HERTFORDSHIRE [HERTS], a county of England, bounded N. by

Cambridgeshire, N.W. by Bedfordshire, E. by Essex, S. by Middlesex, and

S.W. by Buckinghamshire. The area is 634.6 sq. m., the county being the

sixth smallest in England. Its aspect is always pleasant, the surface

generally undulating, while in some parts, where these undulations form

a quick succession of hills and valleys, the woodland scenery becomes

very beautiful, as in the upper Lea valley, in the neighbourhood of

Tewin near Hertford, and elsewhere. To the north-west and north

considerable elevations are reached, a line of hills, facing

north-westward with a sharp descent, crossing this portion of the

county, and overlooking the flat lands of Bedfordshire and

Cambridgeshire. They continue the line of the Chiltern Hills under the

name of the East Anglian Ridge. They exceed 800 ft. near Dunstable,

sinking gradually north-eastward. These uplands are generally bare, and

in parts remarkably sparsely populated as compared with the home

counties at large. In the greater part of the county, however, rich

arable lands are intermingled with the parks and woodlands of numerous

fine country seats, which impart to the county a peculiar luxuriance. Of

the principal rivers, the Lea, rising beyond Luton in Bedfordshire,

enters Hertfordshire near East Hyde, flows S.E. to near Hatfield, then

E. by N. to Hertford and Ware, whence it bends S. and passing along the

eastern boundary of the county falls into the Thames below London. It

receives in its course the Maran, or Mimram, the Beane, the Rib and the

Stort, all joining on the north side; the Stort for some distance

forming the county boundary with Essex. The Colne flows through the

south-western part of the county, to fall into the Thames at Staines. It

receives the Ver, the Bulborne and the Chess. The Ivel, rising in the

N.W. soon passes into Bedfordshire to join the Great Ouse. To the south

of Hatfield, near North Mimms, two streams of moderate size are lost in

pot-holes, except in the highest floods. The New River, one of the water

supplies of London, has its source near Ware, and runs roughly parallel

with the Lea. Most of the rivers are full of fish, including trout in

the upper parts (of the Lea and Colne especially), which are carefully

preserved.

_Geology._--The rocks of Hertfordshire belong to the shallow syncline

known as the London basin, the beds dipping in a south-easterly

direction. The two most important formations are the Chalk, which

forms the high ground in the north and west; and the Eocene Reading

beds and London Clay which occupy the remaining southern part of the

county. On the northern boundary, at the foot of the chalk hills, a

small strip of Gault Clay and the Upper Greensand above it falls just

within the county. The lowest subdivision of the chalk is the Chalk

Marl, which with the Totternhoe Stone above it, lies at the base of

the Chalk escarpment, by Ashwell, Pirton and Miswell to Tring. Above

these beds, the Lower Chalk, without flints, rises up sharply to form

the downs which are the easterly continuation of the Chiltern Hills.

Next comes the Chalk Rock, which being a hard bed, lies near the

hilltops by Boxmoor, Apsley End and near Baldock. The Upper Chalk

slopes southward towards the Eocene boundary previously mentioned. The

Reading beds consist of mottled and yellow clays and sands, the latter

are frequently hardened into masses made up of pebbles in a siliceous

cement, known locally as Hertfordshire puddingstone. The London Clay,

a stiff blue clay which weathers brown, rests nearly everywhere upon

the Reading beds. Outliers of Eocene rocks rest on the chalk at

Micklefield Green, Sarrat, Bedmont, &c. The Chalk is often covered by

the Clay-with-flints, a detrital deposit, formed of the remnants of

Tertiary rocks and Chalk. Glacial gravels, clays and loams cover a

great deal of the whole area, and the Upper Chalk itself has been

disturbed at Reed and Barley by the same agency. Chalk was formerly

used for building purposes; it is now burned for lime. Reading beds

and London clay are dug for brick-making at Watford, Hertford and

Hatfield. Phosphatic nodules have been excavated from the base of the

Chalk Marl at several places along the outcrop; the Marl is worked for

cement.

_Climate and Agriculture._--The climate is mild, dry and generally

healthy. On this account London physicians were formerly accustomed to

recommend the county to persons in weak health, and it was so much

coveted by the noble and wealthy as a place of residence that it was a

common saying that "he who buys a home in Hertfordshire pays two years'

purchase for the air." Of the total area about four-fifths is under

cultivation, and of this more than one-third is in permanent pasture.

The principal grain crop is wheat, occupying about two-fifths of the

area under corn, but gradually decreasing. The varieties mostly grown

are white, and they are unsurpassed by those of any English county.

Wheathampstead on the upper Lea receives its name from the fine quality

of the wheat grown in that district. Barley is largely used in the

county for malting purposes. Vetches are grown for the London stables,

and the greater part of the permanent grass is used for hay. There are

some very rich pastures on the banks of the Stort, and also near

Rickmansworth on the Colne. Some two-thirds of the area occupied by

green crops is under turnips, swedes and mangolds, many cows being kept

for the supply of milk and butter to London. The quantity of stock is

generally small, but increasing except in the case of sheep, of which

the numbers have greatly decreased. Of cows the most common breed is the

Suffolk variety; of sheep, Southdowns, Wiltshires and a cross between

Cotteswolds and Leicesters. In the south-west large quantities of

cherries, apples and strawberries are grown for the London market; and

on the best soils near London vegetables are forced by the aid of

manure, and more than one crop is sometimes obtained in a year. A

considerable industry lies in the growth of watercresses in the pure

water of the upper parts of the rivers and the smaller streams. There

are a number of rose-gardens and nurseries.

_Other Industries._--The manufacturing industries are slight; though the

great brewing establishments at Watford may be mentioned, and

straw-plaiting, paper-making, coach-building, tanning and brick-making

are carried on in various towns.

_Communications._--Owing to its proximity to the metropolis,

Hertfordshire is particularly well served by railways. On the eastern

border there is the Great Eastern (Cambridge line) with branches to

Hertford and to Buntingford. The main line of the Great Northern passes

through the centre by Hatfield, Stevenage and Hitchin, with branches

from Hatfield to Hertford, to St Albans and to Luton and Dunstable, and

from Hitchin to Baldock, Royston and so to Cambridge. The Midland passes

through St Albans and Harpenden, with a branch to Hemel Hempstead. The

London & North-Western traverses the south-west by Watford,

Berkhampstead and Tring, with branches to Rickmansworth and to St

Albans. The Metropolitan & Great Central joint line serves

Rickmansworth, and suburban lines of the Great Northern the Barnet

district. The existence of these communications has combined with the

natural attractions of the county to cause many villages to become large

residential centres. Water communications are supplied from Hertford,

Ware and Bishop Stortford, southward to the Thames by the Lea and Stort

Navigation; and the Grand Junction canal from London to the north-west

traverses the south-western corner of the county by Rickmansworth and

Berkhampstead. Three great highways from London to the north traverse

the county. The Holyhead Road passes Chipping Barnet, South Mimms and St

Albans, quitting the county near Dunstable. The Great North Road

branches from the Holyhead Road at Barnet, and passes Potter's Bar,

Hatfield, Stevenage and Baldock, with a branch from Welwyn to Hitchin

and beyond. Another road follows the Lea valley to Ware, whence it runs

to Royston, being here coincident with the Roman Ermine Street and known

as the Old North Road.

_Population and Administration._--The area of the ancient county is

406,157 acres with a population in 1891 of 220,162, and in 1901 of

250,152. The area of the administrative county is 404,518 acres. The

county comprises eight hundreds. The municipal boroughs are: Hemel

Hempstead (11,264), Hertford (9322), St Albans, a city (16,019). The

other urban districts are: Baldock (2057), Barnet (7876), Berkhampstead

(Great Berkhampstead, 5140), Bishop Stortford (7143), Bushey (4564),

Cheshunt (12,292), East Barnet Valley (10,094), Harpenden (4725),

Hitchin (10,072), Hoddesdon (4711), Rickmansworth (5627), Royston

(3517), Sawbridgeworth (2085), Stevenage (3957), Tring (4349), Ware

(5573) and Watford (29,327). The county is in the home circuit, and

assizes are held at Hertford. It has two courts of quarter-sessions, and

is divided into 15 petty-sessional divisions. The boroughs of Hertford

and St Albans have separate commissions of the peace. The total number

of civil parishes is 158. All the civil parishes within 12 m. of, or in

which no portion is more than 15 m. from, Charing Cross, London, are

included in the metropolitan police district. The county contains 170

ecclesiastical parishes or districts, wholly or in part; it is nearly

all in the diocese of St Albans, but small parts are in the dioceses of

Ely, Oxford and London. It is divided into four parliamentary

divisions--Northern or Hitchin, Eastern or Hertford, Mid or St Albans,

Western or Watford, each returning one member. There is no parliamentary

borough within the county.

_History._--Relics of Saxon occupation have been found in Hertfordshire

for the most part near St Albans and Hitchin. The diocesan limits show

that part of the shire was included in the West Saxon kingdom. The East

Saxons, as early as the 6th century, were settled about Hertford, which

in 673 was sufficiently important to be the meeting-place of a synod

convened by Theodore, archbishop of Canterbury, while in 675 the

Witenagemot assembled at a place which has been identified with

Hatfield. In the 9th century the district was frequently visited by the

Danes; and after the peace of Wedmore the country east of the Lea was

included in the Danelaw; in 911 Edward the Elder erected forts on both

sides of the river at Hertford.

After the battle of Hastings William advanced on Hertfordshire and

ravaged as far as Berkhampstead, where the Conquest received its formal

ratification. In the sweeping confiscation of estates which followed,

the church was generously endowed, the abbey of St Albans alone holding

172 hides, while Count Eustace of Boulogne, the chief lay tenant, held a

vast fief in the north-east of the county. Large estates were held by

Geoffrey de Mandeville, and the barony of Peter de Valognes, sheriff of

the county in 1086, though extending over six counties in the east of

England, was returned in 1166 as a Hertfordshire barony. Berkhampstead

was the head of an honour carved from the fief of Robert of Mortain. The

Hertfordshire estates, however, for the most part changed hands very

frequently and the county is noticeably lacking in historic families.

Edmund Langley, fifth son of Edward III., was born at King's Langley in

this county.

During the war between John and his barons, William, earl of Salisbury

and Falkes de Breaute had the king's orders to ravage Hertfordshire, and

in 1216 Hertford Castle was captured and Berkhampstead Castle besieged

by Louis of France, who had come over by invitation of the barons. At

the time of the rising of 1381 the abbot's tenants broke into the abbey

of St Albans and forced the abbot to grant them a charter. During the

Wars of the Roses, Henry VI. was defeated at St Albans in 1455; at the

second battle of St Albans the earl of Warwick was defeated by Queen

Margaret; and in 1471 Edward IV. again defeated the earl at Barnet. On

the outbreak of the Civil War of the 17th century, Hertfordshire joined

with Bedfordshire and Essex in petitioning for peace, and St Albans

again played an important part in the struggle, being at different times

the headquarters of Essex and Fairfax.

As a shire Hertfordshire is of purely military origin, being the

district assigned to the fortress which Edward the Elder erected at

Hertford. It is first mentioned in the Saxon Chronicle in 1011. At the

time of the Domesday Survey the boundaries were approximately those of

the present day, but part of Meppershall in Bedfordshire formed a

detached portion of the shire and is still assessed for land and income

tax in Hertfordshire. Of the nine Domesday hundreds, those of Danais and

Tring were consolidated about 1200 under the name of Dacorum; the modern

hundred of Cashio, from being held by the abbots of St Albans, was known

as Albaneston, while the remaining six hundreds correspond approximately

both in name and extent with those of the present day.

Hertfordshire was originally divided between the dioceses of London and

Lincoln. In 1291 that part included in the Lincoln diocese formed part

of the archdeaconry of Huntingdom and comprised the deaneries of

Berkhampstead, Hitchin, Hertford and Baldock, and the archdeaconry and

deanery of St Albans; while that part within the London diocese formed

the deanery of Braughing within the archdeaconry of Middlesex. In 1535

the jurisdiction of St Albans had been transferred to the London

diocese, the division being otherwise unchanged. In 1846 the whole

county was placed within the diocese of Rochester and archdeaconry of St

Albans, and in the next year the deaneries of Welwyn, Bennington,

Buntingford, Bishop Stortford and Ware were created, and that of

Braughing abolished. In 1864 the archdeaconries of Rochester and St

Albans were united under the name of the archdeaconry of Rochester and

St Albans. In 1878 the county was placed in the newly created diocese of

St Albans, and formed the archdeaconry of St Albans, the deaneries being

unchanged.

Hertfordshire was closely associated with Essex from the time of its

first settlement, and the counties paid a joint fee-farm and were united

under one sheriff until 1565, the shire-court being held at Hertford.

The hundred of St Albans was at an early date constituted a separate

liberty, with independent courts and coroners under the control of the

abbot; it preserved a separate commission of the peace until 1874, when

by act of parliament the county was arranged in two divisions, the

eastern division being named Hertford, and the western the liberty of

St Albans. These divisions have since been abolished.

Hertfordshire has always been an agricultural county, with few

manufactures, and at the time of the Domesday Survey its wealth was

derived almost entirely from its rural manors, with their water meadows,

woodlands, fisheries paying rent in eels, and water-mills, the shire on

its eastern side being noticeably free from waste land. In Norman times

the woollen trade was considerable, and the great corn market at Royston

has been famous since the reign of Elizabeth. At the time of the Civil

War the malting industry was largely carried on, and saltpetre was

produced in the county. In the 17th century Hertfordshire was famous for

its horses, and the 18th century saw the introduction of several minor

industries, such as straw-plaiting, paper-making and silk weaving.

In 1290 Hertfordshire returned two members to parliament, and in 1298

the borough of Hertford was represented. St Albans, Bishop Stortford and

Berkhampstead acquired representation in the 14th century, but from 1375

to 1553 no returns were made for the boroughs. St Albans regained

representation in 1553 and Hertford in 1623. Under the Reform Act of

1832 the county returned three members. St Albans was disfranchised on

account of bribery in 1852. Hertford lost one member in 1868, and was

disfranchised by the act of 1885.

_Antiquities._--Among the objects of antiquarian interest may be

mentioned the cave of Royston, doubtless once used as a hermitage;

Waltham Cross, erected to mark the spot where rested the body of

Eleanor, queen of Edward I., on its way to Westminster for interment;

and the Great Bed of Ware referred to in Shakespeare's _Twelfth Night_

and preserved at Rye House. The principal monastic buildings are the

noble pile of St Albans abbey; the remains of Sopwell Benedictine

nunnery near St Albans, founded in 1140; the remains of the priory of

Ware, dedicated to St Francis, and originally a cell to the monastery of

St Ebrulf at Utica in Normandy; and the remains of the priory at Hitchin

built by Edward II. for the Carmelites. Among the more interesting

churches may be mentioned those of Abbots Langley and Hemel Hempstead,

both of Late Norman architecture; Baldock, a handsome mixed Gothic

building supposed to have been erected by the Knights Templars in the

reign of Stephen; Royston, formerly connected with the priory of canons

regular; Hitchin of the 15th century; Hatfield, dating from the 13th

century but in the main later; Berkhampstead, chiefly in the

Perpendicular style, with a tower of the 16th century. Sandridge church

shows good Norman work with the use of Roman bricks; Wheathampstead

church, mainly very fine Decorated, has pre-Norman remains. The remains

of secular buildings of importance are those of Berkhampstead castle,

Hertford castle, Hatfield palace of the bishops of Ely, the slight

traces at Bishop Stortford, and the earthworks at Anstey. Among the

numerous mansions of interest, Rye House, erected in the reign of Henry

VI., was tenanted by Rumbold, one of the principal agents in the plot to

assassinate Charles II. Moor Park, Rickmansworth, once the property of

St Albans abbey, was granted by Henry VII. to John de Vere, earl of

Oxford, and was afterwards the property of the duke of Monmouth, who

built the present mansion, which, however, was subsequently cased with

Portland stone and received various other additions. Knebworth, the seat

of the Lyttons, was originally a Norman fortress, rebuilt in the time of

Elizabeth in the Tudor style and restored in the 19th century. Hatfield

House is the seat of the marquis of Salisbury; but its earlier history

is of great interest, as is that of Theobalds near Cheshunt. Panshanger

House, until recently the principal seat of the Cowpers, is a splendid

mansion in Gothic style erected at the beginning of the 19th century.

The manor of Cashiobury House, the seat of the earls of Essex, was

formerly held by the abbot of St Albans, but the mansion was rebuilt in

the beginning of the 19th century from designs by Wyatt. Gorhambury

House, near St Albans, the seat of the earl of Verulam, formerly the

seat of the Bacons, and the residence of the great chancellor, was

rebuilt at the close of the 18th century. At Kings Langley and Hunsdon

were also former royal residences.

See Sir H. Chauncy, _Historical Antiquities of Hertfordshire_ (London,

1700, 2nd ed., Bishop Stortford, 1826); N. Salmon, _History of

Hertfordshire_ (London, 1728); R. Clutterbuck, _History and

Antiquities of the County of Hertford_ (London, 1815-1827); W. Berry,

_Pedigrees of the Hertfordshire Families_ (London, 1844); J. E.

Cussans, _History of Hertfordshire_ (London, 1870-1881); _Victoria

County History, Hertfordshire_ (London, 1902, &c.); see also

"Visitation of Hertfordshire, 1572-1634," in _Harleian Society's

Publ._ vol. xvii., and various papers in _Middlesex and Hertfordshire

Notes and Queries_ (1895-1898), which in January 1899 was incorporated

in the _Home Counties_ Magazine.

HERTHA, or NERTHUS, in Teutonic mythology, the goddess of fertility,

"Mother Earth." Tacitus states that many Teutonic tribes worshipped her

with orgies and mysterious rites celebrated at night. The chief seat of

her cult was an island which has not been identified. A single priest

performed the service. Her veiled statue was moved from place to place

by sacred cows on which none but the priest might lay hands. At the

conclusion of the rites the image, its vestments and its vehicle were

bathed in a lake.

HERTZ, HEINRICH RUDOLF (1857-1894), German physicist, was born at

Hamburg on the 22nd of February 1857. On leaving school he determined to

adopt the profession of engineering, and in the pursuance of this

decision went to study in Munich in 1877. But soon coming to the

conclusion that engineering was not his vocation he abandoned it in

favour of physical science, and in October 1878 began to attend the

lectures of G. R. Kirchhoff and H. von Helmholtz at Berlin. In

preparation for these he spent the winter of 1877-1878 in reading up

original treatises like those of Laplace and Lagrange on mathematics and

mechanics, and in attending courses on practical physics under P. G. von

Jolly and J. F. W. von Bezold; the consequence was that within a few

days of his arrival in Berlin in October 1878 he was able to plunge into

original research on a problem of electric inertia. For the best

solution a prize was offered by the philosophical faculty of the

University, and this he succeeded in winning with the paper which was

published in 1880 on the "Kinetic Energy of Electricity in Motion." His

next investigation, on "Induction in Rotating Spheres," he offered in

1880 as his dissertation for his doctor's degree, which he obtained with

the rare distinction of _summa cum laude_. Later in the same year he

became assistant to Helmholtz in the physical laboratory of the Berlin

Institute. During the three years he held this position he carried out

researches on the contact of elastic solids, hardness, evaporation and

the electric discharge in gases, the last earning him the special

commendation of Helmholtz. In 1883 he went to Kiel, becoming

_Privatdozent_, and there he began the studies in Maxwell's

electromagnetic theory which a few years later resulted in the

discoveries that rendered his name famous. These were actually made

between 1885 and 1889, when he was professor of physics in the Carlsruhe

Polytechnic. He himself recorded that their origin is to be sought in a

prize problem proposed by the Berlin Academy of Sciences in 1879, having

reference to the experimental establishment of some relation between

electromagnetic forces and the dielectric polarization of insulators.

Imagining that this would interest Hertz and be successfully attacked by

him, Helmholtz specially drew his attention to it, and promised him the

assistance of the Institute if he decided to work on the subject; but

Hertz did not take it up seriously at that time, because he could not

think of any procedure likely to prove effective. It was of course well

known, as a necessity of Maxwell's mathematical theory, that the

polarization and depolarization of an insulator must give rise to the

same electromagnetic effects in the neighbourhood as a voltaic current

in a conductor. The experimental proof, however, was still lacking, and

though several experimenters had come very near its discovery, Hertz was

the first who actually succeeded in supplying it, in 1887. Continuing

his inquiries for the next year or two, he was able to discover the

progressive propagation of electromagnetic action through space, to

measure the length and velocity of electromagnetic waves, and to show

that in the transverse nature of their vibration and their

susceptibility to reflection, refraction and polarization they are in

complete correspondence with the waves of light and heat. The result,

was in Helmholtz's words, to establish beyond doubt that ordinary light

consists of electrical vibrations in an all-pervading ether which

possesses the properties of an insulator and of a magnetic medium. Hertz

himself gave an admirable account of the significance of his discoveries

in a lecture on the relations between light and electricity, delivered

before the German Society for the Advancement of Natural Science and

Medicine at Heidelberg in September 1889. Since the time of these early

experiments, various other modes of detecting the existence of electric

waves have been found out in addition to the spark-gap which he first

employed, and the results of his observations, the earliest interest of

which was simply that they afforded a confirmation of an abstruse

mathematical theory, have been applied to the practical purposes of

signalling over considerable distances (see TELEGRAPHY, WIRELESS). In

1889 Hertz was appointed to succeed R. J. E. Clausius as ordinary

professor of physics in the university of Bonn. There he continued his

researches on the discharge of electricity in rarefied gases, only just

missing the discovery of the X-rays described by W. C. Rontgen a few

years later, and produced his treatise on the _Principles of Mechanics_.

This was his last work, for after a long illness he died at Bonn on the

1st of January 1894. By his premature death science lost one of her most

promising disciples. Helmholtz thought him the one of all his pupils who

had penetrated farthest into his own circle of scientific thought, and

looked to him with the greatest confidence for the further extension and

development of his work.

Hertz's scientific papers were translated into English by Professor D.

E. Jones, and published in three volumes: _Electric Waves_ (1893),

_Miscellaneous Papers_ (1896), and _Principles of Mechanics_ (1899).

The preface contributed to the first of these by Lord Kelvin, and the

introductions to the second and third by Professors P. E. A. Lenard

and Helmholtz, contain many biographical details, together with

statements of the scope and significance of his investigations.

HERTZ, HENRIK (1797-1870), Danish poet, was born of Jewish parents in

Copenhagen on the 25th of August 1798. In 1817 he was sent to the

university. His father died in his infancy, and the family property was

destroyed in the bombardment of 1807. The boy was brought up by his

relative, M. L. Nathanson, a well-known newspaper editor. Young Hertz

passed his examination in law in 1825. But his taste was all for polite

literature, and in 1826-1827 two plays of his were produced, _Mr

Burchardt and his Family_ and _Love and Policy_; in 1828 followed the

comedy of _Flyttedagen_. In 1830 he brought out what was a complete

novelty in Danish literature, a comedy in rhymed verse, _Amor's Strokes

of Genius_. In the same year Hertz published anonymously

_Gengangerbrevene_, or Letters from a Ghost, which he pretended were

written by Baggesen, who had died in 1826. The book was written in

defence of J. L. Heiberg, and was full of satirical humour and fine

critical insight. Its success was overwhelming; but Hertz preserved his

anonymity, and the secret was not known until many years later. In 1832

he published a didactic poem, _Nature and Art_, and _Four Poetical

Epistles_. _A Day on the Island of Als_ was his next comedy, followed in

1835 by _The Only Fault_. Hertz passed through Germany and Switzerland

into Italy in 1833; he spent the winter there, and returned the

following autumn through France to Denmark. In 1836 his comedy of _The

Savings Bank_ enjoyed a great success. But it was not till 1837 that he

gave the full measure of his genius in the romantic national drama of

_Svend Dyrings Hus_, a beautiful and original piece. His historical

tragedy _Valdemar Atterdag_ was not so well received in 1839; but in

1845 he achieved an immense success with his lyrical drama _Kong Rene's

Datter_ (King Rene's Daughter), which has been translated into almost

every European language. To this succeeded the tragedy of _Ninon_ in

1848, the romantic comedy of _Tonietta_ in 1849, _A Sacrifice_ in 1853,

_The Youngest_ in 1854. His lyrical poems appeared in successive

collections, dated 1832, 1840 and 1844. From 1858 to 1859 he edited a

literary journal entitled _Weekly Leaves_. His last drama, _Three Days

in Padua_, was produced in 1869, and he died on the 25th of February of

the next year.

Hertz is one of the first of Danish lyrical poets. His poems are full of

colour and passion, his versification has more witchcraft in it than any

other poet's of his age, and his style is grace itself. He has all the

sensuous fire of Keats without his proclivity to the antique. As a

romantic dramatist he is scarcely less original. He has bequeathed to

the Danish theatre, in _Svend Dyrings Hus_ and _King Rene's Daughter_,

two pieces which have become classic. He is a troubadour by instinct; he

has little or nothing of Scandinavian local colouring, and succeeds best

when he is describing the scenery or the emotions of the glowing south.

His _Dramatic Works_ (18 vols.) were published at Copenhagen in

1854-1873; and his _Poems_ (4 vols.) in 1851-1862.

HERTZBERG, EWALD FRIEDRICH, COUNT VON (1725-1795), Prussian statesman,

who came of a noble family which had been settled in Pomerania since the

13th century, was born at Lottin, in that province, on the 2nd of

September 1725. After 1739 he studied, chiefly classics and history at

the gymnasium at Stettin, and in 1742 entered the university of Halle as

a student of jurisprudence, becoming in due course a doctor of laws in

1745. In addition to this principal study, he was also interested while

at the university in historical and philosophical (Christian Wolff)

studies. A first thesis for his doctorate, entitled _Jus publicum

Brandenburgicum_, was not printed, because it contained a criticism of

the existing condition of the state. Shortly afterwards Hertzberg

entered the government service, in which he was first employed in the

department of the state archives (of which he became director in 1750),

soon after in the foreign office, and finally in 1763 as chief minister

(_Cabinetsminister_). In 1752 he married Baroness Marie von Knyphausen,

a marriage which was happy, but childless.

For more than forty years Hertzberg played an active part in the

Prussian foreign office. In this capacity he had a decisive influence on

Prussian policy, both under Frederick the Great and Frederick William

II. At the beginning of the Seven Years' War (1756) he took part as a

political writer in the Hohenzollern-Habsburg quarrel, both in his

_Ursachen, die S.K.M. in Preussen bewogen haben, sich wider die

Absichten des Wienerischen Hofes zu setzen und deren Ausfuhrung

zuvorzukommen_ ("Motives which have induced the king of Prussia to

oppose the intentions of the court of Vienna, and to prevent them from

being carried into effect"), and in his _Memoire raisonne sur la

conduite des cours de Vienne et de Saxe_, based on the secret papers

taken by Frederick the Great from the archives of Dresden. After the

defeat at Kolin (1757) he hastened to Pomerania in order to organize the

national defence there and collect the necessary troops for the

protection of the fortresses of Stettin and Colberg. In the same year he

conducted the peace negotiations with Sweden, and was of great service

in bringing about the peace of Hubertsburg (1763), on the conclusion of

which the king received him with the words, "I congratulate you. You

have made peace as I made war, one against many."

In the later years, too, of Frederick the Great's reign, Hertzberg

played a considerable part in foreign policy. In 1772, in a memoir based

upon comprehensive historical studies, he defended the Prussian claims

to certain provinces of Poland. He also took part successfully as a

publicist in the negotiations concerning the question of the Bavarian

succession (1778) and those of the peace of Teschen (1779). But in 1780

he failed to uphold Prussian interests at the election of the bishop of

Munster. In 1784 appeared Hertzberg's memoir containing a thorough study

of the _Furstenbund_. He championed this latest creation of Frederick

the Great's mainly with a view to an energetic reform of the empire,

though the idea of German unity was naturally still far from his mind.

In 1785 followed "An explanation of the motives which have led the king

of Prussia to propose to the other high estates of the empire an

association for the maintenance of the system of the empire" (_Erklarung

der Ursachen, welche S.M. in Preussen bewogen haben, ihren hohen

Mitstanden des Reichs eine Association zur Erhaltung des Reichssystems

anzutragen_). By upholding the Furstenbund Hertzberg made many enemies,

prominent among whom was the king's brother, Prince Henry. Though the

_Furstenbund_ failed to effect a reform of the empire, it at any rate

prevented the fulfilment of Joseph II.'s old desire for the

incorporation of Bavaria with Austria. The last act of state in which

Hertzberg took part under Frederick the Great was the commercial treaty

concluded in 1785 between Prussia and the United States.

With Frederick, especially in his later years, Hertzberg stood in very

intimate personal relations and was often the king's guest at

Sans-Souci. Under Frederick William II. his influential position at the

court of Berlin was at first unshaken. The king at once received him

with favour, as is clearly proved by Hertzberg's elevation to the rank

of count in 1786; and Mirabeau would never have attacked him with such

violence in his _Secret History of the Court of Berlin_, which appeared

in 1788, if he had not seen in him the most powerful man after the king.

In this attack Mirabeau seems to have been influenced by Hertzberg's

personal enemies at the court. Hertzberg's political system remained on

the whole the same under Frederick William II. as it had been under his

predecessor. It was mainly characterized by a sharp opposition to the

house of Habsburg and by a desire to win for Prussia the support of

England, a policy supported by him in important memoirs of the years

1786 and 1787. His diplomacy was directed also against Austria's old

ally, France. Hence it was chiefly owing to Hertzberg that in 1787, in

spite of the king's unwillingness at first, Prussia intervened in

Holland in support of the stadtholder William V. against the democratic

French party (see HOLLAND: _History_). The success of this intervention,

which was the practical realization of a plan very characteristic of

Hertzberg, marks the culminating point in his career.

But the opposition between him and the new king, which had already

appeared at the time of the conclusion of the triple alliance between

Holland, England and Prussia, became more marked in the following years,

when Hertzberg, relying upon this alliance, and in conscious imitation

of Frederick II.'s policy at the time of the first partition of Poland,

sought to take advantage of the entanglement of Austria with Russia in

the war with Turkey to secure for Prussia an extension of territory by

diplomatic intervention. According to his plan, Prussia was to offer her

mediation at the proper moment, and in the territorial readjustments

that the peace would bring, was to receive Danzig and Thorn as her

portion. Beyond this he aimed at preventing the restoration of the

hegemony of Austria in the Empire, and secretly cherished the hope of

restoring Frederick the Great's Russian alliance.

With a curious obstinacy he continued to pursue these aims even when,

owing to military and diplomatic events, they were already partly out of

date. His personal position became increasingly difficult, as

deep-rooted differences between him and the king were revealed during

these diplomatic campaigns. Hertzberg wished to effect everything by

peaceful means, while Frederick William II. was for a time determined on

war with Austria. As regards Polish policy, too, their ideas came into

conflict, Hertzberg having always been openly opposed to the total

annihilation of the Polish kingdom. The same is true of the attitude of

king and minister towards Great Britain. At the conferences at

Reichenbach in the summer of 1790, this opposition became more and more

acute, and Hertzberg was only with difficulty persuaded to come to an

agreement merely on the basis of the _status_ quo, as demanded by Pitt.

The king's renunciation of any extension of territory was in Hertzberg's

eyes impolitic, and this view of his was later endorsed by Bismarck. A

letter which came to the eyes of the king, in which Hertzberg severely

criticized the king's foreign policy, and especially his plans for

attacking Russia, led to his dismissal on the 5th of July 1791. He

afterwards made several attempts to exert an influence over foreign

affairs, but in vain. The king showed himself more and more personally

hostile to the ex-minister, and in later years pursued Hertzberg, now

quite embittered, with every kind of petty persecution, even ordering

his letters to be opened.

Even in his literary interests Hertzberg found an adversary in the

ungrateful king, for Frederick William, to give one instance, made it so

difficult for him to use the archives that in the end Hertzberg entirely

gave up the attempt. He found, however, some recompense for all his

disillusionment and discouragement in learning, and, Wilhelm von

Humboldt excepted, he was the most learned of all the Prussian

ministers. As a member of the Berlin Academy especially, and, from 1786

onwards, as its curator, Hertzberg carried on a great and valuable

activity in the world of learning. His yearly reports dealt with

history, statistics and political science. The most interesting is that

of 1784: _Sur la forme des gouvernements, et quelle est la meilleure_.

This is directed exclusively against the absolute system (following

Montesquieu), upholds a limited monarchy, and is in favour of extending

to the peasants the right to be represented in the diet. He spoke for

the last time in 1793 on Frederick the Great and the advantages of

monarchy. After 1783 these discourses caused a great sensation, since

Hertzberg introduced into them a review of the financial situation,

which in the days of absolutism seemed an unprecedented innovation.

Besides this, Hertzberg exerted himself as an academician to change the

strongly French character of the Academy and make it into a truly German

institution. He showed a keen interest in the old German language and

literature. A special "German deputation" was set aside at the Academy

and entrusted with the drawing up of a German grammar and dictionary. He

also stood in very close relations with many of the German poets of the

time, and especially with Daniel Schubart. Among the German historians

in whom he took a great interest, he had the greatest esteem for

Pufendorf. He was equally concerned in the improvement of the state of

education. In 1780 he boldly took up the defence of German literature,

which had been disparaged by Frederick the Great in his famous writing

_De la litterature allemande_.

Hertzberg's frank and honourable nature little fitted him to be a

successful diplomatist; but the course of history has justified many of

his aims and ideals, and in Prussia his memory is honoured. He died at

Berlin on the 22nd of May 1795.

AUTHORITIES.--(1) By Hertzberg himself: The _Memoires de l'Academie_

from 1780 on contain Hertzberg's discourses. The most noteworthy of

them were printed in 1787. Here too is to be found: _Histoire de la

dissertation [du roi] sur la litterature allemande_; see also _Recueil

des deductions, &c., qui ont ete rediges ... pour la cour de Prusse

par le ministre_ (3 vols., 1789-1795); and an "Autobiographical

Sketch" published by Hopke in Schmidt's _Zeitschrift fur

Geschichtswissenschaft_, i. (1843). (2) Works dealing specially with

Hertzberg: Mirabeau, _Histoire secrete de la cour de Berlin_ (1788);

P. F. Weddigen, _Hertzbergs Leben_ (Bremen, 1797); E. L. Posselt,

_Hertzbergs Leben_ (Tubingen, 1798); H. Lehmann, in _Neustettiner

Programm_ (1862); E. Fischer, in _Staatsanzeiger_ (1873); M. Duncker,

in _Historische Zeitschrift_ (1877); Paul Bailleu, in _Historische

Zeitschrift_ (1879); and _Allgemeine deutsche Biographie_ (1880); H.

Petrich, _Pommersche Lebensbilder_ i. (1880); G. Dressler, _Friedrich

II. und Hertzberg in ihrer Stellung zu den hollandischen Wirren_,

Breslauer Dissertation (1882); K. Krauel, _Hertzberg als Minister

Friedrich Wilhelms II_. (Berlin, 1899); F. K. Wittichen, in

_Historische Vierteljahrschrift_, 9 (1906); A. Th. Preuss, _Ewald

Friedrich, Graf von Hertzberg_ (Berlin, 1909). (3) General works: F.

K. Wittichen, _Preussen und England, 1785-1788_ (Heidelberg, 1902); F.

Luckwaldt, _Die englisch-preussische Allianz von 1788 in den

Forschungen zur brandenburgisch-preussischen Geschichte_, Bd. 15, and

in the _Delbruckfestschrift_ (Berlin, 1908); L. Sevin, _System der

preussischen Geheimpolitik_ 1790-1791 (Heidelberger Dissertation,

1903); P. Wittichen, _Die polnische Politik Preussens 1788-1790_

(Berlin, 1899); F. Andreae, _Preussische und russische Politik in

Polen_ 1787-1789 (Berliner Dissertation, 1905); also W. Wenck,

_Deutschland vor 100 Jahren_ (2 vols., 1887, 1890); A. Harnack,

_Geschichte der preussischen Akademie_ (4 vols., 1899); Consentius,

_Preussische Jahrbucher_ (1904); J. Hashagen, "Hertzbergs Verhaltnis

zur deutschen Literatur," in _Zeitschrift fur deutsche Philologie_ for

1903. (J. Hn.)

HERTZEN, ALEXANDER (1812-1870), Russian author, was born at Moscow, a

very short time before the occupation of that city by the French. His

father, Ivan Yakovlef, after a personal interview with Napoleon, was

allowed to leave, when the invaders arrived, as the bearer of a letter

from the French to the Russian emperor. His family attended him to the

Russian lines. Then the mother of the infant Alexander (a young German

Protestant of Jewish extraction from Stuttgart, according to A. von

Wurzbach), only seventeen years old, and quite unable to speak Russian,

was forced to seek shelter for some time in a peasant's hut. A year

later the family returned to Moscow, where Hertzen passed his

youth--remaining there, after completing his studies at the university,

till 1834, when he was arrested and tried on a charge of having

assisted, with some other youths, at a festival during which verses by

Sokolovsky, of a nature uncomplimentary to the emperor, were sung. The

special commission appointed to try the youthful culprits found him

guilty, and in 1835 he was banished to Viatka. There he remained till

the visit to that city of the hereditary grand-duke (afterwards

Alexander II.), accompanied by the poet Joukofsky, led to his being

allowed to quit Viatka for Vladimir, where he was appointed editor of

the official gazette of that city. In 1840 he obtained a post in the

ministry of the interior at St Petersburg; but in consequence of having

spoken too frankly about a death due to a police officer's violence, he

was sent to Novgorod, where he led an official life, with the title of

"state councillor," till 1842. In 1846 his father died, leaving him by

his will a very large property. Early in 1847 he left Russia, never to

return. From Italy, on hearing of the revolution of 1848, he hastened to

Paris, whence he afterwards went to Switzerland. In 1852 he quitted

Geneva for London, where he settled for some years. In 1864 he returned

to Geneva, and after some time went to Paris, where he died on the 21st

of January 1870.

His literary career began in 1842 with the publication of an essay, in

Russian, on _Dilettantism in Science_, under the pseudonym of

"Iskander," the Turkish form of his Christian name--convicts, even when

pardoned, not being allowed in those days to publish under their own

names. His second work, also in Russian, was his _Letters on the Study

of Nature_ (1845-1846). In 1847 appeared, his novel _Kto Vinovat?_

(Whose Fault?), and about the same time were published in Russian

periodicals the stories which were afterwards collected and printed in

London in 1854, under the title of _Prervannuie Razskazui_ (Interrupted

Tales). In 1850 two works appeared, translated from the Russian

manuscript, _Vom anderen Ufer_ (From another Shore) and _Lettres de

France et d'Italie_. In French appeared also his essay _Du Developpement

des idees revolutionnaires en Russie_, and his _Memoirs_, which, after

being printed in Russian, were translated under the title of _Le Monde

russe et la Revolution_ (3 vols., 1860-1862), and were in part

translated into English as _My Exile to Siberia_ (2 vols., 1855). From a

literary point of view his most important work is _Kto Vinovat?_ a story

describing how the domestic happiness of a young tutor, who marries the

unacknowledged daughter of a Russian sensualist of the old type, dull,

ignorant and genial, is troubled by a Russian sensualist of the new

school, intelligent, accomplished and callous, without there being any

possibility of saying who is most to be blamed for the tragic

termination. But it was as a political writer that Hertzen gained the

vast reputation which he at one time enjoyed. Having founded in London

his "Free Russian Press," of the fortunes of which, during ten years, he

gave an interesting account in a book published (in Russian) in 1863, he

issued from it a great number of Russian works, all levelled against the

system of government prevailing in Russia. Some of these were essays,

such as his _Baptized Property_, an attack on serfdom; others were

periodical publications, the _Polyarnaya Zvyezda_ (or Polar Star), the

_Kolokol_ (or Bell), and the _Golosa iz Rossii_ (or Voices from Russia).

The _Kolokol_ soon obtained an immense circulation, and exercised an

extraordinary influence. For three years, it is true, the founders of

the "Free Press" went on printing, "not only without selling a single

copy, but scarcely being able to get a single copy introduced into

Russia"; so that when at last a bookseller bought ten shillings' worth

of _Baptized Property_, the half-sovereign was set aside by the

surprised editors in a special place of honour. But the death of the

emperor Nicholas in 1855 produced an entire change. Hertzen's writings,

and the journals he edited, were smuggled wholesale into Russia, and

their words resounded throughout that country, as well as all over

Europe. Their influence became overwhelming. Evil deeds long hidden,

evil-doers who had long prospered, were suddenly dragged into light and

disgrace. His bold and vigorous language aptly expressed the thoughts

which had long been secretly stirring Russian minds, and were now

beginning to find a timid utterance at home. For some years his

influence in Russia was a living force, the circulation of his writings

was a vocation zealously pursued. Stories tell how on one occasion a

merchant, who had bought several cases of sardines at Nijni-Novgorod,

found that they contained forbidden print instead of fish, and at

another time a supposititious copy of the _Kolokol_ was printed for the

emperor's special use, in which a telling attack upon a leading

statesman, which had appeared in the genuine number, was omitted. At

length the sweeping changes introduced by Alexander II. greatly

diminished the need for and appreciation of Hertzen's assistance in the

work of reform. The freedom he had demanded for the serfs was granted,

the law-courts he had so long denounced were remodelled, trial by jury

was established, liberty was to a great extent conceded to the press. It

became clear that Hertzen's occupation was gone. When the Polish

insurrection of 1863 broke out, and he pleaded the insurgents' cause,

his reputation in Russia received its death-blow. From that time it was

only with the revolutionary party that he was in full accord.

In 1873 a collection of his works in French was commenced in Paris. A

volume of posthumous works, in Russian, was published at Geneva in

1870. His _Memoirs_ supply the principal information about his life, a

sketch of which appears also in A. von Wurzbach's _Zeitgenossen_, pt.

7 (Vienna, 1871). See also the _Revue des deux mondes_ for July 15 and

Sept. 1, 1854. _Kto Vinovat?_ has been translated into German under

the title of _Wer ist schuld?_ in Wolffsohn's _Russlands

Novellendichter_, vol. iii. The title of _My Exile in Siberia_ is

misleading; he was never in that country. (W. R. S.-R.)

HERULI, a Teutonic tribe which figures prominently in the history of the

migration period. The name does not occur in writings of the first two

centuries A.D. Where the original home of the Heruli was situated is

never clearly stated. Jordanes says that they had been expelled from

their territories by the Danes, from which it may be inferred that they

belonged either to what is now the kingdom of Denmark, or the southern

portion of the Jutish peninsula. They are mentioned first in the reign

of Gallienus (260-268), when we find them together with the Goths

ravaging the coasts of the Black Sea and the Aegean. Shortly afterwards,

in A.D. 289, they appear in the region about the mouth of the Rhine.

During the 4th century they frequently served together with the Batavi

in the Roman armies. In the 5th century we again hear of piratical

incursions by the Heruli in the western seas. At the same time they had

a kingdom in central Europe, apparently in or round the basin of the

Elbe. Together with the Thuringi and Warni they were called upon by

Theodoric the Ostrogoth about the beginning of the 6th century to form

an alliance with him against the Frankish king Clovis, but very shortly

afterwards they were completely overthrown in war by the Langobardi. A

portion of them migrated to Sweden, where they settled among the Gotar,

while others crossed the Danube and entered the Roman service, where

they are frequently mentioned later in connexion with the Gothic wars.

After the middle of the 6th century, however, their name completely

disappears. It is curious that in English, Frankish and Scandinavian

works they are never mentioned, and there can be little doubt that they

were known, especially among the western Teutonic peoples, by some other

name. Probably they are identical either with the North Suabi or with

the Iuti. The name Heruli itself is identified by many with the A.S.

_eorlas_ (nobles), O.S. _erlos_ (men), the singular of which (_erilaz_)

frequently occurs in the earliest Northern inscriptions, apparently as a

title of honour. The Heruli remained heathen until the overthrow of

their kingdom, and retained many striking primitive customs. When

threatened with death by disease or old age, they were required to call

in an executioner, who stabbed them on the pyre. Suttee was also

customary. They were entirely devoted to warfare and served not only in

the Roman armies, but also in those of all the surrounding nations. They

disdained the use of helmets and coats of mail, and protected themselves

only with shields.

See Georgius Syncellus; Mamertinus _Paneg. Maximi_; Ammianus

Marcellinus; Zosimus i. 39; Idatius, _Chronica_; Jordanes, _De origine

Getarum_; Procopius, esp. _Bellum Goticum_, ii. 14 f.; _Bellum

Persicum_, ii. 25; Paulus Diaconus, _Hist. Langobardorum_, i. 20; K.

Zeuss, _Die Deutschen und die Nachbarstamme_, pp. 476 ff. (Munich,

1837). (F. G. M. B.)

HERVAS Y PANDURO, LORENZO (1735-1809), Spanish philologist, was born at

Horcajo (Cuenca) on the 10th of May 1735. He joined the Jesuits on the

29th of September 1745 and in course of time became successively

professor of philosophy and humanities at the seminaries of Madrid and

Murcia. When the Jesuit order was banished from Spain in 1767, Hervas

settled at Forli, and devoted himself to the first part of his _Idea

dell' Universo_ (22 vols., 1778-1792). Returning to Spain in 1798, he

published his famous _Catalogo de las lenguas de las naciones conocidas_

(6 vols., 1800-1805), in which he collected the philological

peculiarities of three hundred languages and drew up grammars of forty

languages. In 1802 he was appointed librarian of the Quirinal Palace in

Rome, where he died on the 24th of August 1809. Max Muller credits him

with having anticipated Humboldt, and with making "one of the most

brilliant discoveries in the history of the science of language" by

establishing the relation between the Malay and Polynesian family of

speech.

HERVEY, JAMES (1714-1758), English divine, was born at Hardingstone,

near Northampton, on the 26th of February 1714, and was educated at the

grammar school of Northampton, and at Lincoln College, Oxford. Here he

came under the influence of John Wesley and the Oxford methodists;

ultimately, however, while retaining his regard for the men and his

sympathy with their religious aims, he adopted a thoroughly Calvinistic

creed, and resolved to remain in the Anglican Church. Having taken

orders in 1737, he held several curacies, and in 1752 succeeded his

father in the family livings of Weston Favell and Collingtree. He was

never robust, but was a good parish priest and a zealous writer. His

style is often bombastic, but he displays a rare appreciation of natural

beauty, and his simple piety made him many friends. His earliest work,

_Meditations and Contemplations_, said to have been modelled on Robert

Boyle's _Occasional Reflexions on various Subjects_, within fourteen

years passed through as many editions. _Theron and Aspasio, or a series

of Letters upon the most important and interesting Subjects_, which

appeared in 1755, and was equally well received, called forth some

adverse criticism even from Calvinists, on account of tendencies which

were considered to lead to antinomianism, and was strongly objected to

by Wesley in his _Preservative against unsettled Notions in Religion_.

Besides carrying into England the theological disputes to which the

_Marrow of Modern Divinity_ had given rise in Scotland, it also led to

what is known as the Sandemanian controversy as to the nature of saving

faith. Hervey died on the 25th of December 1758.

A "new and complete" edition of his _Works_, with a memoir, appeared

in 1797. See also _Collection of the Letters of James Hervey, to which

is prefixed an account of his Life and Death_, by Dr Birch (1760).

HERVEY DE SAINT DENYS, MARIE JEAN LEON, MARQUIS D' (1823-1892), French

Orientalist and man of letters, was born in Paris in 1823. He devoted

himself to the study of Chinese, and in 1851 published his _Recherches

sur l'agriculture et l'horticulture des Chinois_, in which he dealt with

the plants and animals that might be acclimatized in the West. At the

Paris Exhibition of 1867 he acted as commissioner for the Chinese

exhibits; in 1874 he succeeded Stanislas Julien in the chair of Chinese

at the College de France; and in 1878 he was elected a member of the

Academie des Inscriptions et de Belles-Lettres. His works include

_Poesies de l'epoque des T'ang_ (1862), translated from the Chinese;

_Ethnographie des peuples etrangers a la Chine_, translated from

Ma-Touan-Lin (1876-1883); _Li-Sao_ (1870), from the Chinese; _Memoires

sur les doctrines religieuse; de Confucius et de l'ecole des lettres_

(1887); and translations of some Chinese stories not of classical

interest but valuable for the light they throw on oriental custom.

Hervey de Saint Denys also translated some works from the Spanish, and

wrote a history of the Spanish drama. He died in Paris on the 2nd of

November 1892.

HERVEY OF ICKWORTH, JOHN HERVEY, BARON (1696-1743), English statesman

and writer, eldest son of John, 1st earl of Bristol, by his second

marriage, was born on the 13th of October 1696. He was educated at

Westminster school and at Clare Hall, Cambridge, where he took his M.A.

degree in 1715. In 1716 his father sent him to Paris, and thence to

Hanover to pay his court to George I. He was a frequent visitor at the

court of the prince and princess of Wales at Richmond, and in 1720 he

married Mary Lepell, who was one of the princess's ladies-in-waiting,

and a great court beauty. In 1723 he received the courtesy title of Lord

Hervey on the death of his half-brother Carr, and in 1725 he was elected

M.P. for Bury St Edmunds. He had been at one time on very friendly terms

with Frederick, prince of Wales, but from 1731 he quarrelled with him,

apparently because they were rivals in the favour of Anne Vane. These

differences probably account for the scathing picture he draws of the

prince's callous conduct. Hervey had been hesitating between William

Pulteney (afterwards earl of Bath) and Walpole, but in 1730 he

definitely took sides with Walpole, of whom he was thenceforward a

faithful adherent. He was assumed by Pulteney to be the author of

_Sedition and Defamation display'd with a Dedication to the patrons of

The Craftsman_ (1731). Pulteney, who, up to this time, had been a firm

friend of Hervey, replied with _A Proper Reply to a late Scurrilous

Libel_, and the quarrel resulted in a duel from which Hervey narrowly

escaped with his life. Hervey is said to have denied the authorship of

both the pamphlet and its dedication, but a note on the MS. at Ickworth,

apparently in his own hand, states that he wrote the latter. He was able

to render valuable service to Walpole from his influence over the queen.

Through him the minister governed Queen Caroline and indirectly George

II. Hervey was vice-chamberlain in the royal household and a member of

the privy council. In 1733 he was called to the House of Lords by writ

in virtue of his father's barony. In spite of repeated requests he

received no further preferment until after 1740, when he became lord

privy seal. After the fall of Sir Robert Walpole he was dismissed (July

1742) from his office. An excellent political pamphlet, _Miscellaneous

Thoughts on the present Posture of Foreign and Domestic Affairs_, shows

that he still retained his mental vigour, but he was liable to epilepsy,

and his weak appearance and rigid diet were a constant source of

ridicule to his enemies. He died on the 5th of August 1743. He

predeceased his father, but three of his sons became successively earls

of Bristol.

Hervey wrote detailed and brutally frank memoirs of the court of George

II. from 1727 to 1737. He gave a most unflattering account of the king,

and of Frederick, prince of Wales, and their family squabbles. For the

queen and her daughter, Princess Caroline, he had a genuine respect and

attachment, and the princess's affection for him was commonly said to be

the reason for the close retirement in which she lived after his death.

The MS. of Hervey's memoirs was preserved by the family, but his son,

Augustus John, 3rd earl of Bristol, left strict injunctions that they

should not be published until after the death of George III. In 1848

they were published under the editorship of J. W. Croker, but the MS.

had been subjected to a certain amount of mutilation before it came into

his hands. Croker also softened in some cases the plainspokenness of the

original. Hervey's bitter account of court life and intrigues resembles

in many points the memoirs of Horace Walpole, and the two books

corroborate one another in many statements that might otherwise have

been received with suspicion.

Until the publication of the _Memoirs_ Hervey was chiefly known as the

object of savage satire on the part of Pope, in whose works he figured

as Lord Fanny, Sporus, Adonis and Narcissus. The quarrel is generally

put down to Pope's jealousy of Hervey's friendship with Lady Mary

Wortley Montagu. In the first of the _Imitations of Horace_, addressed

to William Fortescue, "Lord Fanny" and "Sappho" were generally

identified with Hervey and Lady Mary, although Pope denied the personal

intention. Hervey had already been attacked in the _Dunciad_ and the

_Bathos_, and he now retaliated. There is no doubt that he had a share

in the _Verses to the Imitator of Horace_ (1732) and it is possible that

he was the sole author. In the _Letter from a nobleman at Hampton Court

to a Doctor of Divinity_ (1733), he scoffed at Pope's deformity and

humble birth. Pope's reply was a _Letter to a Noble Lord_, dated

November 1733, and the portrait of Sporus in the _Epistle to Dr

Arbuthnot_ (1735), which forms the prologue to the satires. Many of the

insinuations and insults contained in it are borrowed from Pulteney's

libel. The malicious caricature of Sporus does Hervey great injustice,

and he is not much better treated by Horace Walpole, who in reporting

his death in a letter (14th of August 1743) to Horace Mann, said he had

outlived his last inch of character. Nevertheless his writings prove him

to have been a man of real ability, condemned by Walpole's tactics and

distrust of able men to spend his life in court intrigue, the weapons of

which, it must be owned, he used with the utmost adroitness. His wife

Lady Hervey [Molly Lepell] (1700-1768), of whom an account is to be

found in Lady Louisa Stuart's _Anecdotes_, was a warm partisan of the

Stuarts. She retained her wit and charm throughout her life, and has the

distinction of being the recipient of English verses by Voltaire.

See Hervey's _Memoirs of the Court of George II._, edited by J. W.

Croker (1848); and an article by G. F. Russell Barker in the _Dict.

Nat. Biog._ (vol. xxvi., 1891). Besides the _Memoirs_ he wrote

numerous political pamphlets, and some occasional verses.

HERVIEU, PAUL (1857- ), French dramatist and novelist, was born at

Neuilly (Seine) on the 2nd of November 1857. He was called to the bar in

1877, and, after serving some time in the office of the president of the

council, he qualified for the diplomatic service, but resigned on his

nomination in 1881 to a secretaryship in the French legation in Mexico.

He contributed novels, tales and essays to the chief Parisian papers and

reviews, and published a series of clever novels, including _L'Inconnu_

(1887), _Flirt_ (1890), _L'Exorcisee_ (1891), _Peints par eux-memes_

(1893), an ironical study written in the form of letters, and

_L'Armature_ (1895), dramatized in 1905 by Eugene Brieux. But his most

important work consists of a series of plays: _Les Paroles restent_

(Vaudeville, 17th of November 1892); _Les Tenailles_ (Theatre Francais,

28th of September 1895); _La Loi de l'homme_ (Theatre Francais, 15th of

February 1897); _La Course du flambeau_ (Vaudeville, 17th of April

1901); _Point de lendemain_ (Odeon, 18th of October 1901), a dramatic

version of a story by Vivaut Denon; _L'Enigme_ (Theatre Francais, 5th of

November 1901); _Theroigne de Mericourt_ (Theatre Sarah Bernhardt, 23rd

of September 1902); _Le Dedale_ (Theatre Francais, 19th of December

1903), and _Le Reveil_ (Theatre Francais, 18th of December 1905). These

plays are built upon a severely logical method, the mechanism of which

is sometimes so evident as to destroy the necessary sense of illusion.

The closing words of _La Course du flambeau_--"_Pour ma fille, j'ai tue

ma mere_"--are an example of his selection of a plot representing an

extreme theory. The riddle in _L'Engime_ (staged at Wyndham's Theatre,

London, March 1st 1902, as _Caesar's Wife_) is, however, worked out with

great art, and _Le Dedale_, dealing with the obstacles to the remarriage

of a divorced woman, is reckoned among the masterpieces of the modern

French stage. He was elected to the French Academy in 1900.

See A. Binet, in _L'Annee psychologique_, vol. x. Hervieu's _Theatre_

was published, by Lemerre (3 vols., 1900-1904).

HERWARTH VON BITTENFELD, KARL EBERHARD (1796-1884), Prussian general

field-marshal, came of an aristocratic family which had supplied many

distinguished officers to the Prussian army. He entered the Guard

infantry in 1811, and served through the War of Liberation (1813-15),

distinguishing himself at Lutzen and Paris. During the years of peace he

rose slowly to high command. In the Berlin revolution of 1848 he was on

duty at the royal palace as colonel of the 1st Guards. Major-general in

1852, and lieutenant-general in 1856, he received the grade of general

of infantry and the command of the VIIth (Westphalian) Army Corps in

1860. In the Danish War of 1864 he succeeded to the command of the

Prussians when Prince Frederick Charles became commander-in-chief of the

Allies, and it was under his leadership that the Prussians forced the

passage into Alsen on the 29th of June. In the war of 1866 Herwarth

commanded the "Army of the Elbe" which overran Saxony and invaded

Bohemia by the valley of the Elbe and Iser. His troops won the actions

of Huhnerwasser and Munchengratz, and at Koniggratz formed the right

wing of the Prussian army. Herwarth himself directed the battle against

the Austrian left flank. In 1870 he was not employed in the field, but

was in charge of the scarcely less important business of organizing and

forwarding all the reserves and material required for the armies in

France. In 1871 his great services were recognized by promotion to the

rank of field-marshal. The rest of his life was spent in retirement at

Bonn, where he died in 1884. Since 1889 the 13th (1st Westphalian)

Infantry has borne his name.

See _G. F. M. Herwarth von Bittenfeld_ (Munster, 1896).

HERWEGH, GEORG (1817-1875), German political poet, was born at Stuttgart

on the 31st of May 1817, the son of a restaurant keeper. He was educated

at the gymnasium of his native city, and in 1835 proceeded to the

university of Tubingen as a theological student, where, with a view to

entering the ministry, he entered the protestant theological seminary.

But the strict discipline was distasteful; he broke the rules and was

expelled in 1836. He next studied law, but having gained the interest of

August Lewald (1793-1871) by his literary ability, he returned to

Stuttgart, where Lewald obtained for him a journalistic post. Called out

for military service, he had hardly joined his regiment when he

committed an act of flagrant insubordination, and fled to Switzerland to

avoid punishment. Here he published his _Gedichte eines Lebendigen_

(1841), a volume of political poems, which gave expression to the

fervent aspirations of the German youth of the day. The work immediately

rendered him famous, and although confiscated, it soon ran through

several editions. The idea of the book was a refutation of the opinions

of Prince Puckler-Muskau (q.v.) in his _Briefe eines Verstorbenen_. He

next proceeded to Paris and in 1842 returned to Germany, visiting Jena,

Leipzig, Dresden and Berlin--a journey which was described as being a

"veritable triumphal progress." His military insubordination appears to

have been forgiven and forgotten, for in Berlin King Frederick William

IV. had him introduced to him and used the memorable words: "_ich liebe

eine gesinnungsvolle Opposition_" ("I admire an opposition, when

dictated by principle.") Herwegh next returned to Paris, where he

published in 1844 the second volume of his _Gedichte eines Lebendigen_,

which, like the first volume, was confiscated by the German police. At

the head of a revolutionary column of German working men, recruited in

Paris, Herwegh took an active part in the South German rising in 1848;

but his raw troops were defeated on the 27th of April at Schopfheim in

Baden and, after a very feeble display of heroism, he just managed to

escape to Switzerland, where he lived for many years on the proceeds of

his literary productions. He was later (1866) permitted to return to

Germany, and died at Lichtenthal near Baden-Baden on the 7th of April

1875. A monument was erected to his memory there in 1904. Besides the

above-mentioned works, Herwegh published _Einundzwanzig Bogen aus der

Schweiz_ (1843), and translations into German of A. de Lamartine's works

and of seven of Shakespeare's plays. Posthumously appeared _Neue

Gedichte_ (1877).

Herwegh's correspondence was published by his son Marcel in 1898. See

also Johannes Scherr, _Georg Herwegh; literarische und politische

Blatter_ (1843); and the article by Franz Muncker in the _Allgemeine

deutsche Biographie_.

HERZBERG, a town of Germany, in the Prussian province of Hanover,

situated under the south-western declivity of the Harz, on the Sieber,

25 m. N.W. from Nordhausen by the railway to Osterode-Hildesheim. Pop.

(1905) 3896. It contains an Evangelical and a Roman Catholic church, and

a botanical garden, and has manufactures of cloth and cigars, and

weaving and dyeing works. The breeding of canaries is extensively

carried on here and in the district. On a hill to the south-west of the

town lies the castle of Herzberg, which in 1157 came into the possession

of Henry the Lion, duke of Saxony, and afterwards was one of the

residences of a branch of the house of Brunswick.

HERZBERG, a town of Germany, in the Prussian province of Saxony, on the

Schwarze Elster, 25 m. S. from Juterbog by the railway

Berlin-Roderau-Dresden. It has a church (Evangelical) dating from the

13th century and a medieval town hall. Its industries include the

founding and turning of metal, agricultural machinery and boot-making.

Pop. (1905) 4043.

HERZL, THEODOR (1860-1904), founder of modern political Zionism (q.v.),

was born in Budapest on the 2nd of May 1860, and died at Edlach on the

3rd of July 1904. The greater part of his career was associated with

Vienna, where he acquired high repute as a literary journalist. He was

also a dramatist, and apart from his prominence as a Jewish Nationalist

would have found a niche in the temple of fame. All his other claims to

renown, however, sink into insignificance when compared with his work as

the reviver of Jewish hopes for a restoration to political autonomy.

Herzl was stirred by sympathy for the misery of Jews under persecution,

but he was even more powerfully moved by the difficulties experienced

under conditions of assimilation. Modern anti-Semitism, he felt, was

both like and unlike the medieval. The old physical attacks on the Jews

continued in Russia, but there was added the reluctance of several

national groups in Europe to admit the Jews to social equality. Herzl

believed that the humanitarian hopes which inspired men at the end of

the 18th and during the larger part of the 19th centuries had failed.

The walls of the ghettos had been cast down, but the Jews could find no

entry into the comity of nations. The new nationalism of 1848 did not

deprive the Jews of political rights, but it denied them both the

amenities of friendly intercourse and the opportunity of distinction in

the university, the army and the professions. Many Jews questioned this

diagnosis, and refused to see in the new anti-Semitism (q.v.) which

spread over Europe in 1881 any more than a temporary reaction against

the cosmopolitanism of the French Revolution. In 1896 Herzl published

his famous pamphlet "Der Judenstaat." Holding that the only alternatives

for the Jews were complete merging by intermarriage or self-preservation

by a national re-union, he boldly advocated the second course. He did

not at first insist on Palestine as the new Jewish home, nor did he

attach himself to religious sentiment. The expectation of a Messianic

restoration to the Holy Land has always been strong, if often latent, in

the Jewish consciousness. But Herzl approached the subject entirely on

its secular side, and his solution was economic and political rather

than sentimental. He was a strong advocate for the complete separation

of Church and State. The influence of Herzl's pamphlet, the progress of

the movement he initiated, the subsequent modifications of his plans,

are told at length in the article ZIONISM.

His proposals undoubtedly roused an extraordinary enthusiasm, and though

he almost completely failed to win to his cause the classes, he rallied

the masses with sensational success. He unexpectedly gained the

accession of many Jews by race who were indifferent to the religious

aspect of Judaism, but he quite failed to convince the leaders of Jewish

thought, who from first to last remained (with such conspicuous

exceptions as Nordau and Zangwill) deaf to his pleading. The orthodox

were at first cool because they had always dreamed of a nationalism

inspired by messianic ideals, while the liberals had long come to

dissociate those universalistic ideals from all national limitations.

Herzl, however, succeeded in assembling several congresses at Basel

(beginning in 1897), and at these congresses were enacted remarkable

scenes of enthusiasm for the cause and devotion to its leader. At all

these assemblies the same ideal was formulated: "the establishing for

the Jewish people a publicly and legally assured home in Palestine."

Herzl's personal charm was irresistible. Among his political opponents

he had some close personal friends. His sincerity, his eloquence, his

tact, his devotion, his power, were recognized on all hands. He spent

his whole strength in the furtherance of his ideas. Diplomatic

interviews, exhausting journeys, impressive mass meetings, brilliant

literary propaganda--all these methods were employed by him to the

utmost limit of self-denial. In 1901 he was received by the sultan; the

pope and many European statesmen gave him audiences. The British

government was ready to grant land for an autonomous settlement in East

Africa. This last scheme was fatal to Herzl's peace of mind. Even as a

temporary measure, the choice of an extra-Palestinian site for the

Jewish state was bitterly opposed by many Zionists; others (with whom

Herzl appears to have sympathized) thought that as Palestine was, at all

events momentarily, inaccessible, it was expedient to form a settlement

elsewhere. Herzl's health had been failing and he did not long survive

the initiation of the somewhat embittered "territorial" controversy. He

died in the summer of 1904, amid the consternation of supporters and the

deep grief of opponents of his Zionistic aims.

Herzl was beyond question the most influential Jewish personality of the

19th century. He had no profound insight into the problem of Judaism,

and there was no lasting validity in his view that the problem--the

thousands of years' old mystery--could be solved by a retrogression to

local nationality. But he brought home to Jews the perils that

confronted them; he compelled many a "semi-detached" son of Israel to

rejoin the camp; he forced the "assimilationists" to realize their

position and to define it; his scheme gave a new impulse to "Jewish

culture," including the popularization of Hebrew as a living speech; and

he effectively roused Jews all the world over to an earnest and vital

interest in their present and their future. Herzl thus left an indelible

mark on his time, and his renown is assured whatever be the fate in

store for the political Zionism which he founded and for which he gave

his life. (I. A.)

HERZOG, HANS (1819-1894), Swiss general, was born at Aarau. He became a

Swiss artillery lieutenant in 1840, and then spent six years in

travelling (visiting England among other countries), before he became a

partner in his father's business in 1846. In 1847 he saw his first

active service (as artillery captain) in the short Swiss _Sonderbund_

war. In 1860 he abandoned mercantile pursuits for a purely military

career, becoming colonel and inspector-general of the Swiss artillery.

In 1870 he was commander-in-chief of the Swiss army, which guarded the

Swiss frontier, in the Jura, during the Franco-German War, and in

February 1871, as such, concluded the Convention of Verrieres with

General Clinchant for the disarming and the interning of the remains of

Bourbaki's army, when it took refuge in Switzerland. In 1875 he became

the commander-in-chief of the Swiss artillery, which he did much to

reorganize, helping also in the re-organization of the other branches of

the Swiss army. He died in 1894 at his native town of Aarau.

(W. A. B. C.)

HERZOG, JOHANN JAKOB (1805-1882), German Protestant theologian, was born

at Basel on the 12th of September 1805. He studied at Basel and Berlin,

and eventually (1854) settled at Erlangen as professor of church

history. He died there on the 30th of September 1882, having retired in

1877. His most noteworthy achievement was the publication of the

_Realencyklopadie fur protestantische Theologie und Kirche_ (1853-1868,

22 vols.), of which he undertook a new edition with G. L. Plitt

(1836-1880) in 1877, and after Plitt's death with Albert Hauck (b.

1845). Hauck began the publication of the third edition in 1896

(completed in 22 vols., 1909).

His other works include _Joh. Calvin_ (1843), _Leben Okolampads_

(1843), _Die romanischen Waldenser_ (1853), _Abriss der gesamten

Kirchengeschichte_ (3 vols., 1876-1882, 2nd ed., G. Koffmane, Leipzig,

1890-1892).

HESEKIEL, JOHANN GEORG LUDWIG (1819-1874), German author, was born on

the 12th of August 1819 in Halle, where his father, distinguished as a

writer of sacred poetry, was a Lutheran pastor. Hesekiel studied history

and philosophy in Halle, Jena and Berlin, and devoted himself in early

life to journalism and literature. In 1848 he settled in Berlin, where

he lived until his death on the 26th of February 1874, achieving a

considerable reputation as a writer and as editor of the _Neue

Preussische Zeitung_. He attempted many different kinds of literary

work, the most ambitious being perhaps his patriotic songs

_Preussenlieder_, of which he published a volume during the

revolutionary excitement of 1848-1849. Another collection--_Neue

Preussenlieder_--appeared in 1864 after the Danish War, and a third in

1870--_Gegen die Franzosen, Preussische Kriegs- und Konigslieder_. Among

his novels may be mentioned _Unter dem Eisenzahn_ (1864) and _Der

Schultheiss vom Zeyst_ (1875). The best known of his works is his

biography of Prince Bismarck (_Das Buch vom Fursten Bismarck_) (3rd ed.,

1873; English trans. by R. H. Mackenzie).

HESILRIGE (or HESELRIG), SIR ARTHUR, 2nd Bart. (d. 1661), English

parliamentarian, was the eldest son of Sir Thomas Hesilrige, 1st baronet

(c. 1622), of Noseley, Leicestershire, a member of a very ancient

family settled in Northumberland and Leicestershire, and of Frances,

daughter of Sir William Gorges, of Alderton, Northamptonshire. He early

imbibed strong puritanical principles, and showed a special antagonism

to Laud. He sat for Leicestershire in the Short and Long Parliaments in

1640, and took a principal part in Strafford's attainder, the Root and

Branch Bill and the Militia Bill of the 7th of December 1641, and was

one of the five members impeached on the 3rd of January 1642. He showed

much activity in the Great Rebellion, raised a troop of horse for Essex,

fought at Edgehill, commanded in the West under Waller, being nicknamed

his _fidus Achates_, and distinguished himself at the head of his

cuirassiers, "The Lobsters," at Lansdown on the 5th of July 1643, at

Roundway Down on the 13th of July, at both of which battles he was

wounded, and at Cheriton, March 29th 1644. On the occasion of the breach

between the army and the parliament, Hesilrige supported the former,

took Cromwell's part in his dispute with Manchester and Essex, and on

the passing of the Self-denying Ordinance gave up his commission and

became one of the leaders of the Independent party in parliament. On the

30th of December 1647 he was appointed governor of Newcastle, which he

successfully defended, besides defeating the Royalists on the 2nd of

July 1648 and regaining Tynemouth. In October he accompanied Cromwell to

Scotland, and gave him valuable support in the Scottish expedition in

1650. Hesilrige, though he approved of the king's execution, had

declined to act as judge on his trial. He was one of the leading men in

the Commonwealth, but Cromwell's expulsion of the Long Parliament threw

him into antagonism, and he opposed the Protectorate and refused to pay

taxes. He was returned for Leicester to the parliaments of 1654, 1656

and 1659, but was excluded from the two former. He refused a seat in the

Lords, whither Cromwell sought to relegate him, and succeeded in again

obtaining admission to the Commons in January 1658. On Cromwell's death

Hesilrige refused support to Richard, and was instrumental in effecting

his downfall. He was now one of the most influential men in the council

and in parliament. He attempted to maintain a republican parliamentary

administration, "to keep the sword subservient to the civil magistrate,"

and opposed Lambert's schemes. On the latter succeeding in expelling the

parliament, Hesilrige turned to Monk for support, and assisted his

movements by securing Portsmouth on the 3rd of December 1659. He marched

to London, and was appointed one of the council of state on the 2nd of

January 1660, and on the 11th of February a commissioner for the army.

He was completely deceived by Monk, and trusting to his assurance of

fidelity to "the good old cause" consented to the retirement of his

regiment from London. At the Restoration his life was saved by Monk's

intervention, but he was imprisoned in the Tower, where he died on the

7th of January 1661. Clarendon describes Hesilrige as "an absurd, bold

man." He was rash, "hare-brained," devoid of tact and had little claim

to the title of a statesman, but his energy in the field and in

parliament was often of great value to the parliamentary cause. He

exposed himself to considerable obloquy by his exactions and

appropriations of confiscated landed property, though the accusation

brought against him by John Lilburne was examined by a parliamentary

committee and adjudged to be false. Hesilrige married (1) Frances,

daughter of Thomas Elmes of Lilford, Northamptonshire, by whom he had

two sons and two daughters, and (2) Dorothy, sister of Robert Greville,

2nd Lord Brooke, by whom he had three sons and five daughters. The

family was represented in 1907 by his descendant Sir Arthur Grey

Hazlerigg of Noseley, 13th Baronet.

AUTHORITIES.--Article on Hesilrige by C. H. Firth in the _Dict. of

Nat. Biography_, and authorities there quoted; _Early History of the

Family of Hesilrige_, by W. G. D. Fletcher; _Cal. of State Papers,

Domestic_, 1631-1664, where there are a large number of important

references, as also in _Hist. MSS._, _Comm. Series_, _MSS. of Earl

Cowper_, _Duke of Leeds_ and _Duke of Portland_; _Egerton MSS._ 2618,

_Harleian_ 7001 f. 198, and in the _Sloane_, _Stowe_ and _Additional_

collections in the British Museum; also S. R. Gardiner, _Hist. of

England_, _Hist. of the Great Civil War and Commonwealth_; Clarendon's

_History, State Papers and Cal. of State Papers_, J. L. Sanford's

_Studies of the Great Rebellion_. His life is written by Noble in the

_House of Cromwell_, i. 403. For his public letters and speeches in

parliament see the catalogue of the British Museum.

HESIOD, the father of Greek didactic poetry, probably flourished during

the 8th century B.C. His father had migrated from the Aeolic Cyme in

Asia Minor to Boeotia; and Hesiod and his brother Perses were born at

Ascra, near mount Helicon (_Works and Days_, 635). Here, as he fed his

father's flocks, he received his commission from the Muses to be their

prophet and poet--a commission which he recognized by dedicating to them

a tripod won by him in a contest of song (see below) at some funeral

games at Chalcis in Euboea, still in existence at Helicon in the age of

Pausanias (_Theogony_, 20-34, _W. and D._, 656; Pausanias ix. 38. 3).

After the death of his father Hesiod is said to have left his native

land in disgust at the result of a law-suit with his brother and to have

migrated to Naupactus. There was a tradition that he was murdered by the

sons of his host in the sacred enclosure of the Nemean Zeus at Oeneon in

Locris (Thucydides iii. 96; Pausanias ix. 31); his remains were removed

for burial by command of the Delphic oracle to Orchomenus in Boeotia,

where the Ascraeans settled after the destruction of their town by the

Thespians, and where, according to Pausanias, his grave was to be seen.

Hesiod's earliest poem, the famous _Works and Days_, and according to

Boeotian testimony the only genuine one, embodies the experiences of his

daily life and work, and, interwoven with episodes of fable, allegory,

and personal history, forms a sort of Boeotian shepherd's calendar. The

first portion is an ethical enforcement of honest labour and dissuasive

of strife and idleness (1-383); the second consists of hints and rules

as to husbandry (384-764); and the third is a religious calendar of the

months, with remarks on the days most lucky or the contrary for rural or

nautical employments. The connecting link of the whole poem is the

author's advice to his brother, who appears to have bribed the corrupt

judges to deprive Hesiod of his already scantier inheritance, and to

whom, as he wasted his substance lounging in the agora, the poet more

than once returned good for evil, though he tells him there will be a

limit to this unmerited kindness. In the _Works and Days_ the episodes

which rise above an even didactic level are the "Creation and Equipment

of Pandora," the "Five Ages of the World" and the much-admired

"Description of Winter" (by some critics judged post-Hesiodic). The poem

also contains the earliest known fable in Greek literature, that of "The

Hawk and the Nightingale." It is in the _Works and Days_ especially that

we glean indications of Hesiod's rank and condition in life, that of a

stay-at-home farmer of the lower class, whose sole experience of the sea

was a single voyage of 40 yds. across the Euripus, and an old-fashioned

bachelor whose misogynic views and prejudice against matrimony have been

conjecturally traced to his brother Perses having a wife as extravagant

as himself.

The other poem attributed to Hesiod or his school which has come down in

great part to modern times is _The Theogony_, a work of grander scope,

inspired alike by older traditions and abundant local associations. It

is an attempt to work into system, as none had essayed to do before, the

floating legends of the gods and goddesses and their offspring. This

task Herodotus (ii. 53) attributes to Hesiod, and he is quoted by Plato

in the _Symposium_ (178 B) as the author of the _Theogony_. The first to

question his claim to this distinction was Pausanias, the geographer

(A.D. 200). The Alexandrian grammarians had no doubt on the subject; and

indications of the hand that wrote the _Works and Days_ may be found in

the severe strictures on women, in the high esteem for the wealth-giver

Plutus and in coincidences of verbal expression. Although, no doubt, of

Hesiodic origin, in its present form it is composed of different

recensions and numerous later additions and interpolations. The

_Theogony_ consists of three divisions--(1) a cosmogony, or creation;

(2) a theogony proper, recounting the history of the dynasties of Zeus

and Cronus; and (3) a brief and abruptly terminated heroogony, the

starting-point not improbably of the supplementary poem, the [Greek:

katalogos], or "Lists of Women" who wedded immortals, of which all but

a few fragments are lost.[1] The proem (1-116) addressed to the

Heliconian and Pierian muses, is considered to have been variously

enlarged, altered and arranged by successive rhapsodists. The poet has

interwoven several episodes of rare merit, such as the contest of Zeus

and the Olympian gods with the Titans, and the description of the

prison-house in which the vanquished Titans are confined, with the

Giants for keepers and Day and Night for janitors (735 seq.).

The only other poem which has come down to us under Hesiod's name is the

_Shield of Heracles_, the opening verses of which are attributed by a

nameless grammarian to the fourth book of _Eoiai_. The theme of the

piece is the expedition of Heracles and Iolaus against the robber

Cycnus; but its main object apparently is to describe the shield of

Heracles (141-317). It is clearly an imitation of the Homeric account of

the shield of Achilles (_Iliad_, xviii. 479) and is now generally

considered spurious. Titles and fragments of other lost poems of Hesiod

have come down to us: didactic, as the _Maxims of Cheiron_;

genealogical, as the _Aegimius_, describing the contest of that mythical

ancestor of the Dorians with the Lapithae; and mythical, as the

_Marriage of Ceyx_ and the _Descent of Theseus to Hades_.

Recent editions of Hesiod include the [Greek: Agon Homerou kai

Hesiodou], the contest of song between Homer and Hesiod at the funeral

games held in honour of King Amphidamas at Chalcis. This little tract

belongs to the time of Hadrian, who is actually mentioned as having been

present during its recitation, but is founded on an earlier account by

the sophist Alcidamas (q.v.). Quotations (old and new) are made from the

works of both poets, and, in spite of the sympathies of the audience,

the judge decides in favour of Hesiod. Certain biographical details of

Homer and Hesiod are also given.

A strong characteristic of Hesiod's style is his sententious and

proverbial philosophy (as in _Works and Days_, 24-25, 40, 218, 345,

371). There is naturally less of this in the _Theogony_, yet there too

not a few sentiments take the form of the saw or adage. He has undying

fame as the first of didactic poets (see DIDACTIC POETRY), the

accredited systematizer of Greek mythology and the rough but not

unpoetical sketcher of the lines on which Virgil wrought out his

exquisitely finished Georgics.

BIBLIOGRAPHY.--Complete works: _Editio princeps_ (Milan, 1493);

Gottling-Flach (1878), with full bibliography up to date of

publication; C. Sittl (1889), with introduction and critical and

explanatory notes in Greek; F. A. Paley (1883); A. Rzach (1902),

including the fragments. Separate works: _Works and Days_: Van Lennep

(1847); A. Kirchhoff (1889); A. Steitz, _Die Werke und Tage des

Hesiodos_ (1869), dealing chiefly with the composition and arrangement

of the poem; G. Wlastoff, _Promethee, Pandore, et la legende des

siecles_ (1883). _Theogony_: Van Lennep (1843); F. G. Welcker (1865),

valuable edition; G. F. Schomann (1868), with text, critical notes and

exhaustive commentary; H. Flach, _Die Hesiodische Theogonie_ (1873),

with prolegomena dealing chiefly with the digamma in Hesiod, _System

der Hesiodischen Kosmogonie_ (1874), and _Glossen und Scholien zur

Theogonie_ (1876); Meyer, _De compositione Theogoniae_ (1887). _Shield

of Heracles_: Wolf-Ranke (1840); Van Lennep-Hullemann (1854); F.

Stegemann, _De scuti Herculis Hesiodei poeta Homeri carminum

imitatore_ (1904); the fragments were published by W. Marckscheffel in

1840; for the [Greek: Agon Homerou] (ed. A. Rzach, 1908) see F.

Nietzsche in _Rheinisches Museum_ (new series), xxv. p. 528. For

papyrus fragments of the "Catalogue," some 50 lines on the wooing of

Helen, and a shorter fragment in praise of Peleus, see

Wilamowitz-Mollendorff in _Sitzungsber. der konigl. preuss. Akad. der

Wissenschaften_, for 26th of July 1900; for fragments relating to

Meleager and the suitors of Helen, _Berliner Klassikertexte_, v.

(1907); of the _Theogony, Oxyrh. Pap._ vi. (1908).

On the subject generally, consult G. F. Schomann, _Opuscula_, ii.

(1857); H. Flach, _Die Hesiodischen Gedichte_ (1874); A. Rzach, _Der

Dialekt des Hesiodos_ (1876); P. O. Gruppe, _Die griechischen Kulte

und Mythen_, i. (1887); O. Friedel, _Die Sage vom Tode Hesiods_

(1879), from _Jahrbucher fur classische Philologie_ (10th suppl. Band,

1879); J. Adam, _Religious Teachers of Greece_ (1908). There is a full

bibliography of the publications relating to Hesiod (1884-1898) by A.

Rzach in Bursian's _Jahresbericht uber die Fortschritte der

klassischen Altertumswissenschaft_, xxvii. (1900).

There are translations of the Hesiodic poems in English by Cooke

(1728), C. A. Elton (1815), J. Banks (1856), and specially by A. W.

Mair, with introduction and appendices (Oxford Library of

Translations, 1908); in German (metrical version) with valuable

introductions and notes by R. Peppmuller (1896) and in other modern

languages. (J. Da.; J. H. F.)