or on a coil of pipes, thus giving the moisture so
essential to the health of plants.
It has been supposed that the sediment from the water would soon
choke the tubes, but as they are hermetically sealed there is no
evaporation, and the same water being heated over and over again
there is no deposit, and the remote possibility of incrustation
is entirely overcome by using a small quantity of the patent
anti-corrosion and non-freezing liquid.
There are no red lead or luting or perishable rubber joints used in
connecting the pipes, but a perfectly solid metallic contact is made.
In applying the “Acme” apparatus to dwellings the warming pipes can
be placed in any desired position along the skirting, under windows,
coiled and covered by ornamental coil cases of various sizes and
patterns, or pipes sunk beneath the floor in a channel. In the best
rooms the pipes may be covered by iron gratings, of any design, to
suit the other decorations of the building, while in servants’ rooms
they may be placed in front of the skirting boards on suitable iron
stands or brackets.
Fresh air is admitted into each compartment by an opening in the
external wall through an iron box fitted with a valve to regulate the
supply, and warmed by a surrounding coil of pipe. This can be placed
beneath the windows, or when that is not convenient, in any other
desired position, and if desired, may be covered with an ornamental
iron coil case.
Warm water for bath and bedrooms may be drawn as required by having a
cistern attached to the apparatus.
LIGHTING: Gas. Continued from p. 93.
An exceptionally good governor is that introduced by Joseph Shaw,
of Albert Brass Works, Lockwood, Huddersfield, and 41, Hart Street,
New Oxford Street, London, W.C. This is illustrated in Fig. 223. A
searching trial of this governor was made a few months since, by
Thos. Newbigging, Esq., M. Inst. C.E., who reports on it as follows:--
“I have tested the ‘Shaw’ gas governor which you forwarded out of
stock, in the various circumstances under which gas is ordinarily
consumed, and I pronounce it to be a satisfactory and trustworthy
instrument in every respect.
“The pressure of gas in the mains is usually in excess of the average
requirements of consumers, owing to circumstances over which the gas
authorities have no control.
“The lower the pressure at which gas is consumed, the smaller the
consumption and the better the light, provided the pipes and the
pressure are sufficient to admit of the required volume of gas
passing to the burners.
“Regulation by means of a stop tap at the meter, or near to the
burner, is impossible owing to the varying pressures during the hours
of consumption, and hence the need of a regulator or governor which
will adapt itself automatically to the changing conditions.
“Shaw’s governor performs that function with certainty and constancy.
“With a series of ordinary burners, regulated by the ‘Shaw’ governor
the consumption of gas per hour was 28 cubic feet, and each one gave
an illuminating power equal to 15·25 standard sperm candles; whereas
with the same burners, consuming the same gas, but ungoverned,
the consumption was 33·8 cubic feet per hour, and each gave an
illuminating power of 13·7 standard candles.
“The governed burners were then extinguished one by one, and the
consumption and illuminating power remained constant.
“The saving in gas by the application of the ‘Shaw’ governor was
therefore 17·16 per cent., whilst the illuminating power of the gas
was increased 11·31 per cent.
“These results need no comment, as they speak for themselves.
[Illustration: 223. Shaw Governor.]
“The governor may be said to be practically indestructible under
ordinary good usage, and the ease with which the working parts can be
reached for cleaning when required, without detaching the instrument
from its position, is an important recommendation, and adds to its
value.”
Subjoined is a copy of the gas account of the Salford Union
Workhouse:--
£ _s. d._
March quarter, 1889 127 8 11
” ” 1890 75 2 1
----------
£52 6 10
This saving in three months was effected by the use of Shaw’s
governors, which cost 33_l._, and will continue to produce a similar
economy indefinitely.
PRICE LIST, INCLUDING LOCK AND KEY.
Brass Union
Connections,
per pair.
£ _s. d._ £ _s. d._
No. 1.--For ½ inch ce pipe 1 15 0 0 2 0
” 2.-- ” ¾ ” ” 2 15 0 0 3 0
” 3.-- ” 1 ” ” 3 15 0 0 4 0
” 4.-- ” 1¼ ” ” 5 0 0 0 7 6
” 5.-- ” 1½ ” ” 6 0 0 0 9 0
” 7.-- ” 2 ” ” 8 0 0 0 17 0
” 8.-- ” 2½ ” ” 11 0 0 } These sizes
” 9.-- ” 3 ” ” 13 10 0 } are cast
” 10.-- ” 4 ” ” 17 10 0 } with flanges.
[Illustration: 224. Shaw’s Reflector.]
Another economizer of light is the Shaw self-cleaning reflector,
made by the same firm. It consumes its own smoke, is easily fixed to
present gas fittings, and is simple, efficient, durable, and cheap.
It is shown in Fig. 224 in its plainest, simplest form. Many other
more elaborate designs are made in ornamental wrought ironwork and
enamelled ware.
[Illustration: 225. Müller’s “Alpha” Gas-maker.]
Fig. 225 illustrates the most convenient and useful plant adapted to
the home manufacture of illuminating gas, known as the “Alpha.” It
is constructed by the patentee, H. L. Müller, of Mary Ann St., St.
Paul’s Square, Birmingham, and has recently had some improvements
added. The process of gas making by this plant consists simply in
combining atmospheric air with a light hydro-carbon in a state of
vapour. There are many available forms of such light hydro-carbon
derived from mineral oils, shales, and coal tar. When air is charged
with such vapours it forms a mixture that can be ignited and burned.
But the most successful results cannot be attained without certain
important conditions are fulfilled, which are carefully provided
for in Müller’s apparatus. In many respects the illuminating agent
thus produced is superior to coal gas. Its cost is certainly no
greater, and in some instances considerably less; the supply can
be placed under control, instead of being liable to interruption
through strikes and other causes; the light is bright and pleasant;
and the vapour being pure is much less unwholesome to breathe, less
unpleasant to smell, and less injurious to furniture, pictures, &c.
The object of Müller and Adkin’s recent improvements is to completely
control the flame, preventing any sudden increase above the normal,
when fresh supplies of hydro-carbon are furnished to the apparatus.
This is accomplished by a self-acting feed-box, which enables the
reservoir to be replenished whilst the apparatus is in use, without
in any way interfering with the lights which are burning. The system
is being largely adopted in mansions and rural districts, where coal
gas is not obtainable or is very dear, and can successfully compete
with coal gas, even in localities where it is cheap. An additional
advantage it possesses is that it furnishes a most convenient motive
power for pumping, chaff-cutting, and the numerous other operations
conducted in a country house.
_Sugg’s Specialities._--In all matters relating to the use of coal
gas in the house, whether for lighting, warming, or cooking purposes,
the name of Sugg stands pre-eminent. To attempt to illustrate or
describe all the appliances introduced by him, and sold by William
Sugg & Co., Limited, Grand Hotel Buildings, Charing Cross, London,
would require the space of a good-sized volume; even then it would
not do justice to the inventor, because it could not include new
things which are continually being perfected under his direction.
This is especially the case with regard to gas burners, globes, and
governors, of which hundreds of forms and designs can be seen at
the show-rooms, all possessing some special quality of usefulness
or ornament. Instead, therefore, of selecting a few examples for
illustration, which would very inadequately represent the subject,
it will be more just to recommend every user of gas to procure
Sugg’s catalogue, and observe for himself those articles which best
furnish his needs, not forgetting that the advice to be obtained from
the maker is the result of a unique experience and long study, and
therefore well worth taking to heart.
LIGHTING: Electric. Continued from p. 95.
During the past few years the manufacture of incandescent lamps
has been developing rapidly, numerous improvements having been
introduced, and by the use of high class of photometrical instruments
in the examining rooms, the exact light-giving power of each lamp in
standard candles is registered, the ordinary sizes being 5, 8, 12,
16, 25, 30, and 50, those of higher power being only suitable for
halls, ball-rooms, &c. The manufacture in this country is, owing to
patent monopolies, confined to two types, the Edison-Swan and the
Woodhouse and Rawson, the difference between which is chiefly in the
shape of the carbon. In the former, the carbon has a loop in it; in
the latter, it is like a plain horse-shoe. In both cases the price is
3_s._ 6_d._ each for all sizes up to and including 30 candle power,
but the Woodhouse and Rawson lamps consume less current for an equal
amount of light, while the length of life is phenomenal, in one
instance being close on 11,000 hours.
It is a very good plan to use the Trotter dioptric shades, in which
the light is subdivided by numerous prisms, without any appreciable
loss.
Formerly switches, to turn the lamps on and off, were a great
source of trouble, being as a rule cheap and nasty. They are now,
however, made of superior quality, being thoroughly mounted on
either porcelain or slate, with ornamental covers harmonising with
the wall of the room, fitted with spring arrangements preventing any
sparking from taking place when turning the switch off, the brake
being practically instantaneous. Those called the “W. & R. Diamond,”
can be safely recommended as fulfilling all the requirements of the
Fire Insurance Office rules. Various sizes are of course made, from
a small switch to turn on one light to others to turn on say all the
lights in a room, and large main switches which are used below in the
engine-room for turning on as many as 500 lights. One great advantage
is that the switch can if necessary be fixed outside the door of the
room, so that the light can be turned on before entering.
Small switches are also made somewhat similar in design to a gas
tap, for fixing just above the lamp and shade, and these are very
convenient as supplementary switches to the main switch outside the
door of the room; they cannot, however, be used for more than one
light at a time.
Small independent cut-outs should be used in connection with
each individual lamp or group of lamps, in order to add as much
as possible to the security of the house. In addition to this, a
magnetic cut-out should be fixed in the main circuit, by means of
which the whole of the light would be automatically switched off,
in the event of any dangerous excess of current passing through the
wires. The cut-outs are as a rule so cheap and effective, that there
is no real excuse for neglecting to use them, and under the rules
of the Phœnix Fire Office, which are those chiefly worked to by the
installation contractors, they have to be fixed in every circuit.
In confirmation of the above, we cannot do better than quote the
following extract from the rules of the Phœnix Fire Office:--
“Any firm, by arranging to place inferior quality of work in your
premises, can easily underprice firms that are more conscientious;
and experience proves that inferior work is nearly certain to result
in a fire breaking out sooner or later.”
THIEVES AND FIRE. Continued from p. 110.
Shut all doors and windows immediately; every effort must be made
to exclude air. By this means fire may be confined to a single room
for a sufficient period to enable all the inmates to be aroused and
escape; but if the doors and windows are thrown open, the draught
will instantly cause the flames to increase. Moments are precious
at the commencement of a fire, and not a second should be lost in
tackling it. In a room a table-cloth can be so used as to smother a
large sheet of flame, and a cushion, coat, or anything similar may
be successfully used to beat it out. The great point is presence of
mind--calmness in danger--action guided by reason and thought. In
large houses buckets of water should be placed on each landing, a
little salt or ammonia being mixed with the water. Always endeavour
to attack the seat of a fire; if you cannot extinguish a fire, be
sure to shut the door when making good your retreat. Make your way
through smoke on hands and knees, keeping your face down as much
as possible. A wet silk handkerchief tied over the eyes and nose
will make breathing possible even in the midst of much smoke, and a
blanket wetted and wrapped around the body will enable a person to
pass through a sheet of flames in comparative safety.
For a chimney on fire.--Burn a handful of sulphur in the grate.
Burns.--In a serious burn, the clothes must be removed as soon as
possible. If not already thoroughly wet, the injured part should be
drenched with water, and the clothes cut away. Everything must be
sacrificed to getting them off without pulling, as the slightest
dragging will lacerate the skin. If patches of the clothing adhere
and will not drop off they must be allowed to remain. Dip cloths in
a thick paste of common baking soda and water, and lay them over
the burnt surface, bandaging lightly to exclude the air. As soon
as a dry spot appears on this dressing, wet it with the soda and
water by squeezing some on it. There will be no smarting while it is
saturated and the air excluded. If the feet are cold, heat should be
applied. If the pulse is weak, give a little stimulant, and send for
a doctor. Pain is a good sign in severe burns; it shows that there
is still vitality. For slight burns, any oil is good (salad oil for
preference); apply plentifully, and bandage to keep the cold out.
THE DAIRY. Continued from p. 167.
Bradford’s (Bradford & Co., 140, 141, 142, and 143, High Holborn,
London; Salford, Manchester, and Liverpool) revolving-disc milk-pan
stands are simple, substantial, portable, and utilise space, as they
can be placed in line or in square--the revolving discs or tables
allow of skimming each pan without moving from one position--being
portable, they can be placed in the most desirable position for
ventilation, and for thorough cleansing of the milkhouse walls, which
fixed shelves do not admit of. Made to hold six pans. Larger sizes to
order. Price (in iron) 2_l._ 2_s._; (in wood) 3_l._ 3_s._
The most satisfactory milk cooler is the capillary pattern, which is
made in all sizes by Laurence, Bradford & Co.
Bradford’s “post-diaphragm” churn, and the same maker’s “Charlemont
diaphragm” churn, have gained many first prizes, and are to be
recommended.
The “Arch-Albany” butter worker, with helical roller, is also made by
Bradford’s in all sizes to suit large or small dairies. It gained a
silver medal at the R.A.S. Show at Plymouth, 1890.
The following additional books of reference deserve notice:--
J. Long: ‘British Dairy Farming.’ London. 1885.
H. M. Upton: ‘Profitable Dairy Farming.’ London. 1888. 2_s._
C. R. Valentine: ‘Butter-making.’ London. 1889. 1_s._
J. P. Sheldon: ‘The Farm and the Dairy.’ London. 1889. 2_s._ 6_d._
J. Long: ‘The Dairy Farm.’ London. 1889.
THE PANTRY: Ovens and Bakings. Continued from p. 208.
There are several different systems of baking bread in the market,
mostly with steam ovens, which are generally acknowledged to be
superior to the ordinary bakers’ bread. It, however, will be found,
by the examination of a loaf made and baked by the aid of gas, that
this system is a great improvement over the best hitherto introduced.
Moreover, the method is so simple that success is brought within
reach of all who use a well-constructed gas kitchener.
In the preparation of bread by the usually adopted methods, the dough
is allowed to rise in a warm place, and after being cut into loaves,
is at once placed in an oven and heated up to its highest point,
viz., 500°-600° F. In the case of bread made by the new method, the
dough, which is leavened as usual with brewers’ or German dried
yeast, is allowed to stand in a warm place and rise in the ordinary
way. But after it is cut into loaves, it is treated in a manner
diametrically opposite to that described above, for it is at once put
into a cold gas oven, and the gas jets are lighted only sufficiently
to produce a gradually increasing heat, not greater than 80° F. at
the end of one hour, during which the loaves are left in the oven to
rise.
The scientific explanation of the operation which is going on during
this period is this. The yeast plant which grows and ramifies all
through the bread has full time to do its work and make it light
and open, and the plant is not killed until it has fully done its
work. A smaller quantity of yeast will do the work of a larger
quantity usually required because the comparatively low and regular
temperature of the gas stove is favourable to its proper development
throughout the bread. When the loaves have well-risen, the heat of
the oven is gradually increased by turning on the gas. The yeast
plant dies after about 90° F. is reached. The cooking then goes
on, the heat steadily increasing until it reaches in about ¾ hour
a temperature of 480°-500° F. The bread is by this time thoroughly
cooked and beautifully browned, with a nice equal thickness of crust.
During all this process no steam accumulates in the oven, which is
Sugg’s “Westminster” (see p. 1004), as the luminous flames supply a
sharp dry heat and the ventilation is thorough. After the loaves are
done they are taken out of the tins, and after the gas is turned out
they are restored to the oven for 10 minutes to dry. They are then
ready for use, and can be eaten as soon as they are cold. They will
be found to be easily digestible even by invalids or persons of weak
digestion.