FOOTNOTE:

[1] Part of the poem was called Eoiai, because the description of

each heroine began with [Greek: e oie], "or like as." (See

Bibliography.)

HESPERIDES, in Greek mythology, maidens who guarded the golden apples

which Earth gave Hera on her marriage to Zeus. According to Hesiod

(_Theogony_, 215) they were the daughters of Erebus and Night; in later

accounts, of Atlas and Hesperis, or of Phorcys and Ceto (schol. on

Apoll. Rhod. iv. 1399; Diod. Sic. iv. 27). They were usually supposed to

be three in number--Aegle, Erytheia, Hesperis (or Hesperethusa);

according to some, four, or even seven. They lived far away in the west

at the borders of Ocean, where the sun sets. Hence the sun (according to

Mimnermus _ap._ Athenaeum xi. p. 470) sails in the golden bowl made by

Hephaestus from the abode of the Hesperides to the land where he rises

again. According to other accounts their home was among the

Hyperboreans. The golden apples grew on a tree guarded by Ladon, the

ever-watchful dragon. The sun is often in German and Lithuanian legends

described as the apple that hangs on the tree of the nightly heaven,

while the dragon, the envious power, keeps the light back from men till

some beneficent power takes it from him. Heracles is the hero who brings

back the golden apples to mankind again. Like Perseus, he first applies

to the Nymphs, who help him to learn where the garden is. Arrived there

he slays the dragon and carries the apples to Argos; and finally, like

Perseus, he gives them to Athena. The Hesperides are, like the Sirens,

possessed of the gift of delightful song. The apples appear to have been

the symbol of love and fruitfulness, and are introduced at the marriages

of Cadmus and Harmonia and Peleus and Thetis. The golden apples, the

gift of Aphrodite to Hippomenes before his race with Atalanta, were also

plucked from the garden of the Hesperides.

HESPERUS (Gr. [Greek: Hesperos], Lat. Vesper), the evening star, son or

brother of Atlas. According to Diodorus Siculus (iii. 60, iv. 27), he

ascended Mount Atlas to observe the motions of the stars, and was

suddenly swept away by a whirlwind. Ever afterwards he was honoured as a

god, and the most brilliant star in the heavens was called by his name.

Although as a mythological personality he is regarded as distinct from

Phosphoros or Heosphoros (Lat. Lucifer), the morning star or bringer of

light, the son of Astraeus (or Cephalus) and Eos, the two stars were

early identified by the Greeks.

Diog. Laert. viii. 1. 14; Cicero, _De nat. deorum_, ii. 20; Pliny,

_Nat. Hist._ ii. 6 [8].

HESS, the name of a family of German artists.

HEINRICH MARIA HESS (1798-1863)--von Hess, after he received a patent of

personal nobility--was born at Dusseldorf and brought up to the

profession of art by his father, the engraver Karl Ernst Christoph Hess

(1755-1828). Karl Hess had already acquired a name when in 1806 the

elector of Bavaria, having been raised to a kingship by Napoleon,

transferred the Dusseldorf academy and gallery to Munich. Karl Hess

accompanied the academy to its new home, and there continued the

education of his children. In time Heinrich Hess became sufficiently

master of his art to attract the attention of King Maximilian. He was

sent with a stipend to Rome, where a copy which he made of Raphael's

Parnassus, and the study of great examples of monumental design,

probably caused him to become a painter of ecclesiastical subjects on a

large scale. In 1828 he was made professor of painting and director of

all the art collections at Munich. He decorated the Aukirche, the

Glyptothek and the Allerheiligencapelle at Munich with frescoes; and his

cartoons were selected for glass windows in the cathedrals of Cologne

and Regensburg. Then came the great cycle of frescoes in the basilica of

St Boniface at Munich, and the monumental picture of the Virgin and

Child enthroned between the four doctors, and receiving the homage of

the four patrons of the Munich churches (now in the Pinakothek). His

last work, the "Lord's Supper," was found unfinished in his atelier

after his death in 1863. Before testing his strength as a composer

Heinrich Hess tried genre, an example of which is the Pilgrims entering

Rome, now in the Munich gallery. He also executed portraits, and twice

had sittings from Thorwaldsen (Pinakothek and Schack collections). But

his fame rests on the frescoes representing scenes from the Old and New

Testaments in the Allerheiligencapelle, and the episodes from the life

of St Boniface and other German apostles in the basilica of Munich. Here

he holds rank second to none but Overbeck in monumental painting, being

always true to nature though mindful of the traditions of Christian art,

earnest and simple in feeling, yet lifelike and powerful in expression.

Through him and his pupils the sentiment of religious art was preserved

and extended in the Munich school.

PETER HESS (1792-1871)--afterwards von Hess--was born at Dusseldorf and

accompanied his younger brother Heinrich Maria to Munich in 1806. Being

of an age to receive vivid impressions, he felt the stirring impulses of

the time and became a painter of skirmishes and battles. In 1813-1815 he

was allowed to join the staff of General Wrede, who commanded the

Bavarians in the military operations which led to the abdication of

Napoleon; and there he gained novel experiences of war and a taste for

extensive travel. In the course of years he successively visited

Austria, Switzerland and Italy. On Prince Otho's election to the Greek

throne King Louis sent Peter Hess to Athens to gather materials for

pictures of the war of liberation. The sketches which he then made were

placed, forty in number, in the Pinakothek, after being copied in wax on

a large scale (and little to the edification of German feeling) by

Nilsen, in the northern arcades of the Hofgarten at Munich. King Otho's

entrance into Nauplia was the subject of a large and crowded canvas now

in the Pinakothek, which Hess executed in person. From these, and from

battlepieces on a scale of great size in the Royal Palace, as well as

from military episodes executed for the czar Nicholas, and the battle of

Waterloo now in the Munich Gallery, we gather that Hess was a clever

painter of horses. His conception of subject was lifelike, and his

drawing invariably correct, but his style is not so congenial to modern

taste as that of the painters of touch. He finished almost too carefully

with thin medium and pointed tools; and on that account he lacked to a

certain extent the boldness of Horace Vernet, to whom he was not unaptly

compared. He died suddenly, full of honours, at Munich, in April 1871.

Several of his genre pictures, horse hunts, and brigand scenes may be

found in the gallery of Munich.

KARL HESS (1801-1874), the third son of Karl Christoph Hess, born at

Dusseldorf, was also taught by his father, who hoped that he would

obtain distinction as an engraver. Karl, however, after engraving one

plate after Adrian Ostade, turned to painting under the guidance of

Wagenbauer of Munich, and then studied under his elder brother Peter.

But historical composition proved to be as contrary to his taste as

engraving, and he gave himself exclusively at last to illustrations of

peasant life in the hill country of Bavaria. He became clever alike in

representing the people, the animals and the landscape of the Alps, and

with constant means of reference to nature in the neighbourhood of

Reichenhall, where he at last resided, he never produced anything that

was not impressed with the true stamp of a kindly realism. Some of his

pictures in the museum of Munich will serve as examples of his manner.

He died at Reichenhall on the 16th of November 1874.

HESS, HEINRICH HERMANN JOSEF, FREIHERR VON (1788-1870), Austrian

soldier, entered the army in 1805 and was soon employed as a staff

officer on survey work. He distinguished himself as a subaltern at

Aspern and Wagram, and in 1813, as a captain, again served on the staff.

In 1815 he was with Schwarzenberg. He had in the interval between the

two wars been employed as a military commissioner in Piedmont, and at

the peace resumed this post, gaining knowledge which later proved

invaluable to the Austrian army. In 1831, when Radetzky became

commander-in-chief in Austrian Italy, he took Hess as his

chief-of-staff, and thus began the connexion between two famous soldiers

which, like that of Blucher and Gneisenau, is a classical example of

harmonious co-operation of commander and chief-of-staff. Hess put into

shape Radetzky's military ideas, in the form of new drill for each arm,

and, under their guidance, the Austrian army in North Italy, always on a

war footing, became the best in Europe. From 1834 to 1848 Hess was

employed in Moravia, at Vienna, &c., but, on the outbreak of revolution

and war in the latter year, was at once sent out to Radetzky as

chief-of-staff. In the two campaigns against King Charles Albert which

followed, culminating in the victory of Novara, Hess's assistance to his

chief was made still more valuable by his knowledge of the enemy, and

the old field-marshal acknowledged his services in general orders.

Lieut.-Fieldmarshal Hess was at once promoted _Feldzeugmeister_, made a

member of the emperor's council, and _Freiherr_, assuming at the same

time the duties of the quartermaster-general. Next year he became chief

of the staff to the emperor. He was often employed in missions to

various capitals, and he appeared in the field in 1854 at the head of

the Austrian army which intervened so effectually in the Crimean war. In

1859 he was sent to Italy after the early defeats. He became

field-marshal in 1860, and a year later, on resigning his position as

chief-of-staff, he was made captain of the Trabant guard. He died in

Vienna in 1870.

See "General Hess" in _Lebensgeschichtlichen Hinrissen_ (Vienna,

1855).

HESSE (Lat. _Hessia_, Ger. _Hessen_), a grand duchy forming a state of

the German empire. It was known until 1866 as Hesse-Darmstadt, the

history of which is given under a separate heading below. It consists of

two main parts, separated from each other by a narrow strip of Prussian

territory. The northern part is the province of Oberhessen; the southern

consists of the contiguous provinces of Starkenburg and Rheinhessen.

There are also eleven very small exclaves, mostly grouped about Homburg

to the south-west of Oberhessen; but the largest is Wimpfen on the

north-west frontier of Wurttemberg. Oberhessen is hilly; though of no

great elevation it extends over the water-parting between the basins of

the Rhine and the Weser, and in the Vogelsberg it has as its culminating

point the Taufstein (2533 ft.). In the north-west it includes spurs of

the Taunus. Between these two systems of hills lies the fertile

undulating tract known as the Wetterau, watered by the Wetter, a

tributary of the Main. Starkenburg occupies the angle between the Main

and the Rhine, and in its south-eastern part includes some of the ranges

of the Odenwald, the highest part being the Seidenbucher Hohe (1965

ft.). Rheinhessen is separated from Starkenburg by the Rhine, and has

that river as its northern as well as its eastern frontier, though it

extends across it at the north-east corner, where the Rhine, on

receiving the Main, changes its course abruptly from south to west. The

territory consists of a fertile tract of low hills, rising towards the

south-west into the northern extremity of the Hardt range, but at no

point reaching a height of more than 1050 ft.

The area and population of the three provinces of Hesse are as follow:

+-------------+------+---------------------+

| | Area.| Population. |

| +------+----------+----------+

| |sq. m.| 1895. | 1905. |

| +------+----------+----------+

| Oberhessen | 1267 | 271,524 | 296,755 |

| Starkenburg | 1169 | 444,562 | 542,996 |

| Rheinhessen | 530 | 322,934 | 369,424 |

+-------------+------+----------+----------+

| Total | 2966 |1,039,020 |1,209,175 |

+-------------+------+----------+----------+

The chief towns of the grand duchy are Darmstadt (the capital) and

Offenbach in Starkenburg, Mainz and Worms in Rheinhessen and Giessen in

Oberhessen. More than two-thirds of the inhabitants are Protestants; the

majority of the remainder are Roman Catholics, and there are about

25,000 Jews. The grand duke is head of the Protestant church. Education

is compulsory, the elementary schools being communal, assisted by state

grants. There are a university at Giessen and a technical high school at

Darmstadt. Agriculture is important, more than three-fifths of the total

area being under cultivation. The largest grain crops are rye and

barley, and nearly 40,000 acres are under vines. Minerals, in which

Oberhessen is much richer than the two other provinces, include iron,

manganese, salt and some coal.

The constitution dates from 1820, but was modified in 1856, 1862, 1872

and 1900. There are two legislative chambers. The upper consists of

princes of the grand-ducal family, heads of mediatized houses, the head

of the Roman Catholic and the superintendent of the Protestant church,

the chancellor of the university, two elected representatives of the

land-owning nobility, and twelve members nominated by the grand duke.

The lower chamber consists of ten deputies from large towns and forty

from small towns and rural districts. They are indirectly elected, by

deputy electors (_Wahlmanner_) nominated by the electors, who must be

Hessians over twenty-five years old, paying direct taxes. The executive

ministry of state is divided into the departments of the interior,

justice and finance. The three provinces are divided for local

administration into 18 circles and 989 communes. The ordinary revenue

and expenditure amount each to about L4,000,000 annually, the chief

taxes being an income-tax, succession duties and stamp tax. The public

debt, practically the whole of which is on railways, amounted to

L19,097,468 in 1907.

_History_.--The name of Hesse, now used principally for the grand duchy

formerly known as Hesse-Darmstadt, refers to a country which has had

different boundaries and areas at different times. The name is derived

from that of a Frankish tribe, the Hessi. The earliest known inhabitants

of the country were the Chatti, who lived here during the 1st century

A.D. (Tacitus, _Germania_, c. 30), and whose capital, Mattium on the

Eder, was burned by the Romans about A.D. 15. "Alike both in race and

language," says Walther Schultze, "the Chatti and the Hessi are

identical." During the period of the _Volkerwanderung_ many of these

people moved westward, but some remained behind to give their name to

the country, although it was not until the 8th century that the word

Hesse came into use. Early Hesse was the district around the Fulda, the

Werra, the Eder and the Lahn, and was part of the Frankish kingdom both

during Merovingian and during Carolingian times. Soon _Hessegau_ is

mentioned, and this district was the headquarters of Charlemagne during

his campaigns against the Saxons. By the treaty of Verdun in 843 it fell

to Louis the German, and later it seems to have been partly in the duchy

of Saxony and partly in that of Franconia. The Hessians were converted

to Christianity mainly through the efforts of St Boniface; their land

was included in the archbishopric of Mainz; and religion and culture

were kept alive among them largely owing to the foundation of the

Benedictine abbeys of Fulda and Hersfeld. Like other parts of Germany

during the 9th century Hesse felt the absence of a strong central power,

and, before the time of the emperor Otto the Great, several counts,

among whom were Giso and Werner, had made themselves practically

independent; but after the accession of Otto in 936 the land quietly

accepted the yoke of the medieval emperors. About 1120 another Giso,

count of Gudensberg, secured possession of the lands of the Werners; on

his death in 1137 his daughter and heiress, Hedwig, married Louis,

landgrave of Thuringia; and from this date until 1247, when the

Thuringian ruling family became extinct, Hesse formed part of Thuringia.

The death of Henry Raspe, the last landgrave of Thuringia, in 1247,

caused a long war over the disposal of his lands, and this dispute was

not settled until 1264 when Hesse, separated again from Thuringia, was

secured by his niece Sophia (d. 1284), widow of Henry II., duke of

Brabant. In the following year Sophia handed over Hesse to her son Henry

(1244-1308), who, remembering the connexion of Hesse and Thuringia, took

the title of landgrave, and is the ancestor of all the subsequent rulers

of the country. In 1292 Henry was made a prince of the Empire, and with

him the history of Hesse properly begins.

For nearly 300 years the history of Hesse is comparatively uneventful.

The land, which fell into two main portions, upper Hesse round Marburg,

and lower Hesse round Cassel, was twice divided between two members of

the ruling family, but no permanent partition took place before the

Reformation. A _Landtag_ was first called together in 1387, and the

landgraves were constantly at variance with the electors of Mainz, who

had large temporal possessions in the country. They found time, however,

to increase the area of Hesse. Giessen, part of Schmalkalden,

Ziegenhain, Nidda and, after a long struggle, Katzenelnbogen were

acquired, while in 1432 the abbey of Hersfeld placed itself under the

protection of Hesse. The most noteworthy of the landgraves were perhaps

Louis I. (d. 1458), a candidate for the German throne in 1440, and

William II. (d. 1509), a comrade of the German king, Maximilian I. In

1509 William's young son, Philip (q.v.), became landgrave, and by his

vigorous personality brought his country into prominence during the

religious troubles of the 16th century. Following the example of his

ancestors Philip cared for education and the general welfare of his

land, and the Protestant university of Marburg, founded in 1527, owes to

him its origin. When he died in 1567 Hesse was divided between his four

sons into Hesse-Cassel, Hesse-Darmstadt, Hesse-Marburg and

Hesse-Rheinfels. The lines ruling in Hesse-Rheinfels and Hesse-Marburg,

or upper Hesse, became extinct in 1583 and 1604 respectively, and these

lands passed to the two remaining branches of the family. The small

landgraviate of Hesse-Homburg was formed in 1622 from Hesse-Darmstadt.

After the annexation of Hesse-Cassel and Hesse-Homburg by Prussia in

1866 Hesse-Darmstadt remained the only independent part of Hesse, and it

generally receives the common name.

Hesse-Philippsthal is an offshoot of Hesse-Cassel, and was founded in

1685 by Philip (d. 1721), son of the Landgrave William VI. In 1909 the

representative of this family was the Landgrave Ernest (b. 1846).

Hesse-Barchfeld was founded in 1721 by Philip's son, William (d. 1761),

and in 1909 its representative was the Landgrave Clovis (b. 1876). The

lands of both these princes are now mediatized. Hesse-Nassau is a

province of Prussia formed in 1866 from part of Hesse-Cassel and part of

the duchy of Nassau.

See H. B. Wenck, _Hessische Landesgeschichte_ (Frankfort, 1783-1803);

C. von Rommel, _Geschichte von Hesse_ (Cassel, 1820-1858); F.

Munscher, _Geschichte von Hesse_ (Marburg, 1894); F. Gundlach, _Hesse

und die Mainzer Stiftsfehde_ (Marburg, 1899); Walther, _Literarisches

Handbuch fur Geschichte und Landeskunde von Hesse_ (Darmstadt, 1841;

Supplement, 1850-1869); K. Ackermann, _Bibliotheca Hessiaca_ (Cassel,

1884-1899); Hoffmeister, _Historischgenealogisches Handbuch uber alle

Linien des Regentenhauses Hesse_ (Marburg, 1874), and the _Zeitschrift

des Vereins fur hessische Geschichte_ (1837-1904).

HESSE-CASSEL (in German _Kurhessen_, i.e. Electoral Hesse), now the

government district of Cassel in the Prussian province of Hesse-Nassau.

It was till 1866 a landgraviate and electorate of Germany, consisting of

several detached masses of territory, to the N.E. of

Frankfort-on-the-Main. It contained a superficial area of 3699 sq. m.,

and its population in 1864 was 745,063.

_History._--The line of Hesse-Cassel was founded by William IV.,

surnamed the Wise, eldest son of Philip the Magnanimous. On his father's

death in 1567 he received one half of Hesse, with Cassel as his capital;

and this formed the landgraviate of Hesse-Cassel. Additions were made to

it by inheritance from his brother's possessions. His son, Maurice the

Learned (1592-1627), turned Protestant in 1605, became involved later in

the Thirty Years' War, and, after being forced to cede some of his

territories to the Darmstadt line, abdicated in favour of his son

William V. (1627-1637), his younger sons receiving apanages which

created several cadet lines of the house, of which that of

Hesse-Rheinfels-Rotenburg survived till 1834. On the death of William

V., whose territories had been conquered by the Imperialists, his widow

Amalie Elizabeth, as regent for her son William VI. (1637-1663),

reconquered the country and, with the aid of the French and Swedes, held

it, together with part of Westphalia. At the peace of Westphalia (1648),

accordingly, Hesse-Cassel was augmented by the larger part of the

countship of Schaumburg and by the abbey of Hersfeld, secularized as a

principality of the Empire. The Landgravine Amalie Elizabeth introduced

the rule of primogeniture. William VI., who came of age in 1650, was an

enlightened patron of learning and the arts. He was succeeded by his son

William VII., an infant, who died in 1670, and was succeeded by his

brother Charles (1670-1730). Charles's chief claim to remembrance is

that he was the first ruler to adopt the system of hiring his soldiers

out to foreign powers as mercenaries, as a means of improving the

national finances. Frederick I., the next landgrave (1730-1751), had

become by marriage king of Sweden, and on his death was succeeded in the

landgraviate by his brother William VIII. (1751-1760), who fought as an

ally of England during the Seven Years' War. From his successor

Frederick II. (1760-1785), who had become a Roman Catholic, 22,000

Hessian troops were hired by England for about L3,191,000, to assist in

the war against the North American colonies. This action, often bitterly

criticized, has of late years found apologists (cf. v. Werthern, _Die

hessischen Hilfstruppen im nordamerikanischen Unabhangigkeitskriege_,

Cassel, 1895). It is argued that the troops were in any case

mercenaries, and that the practice was quite common. Whatever opinion

may be held as to this, it is certain that Frederick spent the money

well: he did much for the development of the economic and intellectual

improvement of the country. The reign of the next landgrave, William IX.

(1785-1821), was an important epoch in the history of Hesse-Cassel.

Ascending the throne in 1785, he took part in the war against France a

few years later, but in 1795 peace was arranged by the treaty of Basel.

For the loss in 1801 of his possessions on the left bank of the Rhine he

was in 1803 compensated by some of the former French territory round

Mainz, and at the same time was raised to the dignity of Elector

(_Kurfurst_) as William I. In 1806 he made a treaty of neutrality with

Napoleon, but after the battle of Jena the latter, suspecting William's

designs, occupied his country, and expelled him. Hesse-Cassel was then

added to Jerome Bonaparte's new kingdom of Westphalia; but after the

battle of Leipzig in 1813 the French were driven out and on the 21st of

November the elector returned in triumph to his capital. A treaty

concluded by him with the Allies (Dec. 2) stipulated that he was to

receive back all his former territories, or their equivalent, and at the

same time to restore the ancient constitution of his country. This

treaty, so far as the territories were concerned, was carried out by the

powers at the congress of Vienna. They refused, however, the elector's

request to be recognized as "King of the Chatti" (_Konig der Katten_), a

request which was again rejected at the conference of Aix-la-Chapelle

(1818). He therefore retained the now meaningless title of elector, with

the predicate of "royal highness."

The elector had signalized his restoration by abolishing with a stroke

of the pen all the reforms introduced under the French regime,

repudiating the Westphalian debt and declaring null and void the sale of

the crown domains. Everything was set back to its condition on the 1st

of November 1806; even the officials had to descend to their former

rank, and the army to revert to the old uniforms and powdered pigtails.

The estates, indeed, were summoned in March 1815, but the attempt to

devise a constitution broke down; their appeal to the federal diet at

Frankfort to call the elector to order in the matter of the debt and the

domains came to nothing owing to the intervention of Metternich; and in

May 1816 they were dissolved, never to meet again. William I. died on

the 27th of February 1821, and was succeeded by his son, William II.

Under him the constitutional crisis in Hesse-Cassel came to a head. He

was arbitrary and avaricious like his father, and moreover shocked

public sentiment by his treatment of his wife, a popular Prussian

princess, and his relations with his mistress, one Emilie Ortlopp,

created countess of Reichenbach, whom he loaded with wealth. The July

revolution in Paris gave the signal for disturbances; the elector was

forced to summon the estates; and on the 5th of January 1831 a

constitution on the ordinary Liberal basis was signed. The elector now

retired to Hanau, appointed his son Frederick William regent, and took

no further part in public affairs.

The regent, without his father's coarseness, had a full share of his

arbitrary and avaricious temper. Constitutional restrictions were

intolerable to him; and the consequent friction with the diet was

aggravated when, in 1832, Hassenpflug (q.v.) was placed at the head of

the administration. The whole efforts of the elector and his minister

were directed to nullifying the constitutional control vested in the

diet; and the Opposition was fought by manipulating the elections,

packing the judicial bench, and a vexatious and petty persecution of

political "suspects," and this policy continued after the retirement of

Hassenpflug in 1837. The situation that resulted issued in the

revolutionary year 1848 in a general manifestation of public discontent;

and Frederick William, who had become elector on his father's death

(November 20, 1847), was forced to dismiss his reactionary ministry and

to agree to a comprehensive programme of democratic reform. This,

however, was but short-lived. After the breakdown of the Frankfort

National Parliament, Frederick William joined the Prussian Northern

Union, and deputies from Hesse-Cassel were sent to the Erfurt

parliament. But as Austria recovered strength, the elector's policy

changed. On the 23rd of February 1850 Hassenpflug was again placed at

the head of the administration and threw himself with renewed zeal into

the struggle against the constitution and into opposition to Prussia. On

the 2nd of September the diet was dissolved; the taxes were continued by

electoral ordinance; and the country was placed under martial law. It

was at once clear, however, that the elector could not depend on his

officers or troops, who remained faithful to their oath to the

constitution. Hassenpflug persuaded the elector to leave Cassel secretly

with him, and on the 15th of October appealed for aid to the

reconstituted federal diet, which willingly passed a decree of

"intervention." On the 1st of November an Austrian and Bavarian force

marched into the electorate.

This was a direct challenge to Prussia, which under conventions with the

elector had the right to the use of the military roads through Hesse

that were her sole means of communication with her Rhine provinces. War

seemed imminent; Prussian troops also entered the country, and shots

were actually exchanged between the outposts. But Prussia was in no

condition to take up the challenge; and the diplomatic contest that

followed issued in the Austrian triumph at Olmutz (1851). Hesse was

surrendered to the federal diet; the taxes were collected by the federal

forces, and all officials who refused to recognize the new order were

dismissed. In March 1852 the federal diet abolished the constitution of

1831, together with the reforms of 1848, and in April issued a new

provisional constitution. The new diet had, under this, very narrow

powers; and the elector was free to carry out his policy of amassing

money, forbidding the construction of railways and manufactories, and

imposing strict orthodoxy on churches and schools. In 1855, however,

Hassenpflug--who had returned with the elector--was dismissed; and five

years later, after a period of growing agitation, a new constitution was

granted with the consent of the federal diet (May 30, 1860). The new

chambers, however, demanded the constitution of 1831; and, after several

dissolutions which always resulted in the return of the same members,

the federal diet decided to restore the constitution of 1831 (May 24,

1862). This had been due to a threat of Prussian occupation; and it

needed another such threat to persuade the elector to reassemble the

chambers, which he had dismissed at the first sign of opposition; and he

revenged himself by refusing to transact any public business. In 1866

the end came. The elector, full of grievances against Prussia, threw in

his lot with Austria; the electorate was at once overrun with Prussian

troops; Cassel was occupied (June 20); and the elector was carried a

prisoner to Stettin. By the treaty of Prague Hesse-Cassel was annexed to

Prussia. The elector Frederick William (d. 1875) had been, by the terms

of the treaty of cession, guaranteed the entailed property of his house.

This was, however, sequestered in 1868 owing to his intrigues against

Prussia; part of the income was paid, however, to the eldest agnate, the

landgrave Frederick (d. 1884), and part, together with certain castles

and palaces, was assigned to the cadet lines of Philippsthal and

Philippsthal-Barchfeld.

See K. W. Wippermann, _Kurhessen seit den Freiheitskriegen_ (Cassel,

1850); Roth, _Geschichte von Hessen-Kassel_ (Cassel, 1856; 2nd ed.

continued by Stamford, 1883-1885); H. Grafe, _Der Verfassungskampf in

Kurhessen_ (Leipzig, 1851) and works under HESSE.

HESSE-DARMSTADT, a grand-duchy in Germany, the history of which begins

with the partition of Hesse in 1567. George I. (1547-1597), the youngest

son of the landgrave Philip, received the upper county of

Katzenelnbogen, and, selecting Darmstadt as his residence, became the

founder of the Hesse-Darmstadt line. Additions to the landgraviate were

made both in the reigns of George and of his son and successor, Louis V.

(1577-1626), but in 1622 Hesse-Homburg was cut off to form an apanage

for George's youngest son, Frederick (d. 1638). Although Louis V., who

founded the university of Giessen in 1607, was a Lutheran, he and his

son, George II. (1605-1661), sided with the imperialists in the Thirty

Years' War, during which Hesse-Darmstadt suffered very severely from the

ravages of the Swedes. In this struggle Hesse-Cassel took the other

side, and the rivalry between the two landgraviates was increased by a

dispute over Hesse-Marburg, the ruling family of which had become

extinct in 1604. This quarrel was interwoven with the general thread of

the Thirty Years' War, and was not finally settled until 1648, when the

disputed territory was divided between the two claimants. Louis VI. (d.

1678), a careful and patriotic prince, followed the policy of the three

previous landgraves, but the anxiety of his son, Ernest Louis (d. 1739),

to emulate the French court under Louis XIV. led his country into debt.

Under Ernest Louis and his son and successor, Louis VIII. (d. 1768),

another dispute occurred between Darmstadt and Cassel; this time it was

over the succession to the county of Hanau, which was eventually

divided, Hesse-Darmstadt receiving Lichtenberg. During the 18th century

the War of the Austrian Succession and the Seven Years' War dealt heavy

blows at the prosperity of the landgraviate, which was always loyal to

the house of Austria. Louis IX. (1719-1790), who served in the Prussian

army under Frederick the Great, is chiefly famous as the husband of

Caroline (1721-1774), "the great landgravine," who counted Goethe,

Herder and Grimm among her friends and was described by Frederick the

Great as _femina sexu, ingenio vir_. In April 1790, just after the

outbreak of the French Revolution, Louis X. (1753-1830), an educated

prince who shared the tastes and friendships of his mother, Caroline,

became landgrave. In 1792 he joined the allies against France, but in

1799 he was compelled to sign a treaty of neutrality. In 1803, having

formally surrendered the part of Hesse on the left bank of the Rhine

which had been taken from him in the early days of the Revolution, Louis

received in return a much larger district which had formerly belonged to

the duchy of Westphalia, the electorate of Mainz and the bishopric of

Worms. In 1806, being a member of the confederation of the Rhine, he

took the title of Louis I., grand-duke of Hesse; he supported Napoleon

with troops from 1805 to 1813, but after the battle of Leipzig he joined

the allies. In 1815 the congress of Vienna made another change in the

area and boundaries of Hesse-Darmstadt. Louis secured again a district

on the left bank of the Rhine, including the cities of Mainz and Worms,

but he made cessions of territory to Prussia and to Bavaria and he

recognized the independence of Hesse-Homburg, which had recently been

incorporated with his lands. However, his title of grand-duke was

confirmed, and as grand-duke of Hesse and of the Rhine he entered the

Germanic confederation. Soon the growing desire for liberty made itself

felt in Hesse, and in 1820 Louis gave a constitution to the land;

various forms were carried through; the system of government was

reorganized, and in 1828 Hesse-Darmstadt joined the Prussian

_Zollverein_. Louis I., who did a great deal for the welfare of his

country, died on the 6th of April 1830, and was followed on the throne

by his son, Louis II. (1777-1848). This grand-duke had some trouble with

his _Landtag_, but, dying on the 16th of June 1848, he left his son,

Louis III. (1806-1877), to meet the fury of the revolutionary year 1848.

Many concessions were made to the popular will, but during the

subsequent reaction these were withdrawn, and the period between 1850

and 1871, when Karl Friedrich Reinhard, Freiherr von Dalwigk

(1802-1880), was chiefly responsible for the government of

Hesse-Darmstadt, was one of repression, although some benefits were

conferred upon the people. Dalwigk was one of Prussia's enemies, and

during the war of 1866 the grand-duke fought on the Austrian side, the

result being that he was compelled to pay a heavy indemnity and to cede

certain districts, including Hesse-Homburg, which he had only just

acquired, to Prussia. In 1867 Louis entered the North German

Confederation, but only for his lands north of the Main, and in 1871

Hesse-Darmstadt became one of the states of the new German empire. After

the withdrawal of Dalwigk from public life at this time a more liberal

policy was adopted in Hesse. Many reforms in ecclesiastical,

educational, financial and administrative matters were introduced, and

in general the grand-duchy may be said to have passed largely under the

influence of Prussia, which, by an arrangement made in 1896, controls

the Hessian railway system. The constitution of 1820, subject to four

subsequent modifications, is still the law of the land, the legislative

power being vested in two chambers and the executive power being

exercised by the three departments of the ministry of state. Since the

annexation of Hesse-Cassel by Prussia in 1866 the grand-duchy has been

known simply as Hesse. Louis III. died on the 13th of June 1877, and was

succeeded by his nephew, Louis IV. (1837-1892), a son-in-law of Queen

Victoria; he died on the 13th of March 1892, and was succeeded by his

son, Ernest Louis (b. 1868). This grand-duke's marriage with Victoria

(b. 1876), daughter of Alfred, duke of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha, was

dissolved in 1901. The union was childless, and consequently in 1902 a

law regulating the succession was passed. By this the landgrave

Alexander Frederick (b. 1863), the representative of the family which

ruled Hesse-Cassel until 1866, was declared the heir to Hesse in case

the grand-duke died without sons. However, in 1905 Ernest Louis married

Elenore, princess of Solms-Hohensolms-Lich (b. 1871), by whom he had a

son George (b. 1906).

See L. Baur, _Urkunden zur hessischen Landes-, Orts- und

Familiengeschichte_ (Darmstadt, 1846-1873); Steiner, _Geschichte des

Grossherzogtums Hesse_n (Darmstadt, 1833-1834); Klein, _Das

Grossherzogtum Hessen_ (Mainz, 1861); Ewald, _Historische Ubersicht

der Territorialveranderungen der Landgrafschaft Hessen und des

Grossherzogtums Hessen_ (Darmstadt, 1872); F. Soldan, _Geschichte des

Grossherzogtums Hessen_ (Giessen, 1896); H. Heppe, _Kirchengeschichte

beider Hessen_ (Marburg, 1876-1878); C. Hessler, _Geschichte von

Hessen_ (Cassel, 1891), and _Hessische Landes- und Volkskunde_

(Marburg, 1904-1906); F. Kuchler, A. E. Braun and A. K. Weber,

_Verfassungs- und Verwaltungsrecht des Grossherzogtums Hessen_

(Darmstadt, 1894-1897); H. Kunzel, _Grossherzogtum Hessen_ (Giessen,

1893); and W. Zeller, _Handbuch der Verfassung und Verwaltung im

Grossherzogtum Hessen_ (Darmstadt, 1885-1893). See also _Archiv fur

hessische Geschichte und Altertumskunde_ (Darmstadt, 1894 fol.) and

_Hessisches Urkundenbuch_ (Leipzig, 1879 fol.).

HESSE-HOMBURG, formerly a small landgraviate in Germany. It consisted of

two parts, the district of Homburg on the right side of the Rhine, and the

district of Meisenheim, which was added in 1815, on the left side of the

same river. Its area was about 100 sq. m., and its population in 1864 was

27,374. Homburg now forms part of the Prussian province of Hesse-Nassau,

and Meisenheim of the province of the Rhine. Hesse-Homburg was formed into

a separate landgraviate in 1622 by Frederick I. (d. 1638), son of George

I., landgrave of Hesse-Darmstadt, although it did not become independent

of Hesse-Darmstadt until 1768. By two of Frederick's sons it was divided

into Hesse-Homburg and Hesse-Homburg-Bingenheim; but these parts were

again united in 1681 under the rule of Frederick's third son, Frederick

II. (d. 1708). In 1806, during the long reign of the landgrave Frederick

V., which extended from 1751 to 1820, Hesse-Homburg was mediatized, and

incorporated with Hesse-Darmstadt; but in 1815 by the congress of Vienna

the latter state was compelled to recognize the independence of

Hesse-Homburg, which was increased by the addition of Meisenheim.

Frederick V. joined the German confederation as a sovereign prince in

1817, and after his death his five sons in succession filled the throne.

The last of these, Ferdinand, who succeeded in 1848, granted a liberal

constitution to his people, but cancelled it during the reaction of 1852.

When he died on the 24th of March 1866, Hesse-Homburg was inherited by

Louis III., grand-duke of Hesse-Darmstadt, while Meisenheim fell to

Prussia. In the following September, however, Louis was forced to cede

his new possession to Prussia, as he had supported Austria during the war

between these two powers.

See R. Schwartz, _Landgraf Friedrich V. von Hessen-Homburg und seine

Familie_ (1878); and von Herget, _Das landgrafliche Haus Homburg_

(Homburg, 1903).

HESSE-NASSAU (Ger. _Hessen-Nassau_), a province of Prussia, bounded,

from N. to E., S. and W., successively by Westphalia, Waldeck, Hanover,

the province of Saxony, the Thuringian States, Bavaria, Hesse and the

Rhine Province. There are small detached portions in Waldeck, Thuringia,

&c.; on the other hand the province enclaves the province of Oberhessen

belonging to the grand-duchy of Hesse, and the circle of Wetzlar

belonging to the Rhine Province. Hesse-Nassau was formed in 1867-1868

out of the territories which accrued to Prussia after the war of 1866,

namely, the landgraviate of Hesse-Cassel and the duchy of Nassau, in

addition to the greater part of the territory of Frankfort-on-Main,

parts of the grand-duchy of Hesse, the territory of Homburg and the

countship of Hesse-Homburg, together with certain small districts which

belonged to Bavaria. It is now divided into the governments of Cassel

and Wiesbaden, the second of which consists mainly of the former

territory of Nassau (q.v.).

The province has an area of 6062 sq. m., and had a population in 1905 of

2,070,052, being the fourth most densely populated province in Prussia,

after Berlin, the Rhine Province and Westphalia. The east and north

parts lie in the basin of the river Fulda, which near the north-eastern

boundary joins with the Werra to form the Weser. The Main forms part of

the southern boundary, and the Rhine the south-western; the western part

of the province lies mostly in the basin of the Lahn, a tributary of the

Rhine. The province is generally hilly, the highest hills occurring in

the east and west. The Fulda rises in the Wasserkuppe (3117 ft.), an

eminence of the Rhongebirge, the highest in the province. In the

south-west are the Taunus, bordering the Main, and the Westerwald, west

of the Lahn, in which the highest points respectively are the Grosser

Feldberg (2887 ft.) and the Fuchskauten (2155 ft.). The congeries of

small groups of lower hills in the north are known as the Hessische

Bergland.

The province is not notably well suited to agriculture, but in forests

it is the richest in Prussia, and the timber trade is large. The chief

trees are beech, oak and conifers. Cattle-breeding is extensively

practised. The vine is cultivated chiefly on the slopes of the Taunus,

in the south-west, where the names of several towns are well known for

their wines--Schierstein, Erbach (Marcobrunner), Johannisberg,

Geisenheim, Rudesheim, Assmannshausen. Iron, coal, copper and manganese

are mined. The mineral springs are important, including those at

Wiesbaden, Homburg, Langenschwalbach, Nenndorf, Schlangenbad and Soden.

The chief manufacturing centres are Cassel, Diez, Eschwege, Frankfort,

Fulda, Gross Almerode, Hanau and Hersfeld. The province is divided for

administration into 42 circles (_Kreise_), 24 in the government of

Cassel and 18 in that of Wiesbaden. It returns 14 representatives to the

Reichstag. Marburg is the seat of a university.

HESSE-ROTENBURG, a German landgraviate which was broken up in 1834. In

1627 Ernest (1623-1693), a younger son of Maurice, landgrave of

Hesse-Cassel (d. 1632), received Rheinsfels and lower Katzenelnbogen as

his inheritance, and some years later, on the deaths of two of his

brothers, he added Eschwege, Rotenburg, Wanfried and other districts to

his possessions. Ernest, who was a convert to the Roman Catholic Church,

was a great traveller and a voluminous writer. About 1700 his two sons,

William (d. 1725) and Charles (d. 1711), divided their territories, and

founded the families of Hesse-Rotenburg and Hesse-Wanfried. The latter

family died out in 1755, when William's grandson, Constantine (d. 1778),

reunited the lands except Rheinfels, which had been acquired by

Hesse-Cassel in 1735, and ruled them as landgrave of Hesse-Rotenburg. At

the peace of Luneville in 1801 the part of the landgraviate on the left

bank of the Rhine was surrendered to France, and in 1815 other parts

were ceded to Prussia, the landgrave Victor Amadeus being compensated

by the abbey of Corvey and the Silesian duchy of Ratibor. Victor was the

last male member of his family, so, with the consent of Prussia, he

bequeathed his allodial estates to his nephews the princes Victor and

Chlodwig of Hohenlohe-Waldenburg-Schillingsfurst (see HOHENLOHE). When

the landgrave died on the 12th of November 1834 the remaining parts of

Hesse-Rotenburg were united with Hesse-Cassel according to the

arrangement of 1627. It may be noted that Hesse-Rotenburg was never

completely independent of Hesse-Cassel. Perhaps the most celebrated

member of this family was Charles Constantine (1752-1821), a younger son

of the landgrave Constantine, who was called "citoyen Hesse," and who

took part in the French Revolution.

HESSIAN, the name of a jute fabric made as a plain cloth, in various

degrees of fineness, width and quality. The common, or standard, hessian

is 40 in. wide, weighs 10(1/2) oz. per yd., and in the finished state

contains about 12 threads and 12(1/2) picks per in. The name is probably

of German origin, and the fabric was originally made from flax and tow.

Small quantities of cloth are still made from yarns of these fibres, but

the jute fibre, owing to its comparative cheapness, has now almost

supplanted all others.

This useful cloth is employed in countless ways, especially for packing

all kinds of dry goods, while large quantities, of different qualities,

are made up into bags for sugar, flour, coffee, grain, ore, manure,

sand, potatoes, onions, &c. Indeed, bags made from one or other quality

of this cloth, or from sacking, bagging or tarpaulin, form the most

convenient, and at the same time the cheapest covering for any kind of

goods which are not damaged by being crushed.

Certain types are specially treated, dyed black, tan or other colour, or

left in their natural colour, stiffened and used for paddings and

linings for cheap clothing, boots, shoes, bags and other articles. When

dyed in art shades the cloth forms an attractive decoration for stages

and platforms, and generally for any temporary erection, and in many

cases it is stencilled and then used for wall decoration.

The great linoleum industry depends upon certain types of this fabric

for the foundation of its products, while large quantities are used for

the backs of fringe rugs, spring mattresses and the upholstery of

furniture.

The great centres for the manufacture of this fabric are Dundee and

Calcutta, and every variety of the cloth, and all kinds of hand- and

machine-sewn, as well as seamless bags, are made in the former city. The

American name for hessian is burlap; this particular kind is 40 in.

wide, and is now largely made in Calcutta as well as in Dundee and other

places.

HESSUS, HELIUS EOBANUS (1488-1540), German Latin poet, was born at

Halgehausen in Hesse-Cassel, on the 6th of January 1488. His family name

is said to have been Koch; Eoban was the name of a local saint; Hessus

indicates the land of his birth, Helius the fact that he was born on

Sunday. In 1504 he entered the university of Erfurt, and soon after his

graduation was appointed rector of the school of St Severus. This post

he soon lost, and spent the years 1509-1513 at the court of the bishop

of Riesenburg. Returning to Erfurt, he was reduced to great straits

owing to his drunken and irregular habits. At length (in 1517) he was

appointed professor of Latin in the university. He was prominently

associated with the distinguished men of the time (Johann Reuchlin,

Conrad Peutinger, Ulrich von Hutten, Conrad Mutianus), and took part in

the political, religious and literary quarrels of the period, finally

declaring in favour of Luther and the Reformation, although his

subsequent conduct showed that he was actuated by selfish motives. The

university was seriously weakened by the growing popularity of the new

university of Wittenberg, and Hessus endeavoured (but without success)

to gain a living by the practice of medicine. Through the influence of

Camerarius and Melanchthon, he obtained a post at Nuremberg (1526), but,

finding a regular life distasteful, he again went back to Erfurt (1533).

But It was not the Erfurt he had known; his old friends were dead or had

left the place; the university was deserted. A lengthy poem gained him

the favour of the landgrave of Hesse, by whom he was summoned in 1536

as professor of poetry and history to Marburg, where he died on the 5th

of October 1540. Hessus, who was considered the foremost Latin poet of

his age, was a facile verse-maker, but not a true poet. He wrote what he

thought was likely to pay or secure him the favour of some important

person. He wrote local, historical and military poems, idylls, epigrams

and occasional pieces, collected under the title of _Sylvae_. His most

popular works were translations of the Psalms into Latin distichs (which

reached forty editions) and of the _Iliad_ into hexameters. His most

original poem was the _Heroides_ in imitation of Ovid, consisting of

letters from holy women, from the Virgin Mary down to Kunigunde, wife of

the emperor Henry II.

His _Epistolae_ were edited by his friend Camerarius, who also wrote

his life (1553). There are later accounts of him by M. Hertz (1860),

G. Schwertzell (1874) and C. Krause (1879); see also D. F. Strauss,

_Ulrich von Hutten_ (Eng. trans., 1874). His poems on Nuremberg and

other towns have been edited with commentaries and 16th-century

illustrations by J. Neff and V. von Loga in M. Herrmann and S.

Szamatolski's _Lateinische Literaturdenkmaler des XV. u. XVI.

Jahrhunderts_ (Berlin, 1896).

HESTIA, in Greek mythology, the "fire-goddess," daughter of Cronus and

Rhea, the goddess of hearth and home. She is not mentioned in Homer,

although the hearth is recognized as a place of refuge for suppliants;

this seems to show that her worship was not universally acknowledged at

the time of the Homeric poems. In post-Homeric religion she is one of

the twelve Olympian deities, but, as the abiding goddess of the

household, she never leaves Olympus. When Apollo and Poseidon became

suitors for her hand, she swore to remain a maiden for ever; whereupon

Zeus bestowed upon her the honour of presiding over all sacrifices. To

her the opening sacrifice was offered; to her at the sacrificial meal

the first and last libations were poured. The fire of Hestia was always

kept burning, and, if by any accident it became extinct, only sacred

fire produced by friction, or by burning glasses drawing fire from the

sun, might be used to rekindle it. Hestia is the goddess of the family

union, the personification of the idea of home; and as the city union is

only the family union on a large scale, she was regarded as the goddess

of the state. In this character her special sanctuary was in the

prytaneum, where the common hearth-fire round which the magistrates meet

is ever burning, and where the sacred rites that sanctify the concord of

city life are performed. From this fire, as the representative of the

life of the city, intending colonists took the fire which was to be

kindled on the hearth of the new colony. Hestia was closely connected

with Zeus, the god of the family both in its external relation of

hospitality and its internal unity round its own hearth; in the

_Odyssey_ a form of oath is by Zeus, the table and the hearth. Again,

Hestia is often associated with Hermes, the two representing home and

domestic life on the one hand, and business and outdoor life on the

other; or, according to others, the association is local--that of the

god of boundaries with the goddess of the house. In later philosophy

Hestia became the hearth of the universe--the personification of the

earth as the centre of the universe, identified with Cybele and Demeter.

As Hestia had her home in the prytaneum, special temples dedicated to

her are of rare occurrence. She is seldom represented in works of art,

and plays no important part in legend. It is not certain that any really

Greek statues of Hestia are in existence, although the Giustiniani Vesta

in the Torlonia Museum is usually accepted as such. In this she is

represented standing upright, simply robed, a hood over her head, the

left hand raised and pointing upwards. The Roman deity corresponding to

the Greek Hestia is Vesta (q.v.).

See A. Preuner, _Hestia-Vesta_ (1864), the standard treatise on the

subject, and his article in Roscher's _Lexikon der Mythologie_; J. G.

Frazer, "The Prytaneum," &c., in _Journal of Philology_, xiv. (1885);

G. Hagemann, _De Graecorum prytaneis_ (1881), with bibliography and

notes; _Homeric Hymns_, xxix., ed. T. W. Allen and E. E. Sikes (1904);

Farnell, _Cults, the Greek States_, v. (1909).

HESYCHASTS ([Greek: hesychastai] or [Greek: hesychazontes], from [Greek:

hesychos], quiet, also called [Greek: omphalopsychoi], Umbilicanimi, and

sometimes referred to as Euchites, Massalians or Palamites), a

quietistic sect which arose, during the later period of the Byzantine

empire, among the monks of the Greek church, especially at Mount Athos,

then at the height of its fame and influence under the reign of

Andronicus the younger and the abbacy of Symeon. Owing to various

adventitious circumstances the sect came into great prominence

politically and ecclesiastically for a few years about the middle of the

14th century. Their opinion and practice will be best represented in the

words of one of their early teachers (quoted by Gibbon, _Decline and

Fall_, c. 63): "When thou art alone in thy cell shut thy door, and seat

thyself in a corner; raise thy mind above all things vain and

transitory; recline thy beard and chin on thy breast; turn thine eyes

and thy thought towards the middle of thy belly, the region of the navel

([Greek: omphalos]); and search the place of the heart, the seat of the

soul. At first all will be dark and comfortless; but if thou persevere

day and night, thou wilt feel an ineffable joy; and no sooner has the

soul discovered the place of the heart than it is involved in a mystic

and ethereal light." About the year 1337 this hesychasm, which is

obviously related to certain well-known forms of Oriental mysticism,

attracted the attention of the learned and versatile Barlaam, a

Calabrian monk, who at that time held the office of abbot in the

Basilian monastery of St Saviour's in Constantinople, and who had

visited the fraternities of Mount Athos on a tour of inspection. Amid

much that he disapproved, what he specially took exception to as

heretical and blasphemous was the doctrine entertained as to the nature

of this divine light, the fruition of which was the supposed reward of

hesychastic contemplation. It was maintained to be the pure and perfect

essence of God Himself, that eternal light which had been manifested to

the disciples on Mount Tabor at the transfiguration. This Barlaam held

to be polytheistic, inasmuch as it postulated two eternal substances, a

visible and an invisible God. On the hesychastic side the controversy

was taken up by Gregory Palamas, afterwards archbishop of Thessalonica,

who laboured to establish a distinction between eternal [Greek: ousia]

and eternal [Greek: energeia]. In 1341 the dispute came before a synod

held at Constantinople and presided over by the emperor Andronicus; the

assembly, influenced by the veneration in which the writings of the

pseudo-Dionysius were held in the Eastern Church, overawed Barlaam, who

recanted and returned to Calabria, afterwards becoming bishop of Hierace

in the Latin communion. One of his friends, Gregory Acindynus, continued

the controversy, and three other synods on the subject were held, at the

second of which the Barlaamites gained a brief victory. But in 1351

under the presidency of the emperor John Cantacuzenus, the uncreated

light of Mount Tabor was established as an article of faith for the

Greeks, who ever since have been ready to recognize it as an additional

ground of separation from the Roman Church. The contemporary historians

Cantacuzenus and Nicephorus Gregoras deal very copiously with this

subject, taking the Hesychast and Barlaamite sides respectively. It may

be mentioned that in the time of Justinian the word hesychast was

applied to monks in general simply as descriptive of the quiet and

contemplative character of their pursuits.

See article "Hesychasten" in Herzog-Hauck, _Realencyklopadie_ (3rd

ed., 1900), where further references are given.

HESYCHIUS, grammarian of Alexandria, probably flourished in the 5th

century A.D. He was probably a pagan; and the explanations of words from

Gregory of Nazianzus and other Christian writers (_glossae sacrae_) are

interpolations of a later time. He has left a Greek dictionary,

containing a copious list of peculiar words, forms and phrases, with an

explanation of their meaning, and often with a reference to the author

who used them or to the district of Greece where they were current.

Hence the book is of great value to the student of the Greek dialects;

while in the restoration of the text of the classical authors generally,

and particularly of such writers as Aeschylus and Theocritus, who used

many unusual words, its value can hardly be exaggerated. The

explanations of many epithets and phrases reveal many important facts

about the religion and social life of the ancients. In a prefatory

letter Hesychius mentions that his lexicon is based on that of

Diogenianus (itself extracted from an earlier work by Pamphilus), but

that he has also used similar works by Aristarchus, Apion, Heliodorus

and others.

The text is very corrupt, and the order of the words has often been

disturbed. There is no doubt that many interpolations, besides the

Christian glosses, have been made. The work has come down to us from a

single MS., now in the library at Venice, from which the editio

princeps was published. The best edition is by M. Schmidt (1858-1868);

in a smaller edition (1867) he attempts to distinguish the additions

made by Hesychius to the work of Diogenianus.

HESYCHIUS OF MILETUS, Greek chronicler and biographer, surnamed

_Illustrius_, son of an advocate, flourished at Constantinople in the

5th century A.D. during the reign of Justinian. According to Photius

(cod. 69) he was the author of three important works, (1) _A Compendium

of Universal History_ in six books, from Belus, the reputed founder of

the Assyrian empire, to Anastasius I. (d. 518). A considerable fragment

has been preserved from the sixth book, entitled [Greek: Patria

Konstantinoupoleos], a history of Byzantium from its earliest beginnings

till the time of Constantine the Great. (2) _A Biographical Dictionary_

([Greek: Onomatologos] or [Greek: Pinax]) _of Learned Men_, arranged

according to classes (poets, philosophers), the chief sources of which

were the [Greek: Mousike historia] of Aelius Dionysius and the works of

Herennius Philo. Much of it has been incorporated in the lexicon of

Suidas, as we learn from that author. It is disputed, however, whether

the words in Suidas ("of which this book is an epitome") mean that

Suidas himself epitomized the work of Hesychius, or whether they are

part of the title of an already epitomized Hesychius used by Suidas. The

second view is more generally held. The epitome referred to, in which

alphabetical order was substituted for arrangement in classes and some

articles on Christian writers added as a concession to the times, is

assigned from internal indications to the years 829-837. Both it and the

original work are lost, with the exception of the excerpts in Photius

and Suidas. A smaller compilation, chiefly from Diogenes Laertius and

Suidas, with a similar title, is the work of an unknown author of the

11th or 12th century. (3) A _History_ of the Reign of Justin I.

(518-527) and the early years of Justinian, completely lost. Photius

praises the style of Hesychius, and credits him with being a veracious

historian.

Editions: J. C. Orelli (1820) and J. Flach (1882); fragments in C. W.

Muller, _Frag. hist. Graec._ iv. 143 and in T. Preger's _Scriptores

originis Constantinopolitanae_, i. (1901); _Pseudo-Hesychius_, by J.

Flach (1880); see generally C. Krumbacher, _Geschichte der

byzantinischen Literatur_ (1897).

HETAERISM (Gr. [Greek: hetaira] mistress), the term employed by

anthropologists to express the primitive condition of man in his sexual

relations. The earliest social organization of the human race was

characterized by the absence of the institution of marriage in any form.

Women were the common property of their tribe, and the children never

knew their fathers.

HETEROKARYOTA, a zoological name proposed by S. J. Hickson for the

Infusoria (q.v.) on the ground of the differentiation of their nuclear

apparatus into meganucleus and micronucleus (or nuclei).

See Lankester's _Treatise of Zoology_, vol. i. fasc. 1 (1903).

HETERONOMY (from Gr. [Greek: heteros] and [Greek: nomos], the rule of

another), the state of being under the rule of another person. In ethics

the term is specially used as the antithesis of "autonomy," which,

especially in Kantian terminology, treats of the true self as will,

determining itself by its own law, the moral law. "Heteronomy" is

therefore applied by Kant to all other ethical systems, inasmuch as they

place the individual in subjection to external laws of conduct.

HETMAN (a Polish word, probably derived from the Ger. _Hauptmann_,

head-man or captain; the Russian form is _ataman_), a military title

formerly in use in Poland; the _Hetman Wielki_, or Great Hetman, was the

chief of the armed forces of the nation, and commanded in the field,

except when the king was present in person. The office was abolished in

1792. From Poland the word was introduced into Russia, in the form

_ataman_, and was adopted by the Cossacks, as a title for their head,

who was practically an independent prince, when under the suzerainty of

Poland. After the acceptance of Russian rule by the Cossacks in 1654,

the post was shorn of its power. The title of "ataman" or "hetman of all

the Cossacks" is held by the Cesarevitch. "Ataman" or "hetman" is also

the name of the elected elder of the _stanitsa_, the unit of Cossack

administration. (See COSSACKS.)

HETTNER, HERMANN THEODOR (1821-1882), German literary historian and

writer on the history of art, was born at Leisersdorf, near Goldberg, in

Silesia, on the 12th of March 1821. At the universities of Berlin, Halle

and Heidelberg he devoted himself chiefly to the study of philosophy, but

in 1843 turned his attention to aesthetics, art and literature. With a

view to furthering these studies, he spent three years in Italy, and, on

his return, published a _Vorschule zur bildenden Kunst der Alten_ (1848)

and an essay on _Die neapolitanischen Malerschulen_. He became

_Privatdozent_ for aesthetics and the history of art at Heidelberg and,

after the publication of his suggestive volume on _Die romantische Schule

in ihrem Zusammenhang mit Goethe und Schiller_ (1850), accepted a call as

professor to Jena where he lectured on the history of both art and

literature. In 1855 he was appointed director of the royal collections of

antiquities and the museum of plaster casts at Dresden, to which posts

were subsequently added that of director of the historical museum and a

professorship at the royal _Polytechnikum_. He died in Dresden on the

29th of May 1882. Hettner's chief work is his _Literaturgeschichte des

18ten Jahrhunderts_, which appeared in three parts, devoted respectively

to English, French and German literature, between 1856 and 1870 (5th ed.

of I. and II., revised by A. Brandl and H. Morf, 1894; 4th of III.,

revised by O. Harnack, 1894). Although to some extent influenced by the

political and literary theories of the Hegelian school, which, since

Hettner's day have fallen into discredit, and at times losing sight of

the main issues of literary development over questions of social

evolution, this work belongs to the best histories that the 19th century

produced. Hettner's judgment is sound and his point of view always

original and stimulating. His other works include _Griechische

Reiseskizzen_ (1853), _Das moderne Drama_ (1852)--a book that arose from

a correspondence with Gottfried Keller--_Italienische Studien_ (1879),

and several works descriptive of the Dresden art collections. His _Kleine

Schriften_ were collected and published in 1884.

See A. Stern, _Hermann Hettner, ein Lebensbild_ (1885); H. Spitzer,

_H. Hettners kunstphilosophische Anfange und Literaturasthetik_

(1903).

HETTSTEDT, a town of Germany, in Prussian Saxony, on the Wipper, and at

the junction of the railways Berlin-Blankenheim and Hettstedt-Halle, 23

m. N.W. of the last town. Pop. (1905), 9230. It has a Roman Catholic and

four Evangelical churches, and has manufactures of machinery,

pianofortes and artificial manure. In the neighbourhood are mines of

argentiferous copper, and the surrounding district and villages are

occupied with smelting and similar works. Silver and sulphuric acid are

the other chief products; nickel and gold are also found in small

quantities. In the Kaiser Friedrich mine close by, the first

steam-engine in Germany was erected on the 23rd of August 1785.

Hettstedt is mentioned as early as 1046; in 1220 it possessed a castle;

and in 1380 it received civic privileges. When the countship of Mansfeld

was sequestrated, Hettstedt came into the possession of Saxony, passing

to Prussia in 1815.

HEUGLIN, THEODOR VON (1824-1876), German traveller in north-east Africa,

was born on the 20th of March 1824 at Hirschlanden near Leonberg in

Wurttemberg. His father was a Protestant pastor, and he was trained to

be a mining engineer. He was ambitious, however, to become a scientific

investigator of unknown regions, and with that object studied the

natural sciences, especially zoology. In 1850 he went to Egypt where he

learnt Arabic, afterwards visiting Arabia Petraea. In 1852 he

accompanied Dr Reitz, Austrian consul at Khartum, on a journey to

Abyssinia, and in the next year was appointed Dr Reitz's successor in

the consulate. While he held this post he travelled in Abyssinia and

Kordofan, making a valuable collection of natural history specimens. In

1857 he journeyed through the coast lands of the African side of the Red

Sea, and along the Somali coast. In 1860 he was chosen leader of an

expedition to search for Eduard Vogel, his companions including Werner

Munzinger, Gottlob Kinzelbach, and Dr Hermann Steudner. In June 1861 the

party landed at Massawa, having instructions to go direct to Khartum and

thence to Wadai, where Vogel was thought to be detained. Heuglin,

accompanied by Dr Steudner, turned aside and made a wide detour through

Abyssinia and the Galla country, and in consequence the leadership of

the expedition was taken from him. He and Steudner reached Khartum in

1862 and there joined the party organized by Miss Tinne. With her or on

their own account, they travelled up the White Nile to Gondokoro and

explored a great part of the Bahr-el-Ghazal, where Steudner died of

fever on the 10th of April 1863. Heuglin returned to Europe at the end

of 1864. In 1870 and 1871 he made a valuable series of explorations in

Spitsbergen and Novaya Zemlya; but 1875 found him again in north-east

Africa, in the country of the Beni Amer and northern Abyssinia. He was

preparing for an exploration of the island of Sokotra, when he died, at

Stuttgart, on the 5th of November 1876. It is principally by his

zoological, and more especially his ornithological, labours that Heuglin

has taken rank as an independent authority.

His chief works are _Systematische Ubersicht der Vogel

Nordost-Afrikas_ (1855); _Reisen in Nordost-Afrika, 1852-1853_ (Gotha,

1857); _Syst. Ubersicht der Saugetiere Nordost-Afrikas_ (Vienna,

1867); _Reise nach Abessinien, den Gala-Landern_, &c., _1861-1862_

(Jena, 1868); _Reise in das Gebiet des Weissen Nil_, &c. _1862-1864_

(Leipzig, 1869); _Reisen nach dem Nordpolarmeer, 1870-1871_

(Brunswick, 1872-1874); _Ornithologie von Nordost-Afrika_ (Cassel,

1869-1875); _Reise in Nordost-Afrika_ (Brunswick, 1877, 2 vols.) A

list of the more important of his numerous contributions to

_Petermann's Mitteilungen_ will be found in that serial for 1877 at

the close of the necrological notice.

HEULANDITE, a mineral of the zeolite group, consisting of hydrous

calcium and aluminium silicate, H4CaAl2(SiO3)6 + 3H20. Small amounts of

sodium and potassium are usually present replacing part of the calcium.

Crystals are monoclinic, and have a characteristic coffin-shaped habit.

They have a perfect cleavage parallel to the plane of symmetry (M in the

figure), on which the lustre is markedly pearly; on other faces the

lustre is of the vitreous type. The mineral is usually colourless or

white, sometimes brick-red, and varies from transparent to translucent.

The hardness is 3(1/2)-4, and the specific gravity 2.2.

[Illustration]

Heulandite closely resembles stilbite (q.v.) in appearance, and differs

from it chemically only in containing rather less water of

crystallization. The two minerals may, however, be readily distinguished

by the fact that in heulandite the acute positive bisectrix of the optic

axes emerges perpendicular to the cleavage. Heulandite was first

separated from stilbite by A. Breithaupt in 1818, and named by him

euzeolite (meaning beautiful zeolite); independently, in 1822, H. J.

Brooke arrived at the same result, giving the name heulandite, after the

mineral collector, Henry Heuland.

Heulandite occurs with stilbite and other zeolites in the amygdaloidal

cavities of basaltic volcanic rocks, and occasionally in gneiss and

metalliferous veins. The best specimens are from the basalts of

Berufjord, near Djupivogr, in Iceland and the Faroe Islands, and the

Deccan traps of the Sahyadri mountains near Bombay. Crystals of a

brick-red colour are from Campsie Fells in Stirlingshire and the

Fassathal in Tirol. A variety known as beaumontite occurs as small

yellow crystals on syenitic schist near Baltimore in Maryland.

Isomorphous with heulandite is the strontium and barium zeolite

brewsterite, named after Sir David Brewster. The greyish monoclinic

crystals have the composition H4(Sr, Ba, Ca)Al2(SiO3)6 + 3H2O, and are

found in the basalt of the Giant's Causeway in Co. Antrim, and with

harmotome in the lead mines at Strontian in Argyllshire. (L. J. S.)

HEUSCH, WILLEM, or GUILLIAM DE, a Dutch landscape painter in the 17th

century at Utrecht. The dates of this artist's birth and death are

unknown. Nothing certain is recorded of him except that he presided over

the gild of Utrecht, whilst Cornelis Poelemburg, Jan Both and Jan Weenix

formed the council of that body, in 1649. According to the majority of

historians, Heusch was born in 1638, and was taught by Jan Both. But

each of these statements seems open to doubt; and although it is obvious

that the style of Heusch is identical with that of Both, it may be that

the two masters during their travels in Italy fell under the influence

of Claude Lorraine, whose "Arcadian" art they imitated. Heusch certainly

painted the same effects of evening in wide expanses of country varied

by rock formations and lofty thin-leaved arborescence as Both. There is

little to distinguish one master from the other, except that of the two

Both is perhaps the more delicate colourist. The gild of Utrecht in the

middle of the 17th century was composed of artists who clung faithfully

to each other. Poelemburg, who painted figures for Jan Both, did the

same duty for Heusch. Sometimes Heusch sketched landscapes for the

battlepieces of Molenaer. The most important examples of Heusch are in

the galleries of the Hague and Rotterdam, in the Belvedere at Vienna,

the Stadel at Frankfort and the Louvre. His pictures are signed with the

full name, beginning with a monogram combining a G (for Guilliam), D and

H. Heusch's etchings, of which thirteen are known, are also in the

character of those of Both.

After Guilliam there also flourished at Utrecht his nephew, Jacob de

Heusch, who signs like his uncle, substituting an initial J for the

initial G. He was born at Utrecht in 1657, learnt drawing from his

uncle, and travelled early to Rome, where he acquired friends and

patrons for whom he executed pictures after his return. He settled for a

time at Berlin, but finally retired to Utrecht, where he died in 1701.

Jacob was an "Arcadian," like his relative, and an imitator of Both, and

he chiefly painted Italian harbour views. But his pictures are now

scarce. Two of his canvases, the "Ponte Rotto" at Rome, in the Brunswick

Gallery, and a lake harbour with shipping in the Lichtenstein collection

at Vienna, are dated 1696. A harbour with a tower and distant mountains,

in the Belvedere at Vienna, was executed in 1699. Other examples may be

found in English private galleries, in the Hermitage of St Petersburg

and the museums of Rouen and Montpellier.

HEVELIUS [HEVEL or HOWELCKE], JOHANN (1611-1687), German astronomer, was

born at Danzig on the 28th of January 1611. He studied jurisprudence at

Leiden in 1630; travelled in England and France; and in 1634 settled in

his native town as a brewer and town councillor. From 1639 his chief

interest became centred in astronomy, though he took, throughout his

life, a leading part in municipal affairs. In 1641 he built an

observatory in his house, provided with a splendid instrumental outfit,

including ultimately a tubeless telescope of 150 ft. focal length,

constructed by himself. It was visited, on the 29th of January 1660, by

John II. and Maria Gonzaga, king and queen of Poland. Hevelius made

observations of sun-spots, 1642-1645, devoted four years to charting the

lunar surface, discovered the moon's libration in longitude, and

published his results in _Selenographia_ (1647), a work which entitles

him to be called the founder of lunar topography. He discovered four

comets in the several years 1652, 1661, 1672 and 1677, and suggested the

revolution of such bodies in parabolic tracks round the sun. On the 26th

of September 1679, his observatory, instruments and books were

maliciously destroyed by fire, the catastrophe being described in the

preface to his _Annus climactericus_ (1685). He promptly repaired the

damage, so far as to enable him to observe the great comet of December

1680; but his health suffered from the shock, and he died on the 28th of

January 1687. Among his works were: _Prodromus cometicus_ (1665);

_Cometographia_ (1668); _Machina coelestis_ (first part, 1673),

containing a description of his instruments; the second part (1679) is

extremely rare, nearly the whole issue having perished in the

conflagration of 1679. The observations made by Hevelius on the variable

star named by him "Mira" are included in _Annus climactericus_. His

catalogue of 1564 stars appeared posthumously in _Prodromus astronomiae_

(1690). Its value was much impaired by his preference of the antique

"pinnules" to telescopic sights on quadrants. This led to an

acrimonious controversy with Robert Hooke. In an _Atlas_ of 56 sheets,

corresponding to his catalogue, and entitled _Firmamentum Sobiescianum_

(1690), he delineated seven new constellations, still in use. Hevelius

had his book printed in his own house, at lavish expense, and himself

not only designed but engraved many of the plates.

See J. H. Westphal, _Leben, Studien, und Schriften des Astronomen

Johann Hevelius_ (1820); C. B. Lengnich, _Anekdoten und Nachrichten_

(1780); _Allgemeine deutsche Biographie_ (C. Bruhns); J. B. J.

Delambre, _Histoire de l'astronomie moderne_, ii. 471; J. F. Weidler,

_Historia astronomiae_, p. 486; F. Baily's edition of the Catalogue of

Hevelius, _Memoirs Roy. Astr. Society_, xiii. (1843); R. Wolf,

_Geschichte der Astronomie_, p. 396; J. C. Poggendorff, _Biog.-lit.

Handworterbuch_. For an account of the epistolary remains of Hevelius,

see C. G. Hecker, _Monatl. Correspondenz_, viii. 30; also _Astr.

Nachrichten_, vols. xxiii., xxiv. (A. M. C.)

HEWETT, SIR PRESCOTT GARDNER, Bart. (1812-1891), British surgeon, was

born on the 3rd of July 1812, being the son of a Yorkshire country

gentleman. He lived for some years in early life in Paris, and started

on a career as an artist, but abandoned it for surgery. He entered St

George's Hospital, London (where his half-brother, Dr Cornwallis Hewett,

was physician from 1825 to 1833) becoming demonstrator of anatomy and

curator of the museum. He was the pupil and intimate friend of Sir B. C.

Brodie, and helped him in much of his work. Eventually he rose to be

anatomical lecturer, assistant-surgeon and surgeon to the hospital. In

1876 he was president of the College of Surgeons; in 1877 he was made

serjeant-surgeon extraordinary to Queen Victoria, in 1884

serjeant-surgeon, and in 1883 he was created a baronet. He was a very

good lecturer, but shrank from authorship; his lectures on _Surgical

Affections of the Head_ were, however, embodied in his treatise on the

subject in Holmes's _System of Surgery_. As a surgeon he was always

extremely conservative, but hesitated at no operation, however severe,

when convinced of its expediency. He was a perfect operator, and one of

the most trustworthy of counsellors. He died on the 19th of June 1891.

HEWITT, ABRAM STEVENS (1822-1903), American manufacturer and political

leader, was born in Haverstraw, New York, on the 31st of July 1822. His

father, John, a Staffordshire man, was one of a party of four mechanics

who were sent by Boulton and Watt to Philadelphia about 1790 to set up a

steam engine for the city water-works and who in 1793-1794 built at

Belleville, N.J., the first steam engine constructed wholly in America;

he made a fortune in the manufacture of furniture, but lost it by the

burning of his factories. The boy's mother was of Huguenot descent. He

graduated with high rank from Columbia College in 1842, having supported

himself through his course. He taught mathematics at Columbia, and in

1845 was admitted to the bar, but, owing to defective eyesight, never

practised. With Edward Cooper (son of Peter Cooper, whom Hewitt greatly

assisted in organizing Cooper Union, and whose daughter he married) he

went into the manufacture of iron girders and beams under the firm name

of Cooper, Hewitt & Co. His study of the making of gun-barrel iron in

England enabled him to be of great assistance to the United States

government during the Civil War, when he refused any profit on such

orders. The men in his works never struck--indeed in 1873-1878 his plant

was run at an annual loss of $100,000. In politics he was a Democrat. In

1871 he was prominent in the re-organization of Tammany after the fall

of the "Tweed Ring"; from 1875 until the end of 1886 (except in

1879-1881) he was a representative in Congress; in 1876 he left Tammany

for the County Democracy; in the Hayes-Tilden campaign of that year he

was chairman of the Democratic National Committee, and in Congress he

was one of the House members of the joint committee which drew up the

famous Electoral Count Act providing for the Electoral Commission. In

1886 he was elected mayor of New York City, his nomination having been

forced upon the Democratic Party by the strength of the other nominees,

Henry George and Theodore Roosevelt; his administration (1887-1888) was

thoroughly efficient and creditable, but he broke with Tammany, was not

renominated, ran independently for re-election, and was defeated. In

1896 and 1900 he voted the Republican ticket, but did not ally himself

with the organization. He died in New York City on the 18th of January

1903. In Congress he was a consistent defender of sound money and civil

service reform; in municipal politics he was in favour of business

administrations and opposed to partisan nominations. He was a leader of

those who contended for reform in municipal government, was conspicuous

for his public spirit, and exerted a great influence for good not only

in New York City but in the state and nation. His most famous speech was

that made at the opening of the Brooklyn Bridge in 1883. He was a terse,

able and lucid speaker, master of wit and sarcasm, and a fearless

critic. He gave liberally to Cooper Union, of which he was trustee and

secretary, and which owes much of its success to him; was a trustee of

Columbia University from 1901 until his death, chairman of the board of

trustees of Barnard College, and was one of the original trustees, first

chairman of the board of trustees, and a member of the executive

committee of the Carnegie Institution.

HEWLETT, MAURICE HENRY (1861- ), English novelist, was born on the 22nd

of January 1861, the eldest son of Henry Gay Hewlett, of Shaw Hall,

Addington, Kent. He was educated at the London International College,

Spring Grove, Isleworth, and was called to the bar in 1891. From 1896 to

1900 he was keeper of the land revenue records and enrolments. He

published in 1895 two books on Italy, _Earthwork out of Tuscany_, and

(in verse) _The Masque of Dead Florentines_. _Songs and Meditations_

followed in 1897, and in 1898 he won an immediate reputation by his

_Forest Lovers_, a romance of medieval England, full of rapid movement

and passion. In the same year he printed the pastoral and pagan drama of

_Pan and the Young Shepherd_, shortened for purposes of representation

and produced at the Court Theatre in March 1905, when it was followed by

the _Youngest of the Angels_, dramatized from a chapter in his _Fool

Errant_. In _Little Novels of Italy_ (1899), a collection of brilliant

short stories, he showed again his power of literary expression together

with a close knowledge of medieval Italy. The new and vivid portraits of

Richard Coeur de Lion in his _Richard Yea-and-Nay_ (1900), and of Mary,

queen of Scots, in _The Queen's Quair_ (1904) showed the combination of

fiction with real history at its best. _The New Canterbury Tales_ (1901)

was another volume of stories of English life, but he returned to

Italian subjects with _The Road in Tuscany_ (1904); in _Fond Adventures,

Tales of the Youth of the World_ (1905), two are Italian tales, and _The

Fool Errant_ (1905) purports to be the memoirs of Francis Antony

Stretley, citizen of Lucca. Later works were the novel _The Stooping

Lady_ (1907), and a volume of poems, _Artemision_ (1909).

HEXAMETER, the name of the earliest and most important form of classical

verse in dactylic rhythm. The word is due to each line containing six

feet or measures ([Greek: metra]), the last of which must be a spondee

and the penultimate a dactyl, though occasionally, for some special

effect, a spondee may be allowed in the fifth foot, when the line is

said to be spondaic. The four other feet may be either spondees or

dactyls. All the great heroic and epic verse of the Greek and Roman

poets is in this metre, of which the finest examples are to be found in

Homer and in Virgil. Varied cadences and varied caesura are essential to

this form of verse, otherwise the monotony is wearying to the ear. The

most usual places for the caesura are at the middle of the third, or the

middle of the fourth foot: the former is known as the penthemimeral and

the latter as hepthemimeral caesura. There are several more or less

successful examples of English poems in this metre, for example

Longfellow's _Evangeline_, Kingsley's _Andromeda_ and Clough's _Bothie

of Tober-na-Vuoilich_, but it does not really suit the genius of the

English language. In English the lack of true spondees is severely felt,

even though the English metre depends, not, as in Greek and Latin, on

the distinction between long and short syllables, but on that between

accented and unaccented syllables. The accent must always (or it sounds

very ugly) fall on the first syllable, whatever may have been the case

in Greek and Latin--Voss, Klopstock and Goethe have written hexameter

poems of varying merit and the metre suits the German language

distinctly better than the English. The customary form of hexameter in

English verse is exemplified by Coleridge's descriptive line:--

"In the hex | ameter | rises the | fountain's | silvery | column."

Several modern poets, and in particular Robert Browning, and Lord Bowen

(1835-1894) have used with effect a truncated hexameter consisting of

the usual verse deprived of its last syllable. Thus Browning:--

"Well, it is I gone at | last, the | palace of | music I | reared."

It is not sufficiently observed that even the classic Greek poets

introduced considerable variations into their treatment of the

hexameter. These have been treated with erudition in G. Hermann's _De

aetate scriptoris Argonauticorum_. The differences in the hexameters of

the Latin poets were not so remarkable, but even these varied, in

various epochs, their treatment of the separate feet, and the position

of the caesura. The satirists in particular allowed themselves an

extraordinary licence: these hexameters, from Persius, are as far

removed from the rhythm of Homer, or even of Virgil, as possible, if

they are to remain hexameters:--

"Mane piger stertis. 'Surge!' inquit Avaritia, 'heia

Surge!' negas; instat 'Surge!' inquit 'Non queo.' 'Surge!'

'Et quid agam?' 'Rogitas? en saperdam advehe Ponto.'"

It is also to be noted that various prosodical liberties, due originally

to the extreme antiquity of the hexameter, and long reformed and

repressed by the culture of poets, were apt to be revived in later ages,

by writers who slavishly copied the most antique examples of the art of

verse.

See Wilhelm Christ, _Metrik der Griechen und Romer_, 2te Aufl. (1879).

HEXAPLA (Gr. for "sixfold"), the term for an edition of the Bible in six

versions, and especially the edition of the Old Testament compiled by

Origen, which placed side by side (1) Hebrew, (2) Hebrew in Greek

character, (3) Aquila, (4) Symmachus, (5) Septuagint, (6) Theodotion.

See BIBLE: _Old Testament, Texts and Versions_.

HEXAPODA (Gr. [Greek: hex], six, and [Greek: pous], foot), a term used

in systematic zoology for that class of the ARTHROPODA, popularly known

as insects. Linnaeus in his _Systema naturae_ (1735) grouped under the

class Insecta all segmented animals with firm exoskeleton and jointed

limbs--that is to say, the insects, centipedes, millipedes, crustaceans,

spiders, scorpions and their allies. This assemblage is now generally

regarded as a great division (phylum or sub-phylum) of the animal

kingdom and known by K. T. E. von Siebold's (1848) name of Arthropoda.

For the class of the true insects included in this phylum, Linnaeus's

old term Insecta, first used in a restricted sense by M. J. Brisson

(1756), is still adopted by many zoologists, while others prefer the

name Hexapoda, first used systematically in its modern sense by P. A.

Latreille in 1825 (_Familles naturelles du regne animal_), since it has

the advantage of expressing, in a single word, an important

characteristic of the group. The terms "Hexapoda" and "hexapod" had

already been used by F. Willughby, J. Ray and others in the late 17th

century to include the active larvae of beetles, as well as bugs, lice,

fleas and other insects with undeveloped wings.

_Characters._

A true insect, or member of the class Hexapoda, may be known by the

grouping of its body-segments in three distinct regions--a head, a

thorax and an abdomen--each of which consists of a definite number of

segments. In the terminology proposed by E. R. Lankester the arrangement

is "nomomeristic" and "nomotagmic." The head of an insect carries

usually four pairs of conspicuous appendages--feelers, mandibles and two

pairs of maxillae, so that the presence of four primitive somites is

immediately evident. The compound eyes of insects resemble so closely

the similar organs in Crustaceans that there can hardly be reasonable

doubt of their homology, and the primitively appendicular nature of the

eyes in the latter class suggests that in the Hexapoda also they

represent the appendages of an anterior (protocerebral) segment. Behind

the antennal (or deutocerebral) segment an "intercalary" or

tritocerebral segment has been demonstrated by W. M. Wheeler (1893) and

others in various insect embryos, while in the lowest insect order--the

Aptera--a pair of minute jaws--the maxillulae--in close association with

the tongue are present, as has been shown by H. J. Hansen (1893) and J.

W. Folsom (1900). Distinct vestiges of the maxillulae exist also in the

earwigs and booklice, according to G. Enderlein and C. Borner (1904),

and they are very evident in larval may-flies. The number of

limb-bearing somites in the insectan head is thus seen to be seven. All

of these are to be regarded as primitively post-oral, but in the course

of development the mouth moves back to the mandibular segment, so that

the first three somites--ocular, antennal and intercalary--lie in front

of it. In Lankester's terminology, therefore, the head of an insect is

"triprosthomerous." The maxillae of the hinder pair become more or less

fused together to form a "lower lip" or labium, and the segment of these

appendages is, in some insects, only imperfectly united with the

head-capsule.

The thorax is composed of three segments; each bears a pair of jointed

legs, and in the vast majority of insects the two hindmost bear each a

pair of wings. From these three pairs of thoracic legs comes the

name--Hexapoda--which distinguishes the class. And the wings, though not

always present, are highly characteristic of the Hexapoda, since no

other group of the Arthropoda has acquired the power of flight. In the

more generalized insects the abdomen evidently consists of ten segments,

the hindmost of which often carries a pair of tail-feelers, (cerci or

cercopods) and a terminal anal segment. In some cases, however, it can

be shown that the cerci really belong to an eleventh abdominal segment

which usually becomes fused with the tenth. With very few exceptions the

abdomen is without locomotor limbs. Paired processes on the eighth and

ninth abdominal segments may be specialized as external organs of

reproduction, but these are probably not appendages. The female genital

opening usually lies in front of the eighth abdominal segment, the male

duct opens on the ninth.

In all main points of their internal structure the Hexapoda agree with

other Arthropoda. Specially characteristic of the class, however, is the

presence of a complex system of air-tubes (tracheae) for respiration,

usually opening to the exterior by a series of paired spiracles on

certain of the body segments. The possession of a variable number of

excretory tubes (Malpighian tubes), which are developed as outgrowths of

the hind-gut and pour their excretion into the intestine, is also a

distinctive character of the Hexapoda.

The wings of insects are, in all cases, developed after hatching, the

younger stages being wingless, and often unlike the parent in other

respects. In such cases the development of wings and the attainment of

the adult form depend upon a more or less profound transformation or

metamorphosis.

With this brief summary of the essential characters of the Hexapoda, we

may pass to a more detailed account of their structure.