the chimney smoking. This will be found in probably every instance
to be effectually cured by the adoption of a close-fire range or
“kitchener.”
Fire-bricks.--This is a subject upon which much misunderstanding has
often arisen between manufacturers and users of kitchen ranges, as it
is unfortunately no rare occurrence for the fire-bricks of quite a
new range to be found cracked, after, say 2-3 months’ wear, whereas
another set of bricks of exactly the same make and the same clay,
in the same range, will last 2-3 years, or even longer. This may be
sometimes caused by negligence. For instance, if fire-bricks are
fitted tightly, they will, when heated, crack, as no room is left
for expansion; but, what is more commonly the cause of failure, is
firstly, the influence of the poker, and secondly the practice of
putting out the fire (at night) with water. This rapid cooling and
contraction causes a fracture, the same as putting cold water into a
hot empty boiler.
Most makers are now making iron cheeks of suitable construction
to take the place of fire-bricks, and the results are said to be
satisfactory, though quite contrary to the principles already laid
down as to a minimum use of iron in grates.
There is a rather general idea that fire-bricks assist in heating the
ovens. This, however, is incorrect; the object of fire-bricks is to
protect the oven sides from the direct action of the fire, as this
would in a short time injure them.
There are now to be obtained several makes of fire-resisting cement.
This material is gaining favour, and will no doubt come into general
use for the purposes for which it is intended. It is a clay-like
material, and is used for repairing cracked fire-bricks or the
interior lining of any description of furnace or fire-box; for
rendering the joints of stoves and ranges air-tight; and it is also
successful in temporarily repairing cracked boilers as it adheres to
an iron surface as well as to any other material.
After cementing up the crack or damaged part, a fire is immediately
made, and in 10 minutes the cement will be found to have set as hard
as the iron itself, and it has a valuable property in not shrinking
as it dries. This material is also used for lining the fire-boxes
of kitchen ranges in place of fire-bricks, as it is much more
lasting; its applications are very numerous, it being suitable for
any and every purpose where heat is to be resisted. There are a few
directions that must be followed to make the application successful,
but these are provided by the manufacturers. Two of the best makes
that have had considerable trial and are now in favour are the “Etna”
cement (Verity Bros., 98 High Holborn), and the “Purimacos.”
[Illustration: 77. Eagle Grill Stove.]
Grills.--Grilling stoves, for coke or charcoal fuel, invariably take
the form of an open-topped shallow furnace, above which is suspended
the gridiron; Fig. 77 shows the general details. The furnace is
sometimes supported on legs, but more generally the space underneath
is utilised as a hot closet for plates, &c., and in some instances a
hot closet is fitted above (as illustrated). The gridiron, which is
made with fluted or grooved bars, is suspended at such an angle as to
cause the gravy to run down freely into the pan in front provided to
receive it. The method of suspending the grid permits of its being
raised or lowered as the heat dictates. All grills are constructed to
work with a down draught, i.e. the air that passes into the chimney
has to first pass _downwards_ through the fire and then up the flue
provided behind. By this means, all products of combustion are
carried away, and the fire may be said to be burning upside down.
Grills are also made to work with a series of Bunsen (atmospheric)
burners in place of fuel beneath the gridiron.
Grills are made in various sizes for domestic or business
requirements. The one illustrated in Fig. 77 is made by the Eagle
Range & Foundry Co., 76 Regent Street, London, but they can be
obtained of all range merchants and manufacturers.
Steam.--It has been long anticipated by many competent authorities
that steam cooking would come into general favour, to the prejudice
of cooking ranges, and although this has not come to pass, any
description of food cooked by steam (in a proper manner) is by many
considered superior to that cooked by any other method. But it may
be here mentioned that to gain good results the steam must be dry,
i.e. there must be a moderate pressure developed in the boiler and
the steam should not be permitted to condense too quickly; if the
steam pipe is of any length it should be felted, or covered with
some non-conducting material. Steam at no pressure (atmospheric
pressure only), although a gas, may be said to be saturated with
moisture, whereas if a little pressure is developed it becomes dry,
and may be compared to hot air. Steam without pressure has the
further disadvantage of condensing very rapidly, and the moisture is
objectionable for several reasons.
One advantage possessed by steam cooking is that the kitchen does
not become over heated, as the boiler, if desired, can be placed in
a basement or elsewhere, provided it is convenient for stoking; and
there is, of course, economy of space.
Steam can be economically used for every description of cooking
purpose, and for heating water, by placing a coil of steam pipe in
the water that is to be heated.
[Illustration: 78. Steam Boiler.]
Fig. 78 represents a steam boiler which requires to be fixed in
brickwork. They are also made cylindrical (vertical) in shape
with the furnace within them, and so require no setting, except
connection with the chimney. A description of a steam boiler will
be found under “motors,” the boiler and fittings in each case
being nearly identical, except that a pressure-gauge is not always
used with a boiler for cooking purposes, and a different means is
provided for water supply generally, as illustrated. The reference
letters indicate:--_a_, inlet valve, regulated by stone float _c_
and balance-weight _h_; _b_, cold supply-pipe from main; _d_,
safety-valve; _e_, water gauge; _f_, steam delivery pipe; _g_,
manlids.
In many instances, especially when the boiler is in a kitchen range,
a steam chest is used. This is a square wrought-iron box, of nearly
the same capacity as the boiler, and situated somewhere near but in a
more conveniently accessible position.
All the fittings are attached to this chest, which is connected to
the boiler by 2 pipes one above and one below water level (2 pipes
being necessary to equalise the pressure). The chest is of service
when the boiler is not easily accessible, as the fittings should
always be situated where they can have regular attention, cleaning,
&c., and it is very necessary to see that the water inlet valve and
safety valve are in proper working order.
Sometimes in small steam boilers in kitchen ranges the inlet valve
is dispensed with, and an ordinary cast-iron supply cistern is
used, with a ball valve in the usual way; but the cistern must have
a lid that can be secured, and the pipe between the cistern and
boiler must have a deep syphon to prevent the water being blown
back by the steam. This system, however, cannot be recommended, as
it is not reliable. When this system is adopted it is generally
where the boiler is also used for hot-water supply, and only when
comparatively no pressure of steam is required for 1-3 small kettles.
See also p. 1004.
Gas.--Gas cooking stoves are now growing in favour, as being very
convenient and cleanly, instantaneously lighted and extinguished, and
producing no smoke, soot, or ashes. They are portable, and the cost
of fixing is generally small; but, as with all gas contrivances, they
can only be adopted where gas is to be obtained. The makers claim
economy over coal-burning ranges, greater simplicity in working and
cleaning, less attention, unvarying heat, &c. There are, however,
drawbacks in not having means of working a high-pressure boiler for
bath supply, &c. (this, however, is now being overcome), and there
are sometimes complaints of waste of gas, as servants cannot always
be relied upon to turn off or lower the gas at intervals when it is
not required.
Gas ranges have now attained a high degree of perfection, and the
results are very satisfactory. There is no obnoxious taste commonly
associated with meat cooked by this means, and it has been proved
that no difference can be discerned even by the most fastidious
between joints cooked in gas and coal-burning ranges. Gas ranges
are made in numberless sizes and shapes to meet every requirement,
from the small “Workman’s Friend,” which is large enough to cook a
steak and boil a quart of water, to those that are used in large
institutions, hospitals, &c., to cook for hundreds daily.
[Illustration: 79. Eureka Gas Cooker.]
Ordinary gas is sometimes used, but more generally it is “atmospheric
gas,” which is a mixture of gas and air burnt by a “Bunsen” burner,
giving a blue flame. In lighting an atmospheric burner, it should
be turned on full for a ¼ minute before the match is applied,
otherwise it will light back in the air chamber of the burner, which
will also happen if the burner is not turned on full when lighting.
If necessary, the gas can be turned down immediately after it is
lighted. When one of these burners lights back, it will be found to
be burning the ordinary gas as it issues from the nozzle in the air
chamber. This of course gives no heat where it is required, and if
allowed to burn for a short time it will choke the burner with soot.
There is a little objection experienced at first in lighting an
atmospheric burner, as it lights violently with a slight explosion,
but one quickly gets used to this.
Fig. 79 is the “Eureka” gas cooker (John Wright & Co., 155A Upper
Thames Street, London). This range is double cased and jacketed on
the sides, back, and door with a non-conducting material to prevent
loss of heat. The top of the oven is formed of fire-brick, over which
the waste heat passes, heating it to a high temperature, and adding
to the efficiency. The oven interior can be had either galvanised
or enamelled by a new process which the makers highly recommend,
and the oven fittings are so made that they can be removed wholly
for cleaning purposes and leave no ledges inside where grease could
accumulate. The hot plate is formed of loose wrought-iron bars,
which can be removed for cleaning purposes. This range is made in
all sizes, with from 1-4 ovens, and boilers are fitted when desired.
Hoods can be fitted to these (and to any other make) to carry away
any objectionable smell and vapour from the hot plate, the hood being
connected with a flue. A hood is of course not necessary when the
range stands in an opening under a chimney.
[Illustration: 80. Fletcher’s Cellular Cast-iron Cooker. 81. Leoni’s
Nonpareil Gas Kitchener.]
Fig. 80 is a Fletcher’s cellular cast-iron cooker (Thos. Fletcher &
Co., 83 Upper Thames Street, London). This cooker is jacketed with
slagwool, to prevent loss of heat; the whole is constructed of cast
iron, the interior being in panels to prevent cracking. This range
is also made in all sizes, with every convenience, and is of very
strong construction. It will be noticed with gas ranges that they are
especially well adapted for pastry and bread baking, as the ovens
have a perfect bottom heat.
Fig. 81 is Leoni’s “Nonpareil” gas kitchener (General Gas Apparatus
Company, 74 Strand, London). These cookers are greatly patronized for
large works, institutions, &c. They are fitted at W. Whiteley’s where
they cook for 3000 persons daily. They are also made in small and
medium sizes for domestic requirements. This and other makes of gas
ranges are provided with means of grilling by deflected heat, which
is very successful.
[Illustration: 82. Metropolitan Gas Kitchener.]
Fig. 82 is the “Metropolitan gas kitchener” (H. and C. Davis & Co.,
198 and 200, Camberwell Road, London). This is constructed of wrought
iron, the whole of the top, sides, door, and back being jacketed
with a non-conductor. The outer casing is of galvanized iron, the
inner casing is not galvanized, but is treated with a preparation to
prevent rust. These are made in all sizes.
The ovens of gas ranges are ventilated upon the same principle as the
ovens of other ranges, but as there are no flues to discharge the
steam and smell into, a hood, as just spoken of, must be provided,
otherwise the smell may pervade the house.
These are but a few of the many makes of gas stoves.
In addition to ranges many other forms of gas apparatus adapted for
cooking are made, such as hot-closets, hot-plates, salamanders,
grills, coffee roasters, &c., &c. Gas ranges can now be obtained upon
hire from nearly all gas companies at very low charges, in fact, the
charges can but barely cover first cost, but the reason for this low
charge is obvious. See also p. 1004.
Oil.--Oil cooking stoves are to be recommended for their convenience
where gas and the more bulky fuel, coal, are not attainable. They are
especially well adapted for camping out, picnics, &c., and in many
instances they can be recommended for domestic use. With ordinary
care, they may be said to be odourless and smokeless, very cleanly,
and the makers assert that they are very economical. They are so
constructed that neither the oil nor products of combustion in any
way come in contact with whatever is being cooked, and consequently
there is no faint or objectionable flavour. They can be stood upon a
table or in almost any position with perfect safety, and as will be
seen from the illustration (Fig. 83), every part is easily accessible.
[Illustration: 83. Rippingille’s A B C Oil Kitchener.]
Fig. 83 is Rippingille’s “A B C Oil Kitchener” (Holborn Lamp
and Stove Company, 118 Holborn, London), with oven, boiler, and
hot-plate, price 3_l._ 18_s._ 6_d._ These stoves are made in sizes
from the breakfast-cooker (15_s._) to those with 2 ovens, and
suitable for a family, costing about 5_l._ They are also made for
boiling only, in different sizes, and even fitted with a small
hot-water circulating apparatus for heating.
_Pots and Pans._--Iron is cheap, and lasts. It is all very well so
long as it is kept clean; but that seldom happens. Buy a saucepan
brush and silver sand, and see that it is used. See that your iron
saucepans are lined with tin, and not with brown rust and dirt, and
know once for all that an iron saucepan 6 months old should be as
bright inside as it was on the day when it was bought. Understand
yourself, and then try to explain to others, that a saucepan, whether
of tin, iron, or anything else, must be scrubbed both outside and in.
How common it is to see a saucepan crusted outside with soot, which
no one has ever attempted to remove. It gets red hot, and burns the
saucepan as well as its contents, and the bill of the ironmonger
grows apace, and the soup is burnt and spoilt, and every one blames
the cook, while no one thinks of the scrubber. There are not a few
cooks, old enough to know better, who direct that the scrubbing of
saucepans should be done by the hand. Why the hand is to be hardened
and the nails to be ground down to the quick, in order to do slowly
what a 6_d._ saucepan-brush would do quickly, is hard to say. Another
excellent saucepan scrubber, though not so common or so cheap as
the brush, is a small square piece of steel chainwork--a piece of
chain armour, in fact. A bunch of twigs or a wisp of straw, though
better than nothing generally, leaves something to be desired in the
way of brightness. When the soot disappears from the outside, and
the dirt from inside, half the faults of iron saucepans disappear
also. For beef tea, however, some recommend glass or earthenware--a
soda-water bottle or a jampot, if there is nothing better--to be set
inside the saucepan of boiling water, however bright it may be; for
invalids are fastidious, and beef tea always tastes of the saucepan
if possible. Tin saucepans, especially the low-priced ones, are by
no means cheap. They are often met with in the homes of the poor,
and in poor localities in towns ironmongers underbid each other
until the cost of a saucepan only reaches a few pence. How dear
these saucepans are in the long run, no one knows who has not used
them on the open fireplace, upon which in these poor homes they are
generally placed. It is impossible to fry in them without risk of
losing the bottom; it is difficult to stew, because the heat passes
through very rapidly. Tin is little trouble to clean, so there is
no excuse for dirt or dulness, outside or in. The fault often lies
in leaving the lid on after cleaning is done, and the result is
damp and rust. All saucepans should be kept in a dry place, bottom
upwards, and without their lids; if they are dried before the fire so
much the better. A clean tin saucepan may be used for many purposes
where iron is inadmissible; but “clean” is not to be interpreted as
meaning a saucepan carelessly wiped out with a greasy cloth, and
left to dry or to rust as chance may befall. Rust and dirt are not
flavourless articles of cookery. Suppose clear soup or jelly is to be
made. In an iron pan it will be not clear, but thick; in a clean tin
pan or even a fish-kettle it will be not the fault of the pan, but
of the cook, if the jelly be not as clear as glass. The least speck
of rust, the smallest remainder of yesterday’s cooking will spoil
either jelly or soup. Why, indeed, should not tin serve all purposes,
since it is with tin that all copper pans are (or should be) lined?
And copper pans are the _ne plus ultra_ of culinary furniture. The
grand difference lies in the fact that tin pans are thin, the heat
penetrates them quickly, and therefore they are apt to burn, while
copper is thick and a slow conductor of heat. Perhaps something may
also be said on the score of shape. There is an ugly seam round the
bottom of tin pans, where rust is likely to collect; and the best
block-tin saucepans are generally made with sides sloping in towards
the top, as if for the express purpose of producing lumps in all
gravies and rust in all weathers. Why this form ever was or continues
to be fashionable, it is not easy to say. There is, however, another
argument in favour of copper stewpans, namely this--that cooks will
take the trouble to clean them, while they think half the time and
labour wasted on tin, which can be replaced at small cost. Let us
grant, as readily as you please, that copper is the best material;
still it is certain that its cost will always place it out of reach
of modest housewives; therefore the first substitute is plenty of
soap, sand, and labour expended on iron or tin. The next substitute
and a more common one, is enamel-lined iron. The difficulties here
are two. First, the enamel is apt to chip, when all the defects of
the native iron appear; secondly, the heat quickly penetrates, and
is not quickly evaporated. An enamelled pan keeps its contents at
boiling heat for some time after it is removed from the fire. It very
often boils over, and it needs careful watching to prevent burning.
An enamelled pan is not one to be selected for slow stewing. The
substitute in many ways best of all is but little used in England.
Earthenware pots have the many advantages of being cheap to buy, easy
to clean, slow to burn, giving no unpleasant flavour to anything
cooked. Perhaps the reason of their unpopularity is to be sought in
the prevalence of open fires, and the fact that not all earthenware
will stand any closer proximity to the fire than the top of an iron
stove. Those delicate brown porcelain cooking utensils lined with
white are excellent for delicate cookery on a close stove, but they
are not suited to the rough wear and tear of an every-day kitchen,
and considering their fragility, one cannot call them cheap. What we
want is good strong brown earthenware, glazed inside, hardy enough to
be set on an open fire, strong enough to withstand a few taps, and
withal cheap enough to be readily replaced. That such a thing may be
had, every one knows who has travelled out of England and kept their
eyes open. They are common enough in Switzerland, in many parts of
Germany, and our grandmothers would have said they were common in
this country, as indeed they were 50 years ago. Though not common
now, they are still to be bought, in price ranging from a few pence
to 2_s._ One purpose for which they are particularly suited is the
making of broth or stock out of odds and ends. Earthenware may be
kept on the fire day after day, and finally lifted off the fire to
grow cold with its contents; no draining or trouble is necessary, and
no sour or metallic flavour will remain to shock the most fastidious
palate. You may make by turns jelly and oatmeal porridge, and the
same pot serves equally well for both--good for slow stewing on the
hob, but perfectly serviceable on an open fire. There is perhaps no
cooking material for common use to equal earthenware.
Copper must be lined with tin, for unlined copper, whether
clean-scoured or not, is extremely unwholesome. Upon this point much
indecision prevails in the public mind, and it is well to speak
positively, as many cases of poisoning from copper saucepans are
on record. Turning to frying-pans, there is for the impecunious
householder no refuge from iron and tin. A copper frying or sauté
pan is not found in many houses. Nevertheless, there is no occasion
to burn the outside of cutlets; and if the inside is raw, the cook
is to blame, not the metal. “Once burnt will burn again.” A new pan
does not burn; therefore, why should an old one? No frying-pan should
be washed or scoured; it should be wiped while hot with a cloth. But
this rule presupposes no scraps left on the edges, no burning on the
bottom; it assumes, in fact, that the frying be well done. If the pan
be burnt, you must scrub and scour it until it is bright, for nothing
so effectually spoils both the flavour and the appearance of cooking
as the black bits that detach themselves from the sides of dirty
pans. For omelets, copper, enamel, tin, are all used effectually by a
careful cook; while no one of the three will serve the purpose with
unskilful fingers. But every housewife who wishes first-class omelets
served on her table will do well to invest in a copper pan, since
there are few dishes to which the utensils at command of the cook
make so great a difference. Then, again, porcelain and earthenware
might be used with great advantage. The great art in making omelets
is that they shall not be cooked so slowly as to be tough, nor yet
so quickly as to be over-coloured; and the happy medium is difficult
to attain when cooking with metal that, like iron, is a very rapid
conductor of heat. English middle-class kitchens are often furnished
with a strange mixture of niggardliness and extravagance. Any one
accustomed to foreign customs will have been struck with the modest
but well-chosen _batterie de cuisine_ commonly seen abroad in houses
of the lower middle classes. There the mistress selects her own stock
by the light of her own experience; here an order is given to some
ironmonger, who furnishes the kitchen according to precedent, and
in sublime indifference as to the first principles of cookery. The
general absence of so trifling a luxury as wooden spoons may account
for the quality of the unpleasant mixture commonly known as melted
butter. And the extreme reluctance of mistresses to invest in such an
article as a frying-basket, while they waste double its cost every
week by bad frying without it, may be cited as another example of
ignorant saving (E. A. B. in the _Queen_.)