find in everything connected with their religion.--Some festivals were
of a light and joyous character, being celebrated with choral songs
and dances. Processions of votaries crowned with garlands, bore
offerings to the temple; fruits, ripe maize, and the sweet incense of
the copal and other odoriferous gums; while the birds and domestic
animals offered in sacrifice were consumed at the banquets with which
the festival concluded. These innocent rites were evidently of Toltec
origin; the dreadful practice of human sacrifice was introduced by the
Aztec conquerors, whose wars were often undertaken for no other
purpose than to procure victims for their altars.
_Ques._ Were these sacrifices numerous?
_Ans._ They were introduced only about two hundred years before the
Spanish Conquest. They were at first exceptional, but became more
frequent as the Aztec empire extended, until the number of those
sacrificed annually throughout the empire is calculated at twenty
thousand, which is the lowest estimate given. It was customary to
preserve the skulls of the victims in buildings erected for the
purpose. One hundred and thirty-six thousand of these ghastly relics
were counted in a single edifice. Women were occasionally offered in
sacrifice, but Tlaloc, the god of rain, could only be propitiated by
the blood of young children and infants. In seasons of drought, these
innocent victims, decked in the richest attire, and crowned with
flowers, were borne to the temple in open litters, their cries being
drowned in the wild chanting of the priests.
The feast of Tezcatlipoca, one of the chief gods, who was called the
"Soul of the World," was celebrated by the sacrifice of a single
victim, with regard to whom many peculiar ceremonies were observed. A
year before the sacrifice, a young man, distinguished for grace and
beauty, was chosen from among the captives. He was splendidly attired,
surrounded by every luxury, and was received everywhere with the
homage due to the divinity whom he was supposed to represent.
When the fatal day arrived, the victim, who had been trained to
perform his part with calmness and dignity, was conducted to the
temple. As the melancholy procession wound up the sides of the
pyramid, he played upon a musical instrument; at first, joyous airs,
which grew graver and more mournful as the cortege advanced, until at
length he broke his lute, and cast it aside. He then threw from him,
one by one, his chaplets of flowers, and stood unadorned before the
stone of sacrifice. The bloody work was soon accomplished, and the yet
palpitating heart of the victim was thrown at the feet of the idol.
The career of this captive, and his progress to the altar, was
intended as an allegorical representation of human life, which, joyous
at first, terminates in sorrow and in death. In speaking of human
sacrifices, we have yet to mention the most revolting feature. The
Mexicans, both men and women, feasted on the bodies of the victims;
and no Aztec noble would venture to entertain his friends on a
festival day without placing before them this loathsome food.
It is worthy of remark that Montezuma surpassed all his predecessors
in the pomp with which he celebrated the festivals of the Aztec gods,
and the number of human victims which he offered on their altars.
CHAPTER X.
PERU.
_Ques._ What deities were worshipped by the ancient Peruvians?
_Ans._ Like most of the races inhabiting the American continent, the
Peruvians believed in one Supreme God, immaterial and infinite. This
sublime doctrine did not, however, lead to the practical results that
might have been expected.
_Ques._ What name did the Peruvians give to this Supreme deity?
_Ans._ He was adored under the different names of Pachacamac and
Viracocha. They raised no temples in his honor; that which stood near
the present site of Lima, having been erected before the country came
under the sway of the Incas. It seems probable, therefore, that the
worship of this Great Spirit did not originate with the Peruvians.
Their entire system of religion was directed to the adoration of the
heavenly bodies. The Sun was adored as the father of the world, the
source of light and life. The Moon was honored as his sister-wife, and
the Stars were worshipped as her heavenly train. The planet known to
us as Venus was an especial object of devotion. The Peruvians named it
Chasca, or "the Youth with the long and curling locks;" they
worshipped it as the page of the Sun, whom he attends in his rising
and setting.
The Sun was honored also as the father of the royal Inca race; and,
connected with this belief, we have one of the few legends worthy of
note in the barren mythology of the Peruvians.
_Ques._ Relate this legend.
_Ans._ According to tradition, there was a time when the ancient races
of the continent were plunged in the most complete barbarism: the will
of the strongest was the only law; war was their pastime; they
worshipped the vilest objects in nature, and feasted on the flesh of
their slaughtered enemies. The Sun, the great parent of mankind, took
compassion on their degraded state, and sent two of his children,
Manco-Capac, and Mama Oello Huaco, to form men into regular
communities, and teach them the arts of civilized life. The celestial
pair advanced along the high plains in the neighborhood of Lake
Titicaca, as far as the sixteenth degree of south latitude. They bore
with them a golden wedge, and were directed to take up their abode
wherever the sacred emblem should sink into the earth of its own
accord. This prodigy took place in the valley of Cuzco, where the
wedge sank into the ground, and disappeared forever. Here the
children of the Sun entered upon their benevolent mission; Manco-Capac
instructing the men in the arts of agriculture, while Mama Oello
initiated the women into the mysteries of weaving and spinning. The
rude, but simple-hearted natives were not slow to appreciate the
benefits conferred by the messengers of heaven: a large community was
gradually formed, and the city of Cuzco was founded in the valley. The
monarchy thus formed, was governed by the Incas, who claimed descent
from Manco-Capac and Mama Oello, and always styled themselves,
Children of the Sun.
_Ques._ What was the origin of this legend?
_Ans._ It was evidently a fiction, invented at a later period to
gratify the vanity of the Incas, by attributing to their race a
celestial origin. The extensive ruins on the shores of Lake Titicaca
prove that this region was inhabited by a powerful, and comparatively
civilized people, long before the foundation of the Peruvian monarchy.
_Ques._ Are there any other Peruvian legends?
_Ans._ Among the traditions of this race, is one of the deluge, which
resembles in one or two curious particulars the Mexican legend on the
same subject. According to both these traditions, seven persons took
refuge in caves, in which they were preserved from the universal
destruction; and from these, the earth was re-peopled. The Peruvians
maintained that white and bearded men from the east had visited the
country in ancient times, and instructed the natives in the arts of
civilized life. This legend recalls the Mexican story of Quetzalcoatl,
and the coincidence is singular, because no communication is believed
to have existed between the two countries.
_Ques._ Where were the most celebrated temples of the Sun?
_Ans._ The most ancient of these edifices was in the island of
Titicaca, whence the founders of the Inca dynasty were said to have
proceeded. Everything belonging to this sanctuary was held in
particular veneration. Even the fields of maize which were attached to
the temple were supposed to partake of its sanctity; and the yearly
produce was distributed in small quantities through all the public
granaries, to bring a blessing on the rest of the store.
A Peruvian esteemed himself happy in securing even a single ear of the
sacred grain.
_Ques._ Describe the temple of Cuzco.
_Ans._ This edifice was constructed of stone, and covered a large
extent of ground in the heart of the city. The interior of the temple
has been described, by those who saw it in its glory, as being
literally a mine of precious metals. It was called by the natives
Coricancha, or "Place of Gold." On the western wall was the image of
the Sun; this was a massive golden plate, of enormous dimensions, on
which was emblazoned a human countenance darting forth rays on every
side. The image was richly ornamented with emeralds and precious
stones. It fronted the eastern portal of the temple in such a manner
that the first rays of the morning Sun fell directly on his golden
image, and were reflected from the rich ornaments with which the walls
and ceiling were encrusted. Every part of the temple glowed with the
precious metal, and even the exterior was encompassed with a broad
frieze of gold set in the solid stone-work of the edifice. Adjoining
the principal structure was the temple of the Moon. Her effigy was of
silver, but otherwise resembled that of the Sun. The same metal was
used in all the decorations of the building, as resembling in its pale
lustre the milder radiance of the beautiful planet.
One chapel was dedicated to the stars, another to thunder and
lightning, and a third to the rainbow. This last was decorated with a
many-colored arch of resplendent hues. Attached to the temple of Cuzco
were the celebrated gardens, sparkling with flowers of gold and
silver. Animals also were represented in precious ore, and the classic
fable of the golden fleece was realized in the llama of this fairy
garden.
_Ques._ Does anything now remain of this magnificent temple?
_Ans._ No; its riches became the prey of the conquerors, and the
desecrated shrine offered an inexhaustible supply of material for the
erection of other buildings. Fields of maize are now waving where the
golden gardens once sparkled in the sun, and the church of St.
Dominic, one of the most magnificent buildings of the New World,
occupies the site of the famous Coricancha. The temples of Peru were
many and magnificent; but Cuzco was to the Inca noble what Mecca is to
the devout follower of Mahomet, and he would consider that he had
neglected a sacred duty, if he had not made at least one pilgrimage to
the holy shrine.
_Ques._ From what class were the Peruvian priests generally chosen?
_Ans._ They were all, without exception, Inca nobles, and therefore
children of the Sun. The High Priest, called Villac Vmu, was second
only to the Inca, and was chosen from among his brothers or nearest
kindred.
_Ques._ What sacrifices were offered to the Sun?
_Ans._ Animals, ripe maize, flowers and sweet-scented gums. Human
sacrifices were rare, and were only offered on great occasions, such
as a coronation, a victory, etc. A child or a beautiful maiden was
then selected as the victim; but the cannibal repasts of the Mexicans
were unknown among the more refined Peruvians.
_Ques._ What were the principal festivals of the Sun?
_Ans._ The solstices and equinoxes were celebrated by four great
festivals; but the most solemn was the feast of Raymi, held at the
period of their summer solstice. This festival lasted many days. The
animals offered in sacrifice were served at the tables of the Inca
and of his nobles; but of the flocks belonging to the temple, a vast
number were slaughtered and distributed among the people.
_Ques._ What points of resemblance have been noticed between the
religious observances of the Peruvians and those of the ancient
Romans?
_Ans._ In the mode of procuring the sacred fire, the obtaining of
omens from the animals offered in sacrifice, and in some of the laws
with regard to the Virgins of the Sun. At the festival of Raymi, the
sacred fire was obtained, as under the reign of Numa, by means of a
concave mirror of polished metal. The sun's rays were in this manner
collected in a focus of sufficient intensity to ignite dried cotton.
When the sky was overcast, which was esteemed a very bad omen, the
fire was obtained by means of friction. This fire was watched by the
Virgins of the Sun.
_Ques._ Who were these?
_Ans._ They were maidens of noble birth who were dedicated to the
service of the Sun. They were taken from their families at an early
age, and placed under the care of elderly matrons, who instructed them
in their religious duties, and in every branch of female industry.
They spun garments, which they were taught to embroider with exquisite
skill. They also wove, of the fine hair of the vicuña, the hangings of
the temples and the garments worn by the Inca and his household. They
were completely secluded, even from their own nearest relatives. The
wives of the Inca, and they were numerous, were chosen from among the
Virgins of the Sun. With this exception, they were forbidden to marry.
The unhappy maiden who ventured to form in secret a less exalted
alliance, was condemned to the cruel punishment decreed in like
circumstances against the Roman Vestal. She was buried alive; her
accomplice was strangled, and the village to which he belonged was
razed to the ground and sowed with stones.
_Ques._ How did the Peruvians bury their dead?
_Ans._ The body was embalmed, not, as in Egypt, with gums and spices,
but by simple exposure to the cold, dry and rarefied atmosphere of the
mountains. The mummies are generally in a sitting posture. As the
Peruvians imagined that the wants and occupations of men would be the
same beyond the grave as in this life, costly apparel, arms, utensils
and sometimes treasures were placed in the tomb of a deceased noble.
That he might not lack attendance and society, his favorite wives and
domestics were sacrificed on his tomb.
The Peruvians believed in an evil spirit whom they called Cupay, but
they did not attempt to propitiate him by any form of worship. Cupay
seems, in fact, to have been only a personification of sin.
SUPPLEMENT.
_A BRIEF NOTICE OF AUTHORS, ETC., MENTIONED IN THIS VOLUME._
ÆSCHYLUS,
The earliest of the Greek dramatists, was born at Eleusis in Attica,
525 B. C. He distinguished himself in the battles of Marathon, Salamis
and Platæa. Æschylus has been called the father of Grecian tragedy, as
he was the first to give rules to the dialogue, and define the duties
of the chorus; he also planned the dress of the actors, the scenery
and the whole mechanism of the stage. Æschylus wrote sixty-six dramas,
in thirteen of which he obtained the victory over all his competitors.
He was at length defeated by a younger rival, Sophocles. He retired
the same year to the court of Hiero, king of Syracuse, and some
writers attribute this step to the mortification felt by the poet on
this occasion. Others say that he was accused as guilty of profanity
in exhibiting on the stage certain things connected with the
Eleusinian mysteries. The people were about to stone him, when he was
saved by the presence of mind of his brother Aminias. The latter had
won much glory in the Persian war, and now, while interceding for his
brother he dexterously dropped his mantle so as to expose the stump of
the arm he had lost at Salamis. The silent appeal was not without its
effect on the impulsive Athenians, and Æschylus was pardoned. He
deemed it prudent, however, to retire to Sicily, where he was kindly
entertained by Hiero. His death is said to have occurred in a very
extraordinary manner.
As he slept in the fields, an eagle which was flying over him with a
tortoise in his claws, mistook the bald head of the poet for a stone.
The bird dropped the tortoise for the purpose of breaking the shell,
and he was killed by the blow, thus verifying a prophecy that his
death would come from on high.
Of the dramas written by Æschylus, but seven remain. Of these, the
most admired is the "Prometheus Chained." The subject is the
punishment of Prometheus on Mount Caucasus; the scenery is grand and
terrific, and all the persons of the drama are divinities.
CÆSAR (Caius Julius),
The Roman general and dictator, holds a high rank among Latin authors.
During the most active period of his life, he found time to devote to
literary pursuits. Of the works written by him on various subjects,
both in prose and verse, we have only his "Commentaries," in ten
books. Seven of these treat of the Gallic war, the rest contain an
account of the Civil war. The hurry of military expeditions did not
prevent this extraordinary man from observing closely the manners and
customs of the different nations with whom he contended. We are
indebted to the Commentaries for almost all the accurate information
we possess with regard to the inhabitants of ancient Gaul.
Cæsar was not surpassed, even by the writers of the Augustan age, in
clearness and beauty of style. He exaggerates nothing, and his most
brilliant achievements are related with a certain modest simplicity
which is one of the characteristics of true greatness.
CICERO.
A Roman orator and statesman. He filled the highest offices in the
gift of his country, and took so prominent a part in public affairs,
that an account of his life would be also a history of his times.
Cicero wrote on the art of public speaking, on philosophy and
jurisprudence. This great man, who had saved Rome from the plots of
Catiline, and rendered many other signal services to his country, was
basely murdered by the order of the second Triumvirate, in the year 43
B. C.
DEMOSTHENES.
A famous Athenian orator, who defended the liberties of his country
against the aggressions of Philip of Macedon.
DIODORUS,
Surnamed Siculus, from Sicily, his birth-place. He was a celebrated
historian, contemporary with Julius Cæsar and Augustus. He wrote a
"General History" in forty books, of which we have now fifteen entire,
with scattered fragments of the others. Diodorus devoted thirty years
to this great work.
EURIPIDES,
A Greek tragedian, was born in 480 B. C., on the day rendered famous
by the victory of Salamis. After gaining a high reputation as a
dramatist, Euripides retired to Macedon, to the court of King
Archelaûs. On the death of the poet, the Athenians begged that his
body might be sent to Athens for interment. This request Archelaûs
refused, and Euripides was buried with much pomp at Pella, in Macedon.
This poet is inferior to Æschylus and Sophocles, not only in dignity
of sentiment, but in the moral tone of his dramas. Sophocles is said
to have observed that while he represented men as they ought to be,
Euripides described them as they were.
HERODOTUS,
Who has been called the Father of History, was born at Halicarnassus,
484 B. C. He spent many years travelling through Europe, Asia and
Africa, observing everywhere the manners and customs of the people,
and collecting materials for his great work. His account of the
Persian war is full of interest, and won for him great popularity
among his countrymen.
Herodotus relates many things which seem strange, and even incredible;
but these are either traditions of remote times, or accounts received
from other travellers. The general opinion is that where Herodotus
speaks from his own observation, or relates events of which the memory
was still recent, he may be relied upon as an accurate and truthful
historian.
JUSTIN (Saint).
A Christian writer of the second century. He is principally celebrated
for his "Apology for the Christians," addressed to the Emperor
Antoninus. It is written in a style at once eloquent and persuasive,
and it is believed that it had the desired effect, and was the
immediate cause of the edict issued by Antoninus in favor of the
Christians.
St. Justin addressed a second Apology to Marcus Aurelius, but with far
different success. This Emperor was too much under the influence of
the heathen philosophers whom he had assembled at his court, to judge
impartially in the matter. One of these, Crescentius, a bitter enemy
of the Christians, procured the death of their intrepid defender. The
martyrdom of St. Justin took place at Rome, about the year 161 A. D.
JUVENAL.
A Roman poet of the first century. He was born in the reign of
Caligula, but the exact date is not known. Juvenal is celebrated for
his satires, in which he attacked the vices and follies of his day,
not sparing the emperors themselves where their conduct was deserving
of reproach. Hadrian believed that one of the satires of Juvenal was
directed against himself; he had not the magnanimity to overlook the
offence, and Juvenal was exiled to Lybia, where he died soon after.
MÆCENAS.
Minister and favorite of the Emperor Augustus. He was distinguished
for the wisdom of his counsels, and his rare abilities as a statesman.
Although himself an indifferent poet, he was still a patron of
literature and literary men; Virgil, Horace, Ovid and other celebrated
writers of the Augustan age, were among his most intimate friends.
Such was the care with which Mæcenas sought out and rewarded every
species of merit, that his name is proverbially used to denote a
generous patron.
Admirable in his public capacity, he was in private life as indolent
and luxurious as the most effeminate oriental. His villas were laid
out with unexampled magnificence, and his banquets surpassed, in taste
and display, those given by Augustus himself.
The later years of Mæcenas offer a sad commentary on the value of
human greatness. His constitution, which had never been strong, was
weakened by excess. He was tormented by constant wakefulness, and this
great man, with the resources of the world at his command, would
probably have sacrificed both wealth and power for the common boon of
sleep enjoyed by the meanest of his slaves. In vain the physicians
exercised their skill; narcotics, monotonous sounds, distant music,
all failed to produce the desired effect. A stream was, at length,
conducted through a garden adjoining the chamber where he lay, and the
soft murmur of the falling waters procured a temporary alleviation. We
are told, however, that for three years preceding his death, Mæcenas
never slept.
PELASGI.
A name given to the most ancient inhabitants of Greece. They founded
colonies in Asia Minor, the islands of the Ægean Sea, and in Italy.
The Cyclopean remains in these countries are generally attributed to
the Pelasgi. These structures are remarkable for the immense size of
the stones of which they are built.
PLINIUS, (Secundus C.)
A Roman writer, generally known as Pliny the Elder; is equally
celebrated as a historian and a naturalist. It is not easy to
understand how one man could have followed so many different
avocations, filled high offices under different emperors, and yet have
found time for such a vast amount of composition. While still quite
young, Pliny served in Germany, where he commanded a troop of cavalry;
he afterwards practised as a pleader at the Roman bar, filled the
office of procurator in Spain, and we find him, at the time of his
death, in command of the fleet which guarded the coast of Italy.
The application of Pliny to literary pursuits was uninterrupted. He
rose to his studies at two in the morning, and during the entire day,
whether in the bath, at table, or sitting in his garden, he either
listened to reading, wrote, or dictated. Even on his journeys and
military expeditions, a secretary always sat in his chariot. We are
told that in winter Pliny was careful to provide him with a warm glove
of peculiar make, that his fingers might not be too much benumbed to
hold the stylus.
We have but one complete work of this author, his Natural History, in
thirty-seven books. It treats, not only of natural history, properly
so called, but also of astronomy, biography, history, physiology,
medicine and the fine arts. The portion which treats of animals
possesses now but little interest.
In many instances, the description is so vague as to leave us in doubt
as to the particular animal he would designate. He also mingles facts,
really observed, with fables of winged horses, monsters with human
heads and the tails of scorpions, etc. The ten books on botany are
open to the same objections. He attributes to many plants properties
altogether fabulous, and his work, although formerly much quoted on
these points, has rendered very little service to the art of medicine.
The case is different where he speaks of geography, history and the
fine arts. On all these points, he imparts much valuable information
of which we would otherwise be deprived. The Natural History may be
considered, from its wide range of subjects, a sort of Cyclopædia, and
it is said that if the Latin language were lost, it might be restored
from this work alone.
Pliny perished in the great eruption of Mount Vesuvius which destroyed
the towns of Herculaneum and Pompeii. He observed the phenomena
accompanying it from the deck of his ship. Wishing to take a nearer
view, and also to succor some of his friends whose villas lay near
the scene of peril, he steered across the bay, and landed at the foot
of the mountain. The next morning, while pursuing his investigations,
regardless of the remonstrances of his friends, he was suffocated by
the noxious vapors of the volcano. His body was discovered three days
later, entirely uninjured, and in an attitude of repose.
C. Plinius Cæcilius Secundus, nephew of the preceding, is generally
distinguished as Pliny the Younger. Under the care of his uncle he
made such rapid progress in literature, that he was generally
accounted one of the most learned men of his age.
He began his career as an orator at the early age of nineteen. After
filling the high offices of quæstor, consul and augur, Pliny was
appointed by Trajan governor of Bithynia. It was from this country
that he wrote his celebrated letter in favor of the Christians. It is
interesting and important, as showing the progress of Christianity,
and bearing testimony to the purity of life which was the
distinguishing mark of its professors.
Pliny has left a collection of letters in ten books. They are
addressed to some of the most celebrated persons of the time, and are
valuable and interesting for the information they convey with regard
to public events, and the manners and habits of his contemporaries.
The style of these letters is studied, and they have none of the ease
and familiarity of friendly correspondence. It seems probable that
they were intended rather for posterity, than for the persons to whom
they were ostensibly addressed.
PROCOPIUS.
One of the most celebrated historians of the Eastern Empire. He
flourished during the reigns of Justin the Elder and Justinian, and
accompanied Belisarius as secretary on his military expeditions.
SIMONIDES.
This poet excelled particularly in elegiac verse. When the most
distinguished poets of Greece wrote verses in honor of those who fell
at Marathon, the elegy of Simonides took the prize, although Æschylus
was one of the competitors. The compositions of the great tragedian
were deficient in the tenderness and pathos for which Simonides was
particularly distinguished. The lament of Danaë, and a few scattered
fragments, are all that remain of his verses, but these are sufficient
to prove that his reputation in this respect was well deserved.
Simonides brought the epigram to all the perfection of which it was
capable. The most celebrated of his epitaphs is the monumental
inscription composed for the Spartans who died at Thermopylæ:
"Stranger, tell the Lacedæmonians that we lie here in obedience to
their laws."
Simonides was held in high esteem at the court of Hiero, king of
Syracuse. This prince having inquired of him concerning the nature of
God, the poet requested a day to deliberate on the subject. When Hiero
repeated his question on the morrow, he asked for two days. As he
continued in this manner, doubling the number of days, the king
required an explanation. Simonides replied that he postponed his
answer, because, the longer he meditated on the subject, the more
obscure it became, and the more he felt his inability to treat it in
an adequate manner.
Simonides was the master of Pindar; he lived to a very advanced age,
so that he became the contemporary of the Pisistratidæ and of
Pausanias, king of Sparta. This poet is accused of having become
mercenary in his old age, and Greek writers speak of him as the first
who wrote verses for money. In this connection, we have a story which
would show that the poet was not believed to have forfeited the favor
of the gods by his avarice.
While residing at the court of Scopas, king of Thessaly, he was
engaged by that prince to compose a poem in his honor for an
approaching banquet. Whether Simonides found the exploits of Scopas
too barren a subject for his muse, or that his piety led him to
introduce higher themes, we do not know; but when the verses were
recited before the assembled court, the praises of Castor and Pollux
were mingled largely with those of his royal patron.
A mortal might have been content to share his honors with the divine
pair; but Scopas grudged every line which did not celebrate his own
fame. When Simonides approached to receive his reward, the king gave
him half the appointed sum, saying, that was for his part; for what
related to Castor and Pollux, they would no doubt bestow a generous
recompense. The disconcerted poet returned to his place amid the jeers
and laughter of the guests. In a little while, a slave brought him
word that two young men on horseback were at the gate, and desired
earnestly to speak with him. Simonides went out, but found no one;
while he was looking to see which way the strangers had gone, the roof
of the palace fell with a terrible crash, burying Scopas and his
guests beneath the ruins.
On being informed of the appearance of the young men who had sent for
him--of their snow white steeds and shining armor, he knew that it was
indeed Castor and Pollux who had acknowledged, in this manner, the
homage of his verse.
SOPHOCLES.
Was the second in order of time of the great tragic poets of Greece.
In true dramatic excellence, he is generally considered the first. The
poet was only sixteen when he was selected to lead the chorus of
Athenian youths who celebrated with lyre and song the erection of the
trophy in honor of the victory at Salamis. In his twenty-fifth year,
he carried off the tragic prize from Æschylus. He gained the same
triumph over other competitors, taking the first prize on twenty-four
different occasions.
Irreproachable in private life, distinguished for his skill in every
manly exercise, and a rare excellence in the arts of poetry and music,
Sophocles was considered by his admiring countrymen as an especial
favorite of the gods. The remark of the ancient sage that no man is to
be accounted happy before he dies, was verified in the case of this
great poet. If the morning of his life was bright in the lustre of
national glory and personal renown, the evening was clouded by the
misfortunes of his country, and domestic unhappiness. Sophocles served
with courage, but without gaining much distinction, in the
Peloponnesian war, and was a witness of the miseries which that fatal
struggle brought upon Greece. He died in the year 405, B. C., a few
months before the defeat of Ægos-potamos completed the misfortunes of
Athens. He was deeply lamented by the Athenians, who seem to forget
the calamities of the time in their grief at the loss of so
illustrious a citizen. Sophocles wrote one hundred and thirty dramas,
of which seven remain. Of these, the Oedipus Tyrannus and the Antigone
are the most admired.
STRABO.
A celebrated geographer, born at Amaseia, in Pontus, about the year
24, B. C. He spent many years in travelling, at first for his own
gratification, and in the pursuit of knowledge, but afterwards by the
order of Augustus. He was already advanced in life when he compiled
his great work on geography. It is divided into seventeen books, and
contains much valuable and interesting information with regard to the
manners and customs of the nations he had visited.
Little was known at that time of the extent and form of earth. Strabo
imagined that the entire habitable portion was included between two
meridians, one of which passed through the island of Ierne, (Ireland,)
and the other through Ceylon.
TITICACA.
A lake in Bolivia, celebrated for the ruins of Tiahuanico on its
shores. They stand on an eminence which, from the water-marks
surrounding it, seems to have been formerly an island in the lake. So
great a change has taken place, that the level of the lake is now 135
feet lower, and its shores 12 miles distant. These ruins are believed
to be the most ancient on the American continent. The Peruvians knew
nothing of their origin, but had a vague tradition that they were
built by giants in a single night. They regarded them, therefore,
with superstitious awe, and connected them, as we have seen, with the
fables of their mythology. These ruins, like some in the the Old
World, are often called cyclopean, on account of the size of the
blocks of stone used in their construction. There are still remaining,
monolithic pillars, statues and doorways, sculptured in a style
entirely different from that observed on any other American monuments.
We may form some idea of the size of the blocks used, from the
measurement of one doorway, which is 10 ft. high, and 13 ft. broad,
with an opening, 6 ft. 4 inches, by 3 ft. 2 inches, the whole being
cut from a single stone.
Some of the buildings appear to have been of pyramidal form, and to
have covered several acres. Of the people who executed such stupendous
works, we know absolutely nothing, except that they preceded the
Peruvians, and were farther advanced in the arts of civilized life
than any nation existing on the continent at the time of its
discovery.
VARRO.
A Latin writer, celebrated for his extensive learning. He is said to
have composed five hundred volumes, all of which are now lost, with
the exception of two treatises; one on agriculture, the other on the
Latin language. The latter is dedicated to Cicero, an intimate friend
of the author.
The life of Varro was eventful: he was favored by Julius Cæsar,
proscribed by Antony, and passed his later years in literary ease
under the protection of Augustus. Speaking of Varro, St. Augustine
says, that "it is an equal subject of wonder, how one who read such a
number of books, could find time to compose so many volumes; and how
he who composed so many volumes, could have found leisure to peruse
such a variety of books."
_INDEX._
A.
Acestes, 173.
Achab, 214.
Achilles, 58, 152, 153, 166, 98.
Acoetes, 42.
Acrisius, 131
Admetus, 31.
Adonis, 53, 216.
Adrastus, 168.
Æacus, 102.
Ægeus, 121, 122.
Ægisthus, 153, 164.
Æneas, 171.
Æneid, 148.
Æolus, 67.
Æschylus, 170, 199, 202, 291.
Æsculapius, 30, 188.
Æson, 119.
Æetes, 120.
Agamedes, 184.
Agamemnon, 152.
Agathocles, 214.
Ages of the World, 18.
Agenor, 26.
Aglaia, 53.
Ajax, 141, 157.
Ahriman, 218.
Alcestis, 31.
Alcithoe, 41.
Alcibiades, 38, 193.
Alcmena, 114.
Alecto, 101.
Alexander, 187, 193.
Alfheim, 252.
Alpheus, 91.
Althea, 140.
Amazons, 135.
Ambarvalia, 79.
Amphion, 88, 128.
Amphitrite, 93.
Anchises, 171, 174.
Andromache, 167, 172.
Andromeda, 132.
Antigone, 169.
Antilochus, 58.
Apelles, 113, 193.
Apis, Serapis, 209, 210.
Apollo, Phoebus, 176, 26, 29, 30, 33, 259, 184, 182, 152.
Arachne, 47.
Arcas, 44.
Arethusa, 91.
Argonauts, 120.
Argus, 37.
Ariadne, 122.
Arion, 126.
Ascalaphus, 76.
Ascanius, 171.
Asgard, 241.
Astaroth, Astarte, 216.
Aske, 240.
Astræa, 80.
Astyanax, 167.
Atalanta, 52, 141.
Attalus, 73.
Athamas, 97, 119.
Atlas, 36, 129.
Atropos, 101.
Audax, Ap. Cl., 71.
Augurs, 178.
Aurora, Eos, 56.
Avatars, 222.
Avernus, 100.
Aztecs, 274.
B.
Baal, Bel, 213, 258.
Bacchanalia, 40.
Bacchantes, 41.
Bacchus, 32, 39, 122, 126, 186.
Bakoo, 219.
Baldur, 248.
Bards, 260.
Belides, 104.
Bellerophon, 104, 137.
Bellona, 35.
Belus, 213.
Belvidere, Apollo, 208.
Bifrost, 241.
Bona Dea, 73.
Bonzes, 232.
Bragi, 245.
Brahma, 221.
Brennus, 84.
Briareus, 103.
Buddha, 226.
C.
Cacus, 65.
Cadmus, 26.
Caduceus, 36.
Cæculus, 65.
Cæsar, Augustus, 63, 147, 149.
Cæsar, Julius, 258, 292.
Calchas, 152, 153, 167.
Calliope, 82, 125.
Callista, 44.
Calypso, 159.
Cambyses, 59, 187.
Camul, 260.
Carnac, 272.
Cassandra, 152, 172.
Cassiopeia, 132.
Castalian fount, 189.
Castes, 225.
Cecrops, 46.
Castor, 123, 141.
Celeus, 78.
Centaurs, 104.
Cephalus, 56.
Cepheus, 132.
Cerberus, 101, 116.
Ceres, Demeter, 17, 75, 76, 143.
Cestus, 50.
Ceyx, 138.
Charon, 100.
Charybdis, 158.
Chimæra, 104, 134.
Chione, 88.
Chiron, 114.
Cholula, 280.
Cicero, 148, 293.
Cinyras, 53.
Circe, 96.
Claudia, 73.
Cleomenes, 208.
Clio, 82.
Clotho, 101.
Clymene, 33, 123.
Clytemnestra, 153, 164.
Coeneus, 52.
Confucius, 228-9.
Consualia, 94.
Constantine, 184, 86.
Corcyreans, 181.
Coricancha, 287.
Corybantes, Galli, 73.
Creon, 169.
Creusa, 120.
Croesus, 183.
Cromlechs, 271.
Cupid, 50.
Cuzco, 287.
Cyane, 76.
Cybele, 72.
Cyclops, 30, 65.
Cynisca, 193.
Cyparissus, 30.
D.
Dædalus, 137.
Dagon, 217.
Danaë, 131.
Danaus, 104.
Daphne, 33.
Deianira, 117.
Delos, 54.
Delphi, 181.
Demosthenes, 181, 295.
Deucalion, 136.
Diana, 29, 87, 91, 152.
Dictys, 132.
Dido, 172.
Diodorus, 181, 259, 295.
Diomedes, 46, 116.
Dindymus, Mt., 72.
Dionysius, 23, 194.
Dodona, 180.
Dolmens, 272.
Domitian, 70.
Druids, 258, 261.
Druidesses, 264.
Dryades, 90, 143.
E.
Echo, 91.
Eclogues, 147, 178.
Eddas, 239.
Electra, 164.
Eleusinian Mysteries, 77.
Elves, 250, 251, 252.
Elysium, 174, 104.
Embla, 241.
Ephesus, Temple of, 89.
Epidaurus, 188.
Epimetheus, 124.
Erato, 82.
Erigone, 81.
Erisichthon, 143-4.
Erostratus, 89.
Esus, 258.
Eteocles, 168.
Eumenides, 102.
Euphrosyne, 53.
Euripides, 170, 193, 295.
Europa, 26.
Euryale, 131.
Eurydice, 125.
Eurystheus, 114.
Euterpe, 82.
F.
Fates, 101, 140.
Fauns, 85.
Fenris, 247-8, 255.
Flora, 92.
Fo, 233.
Frey, 244.
Freya, 244.
Frigga, 248, 249.
Frost Giants, 240, 249.
Furies, 101, 201.
G.
Games, Classic, 191.
Ganymede, 43.
Georgics, 148.
Genghis, Kan, 237.
Germanicus, 211.
Geryon, 104, 116.
Giants, 209.
Gnomes, 244, 252.
Gorgons, 47, 132.
Graces, 53.
Gradivus, Mars, 35.
Guatama, 226.
Guebers or Guebres, 220.
H.
Hadrian, 189.
Hæmon, 106.
Halcyone, 138.
Halcyons, 139.
Hamadryades, 90.
Harpies, 104.
Harpocrates, 212.
Hebe, 118.
Hecate, 87.
Hector, 154, 166.
Hecuba, 155.
Heimdall, 245.
Hela, 245, 248, 259.
Helen, 52, 155.
Helenus, 172.
Helicon, Mt., 48, 146.
Hell, 100.
Helle, 119.
Hercules, 31, 77, 114, 191, 192, 195.
Hermione, 166.
Hermod, 249.
Herodotus, 187, 194, 296.
Hesiod, 146, 83.
Hesperides, 116, 130.
Hinnom, 215.
Hippocrene, 48.
Hippolytus, 30.
Hippomenes, 52.
Hodur, 246.
Homer, 145.
Huitzilopotchli, 275.
Hyacinthus, 30.
Hyades, 40, 130.
Hyperboreans, 182, 259.
Hyperion, 158.
I.
Iapetus, 123.
Ibycus, 202.
Icarus, 137, 156.
Ida, Mt., 51, 24, 171.
Iduna, 245.
Iliad, 146.
Inachus, 38.
Incas, 285.
Ino, 97, 119.
Io, 38, 209.
Iole, 117.
Iona, 270.
Iphigenia, 52, 165.
Iphitus, 191, 192.
Iris, 43.
Isis, 38, 210.
Isthmian Games, 196.
Ixion, 103.
Iulus, 175.
J.
Janus, 17, 61, 63.
Jason, 119, 141.
Jobates, 134.
Jocasta, 106.
Jotunheim, 241, 243.
Juggernaut, 224.
Juno, 25, 38, 39, 43, 51, 114, 175.
Jupiter, 17, 19, 23, 131, 159.
Jupiter Ammon, 186.
Justin, (Saint,) 178, 296.
Juvenal, 210, 212, 297.
K.
Kalki, 223.
Krishna, 223.
L.
Labyrinth, 121, 137.
Lachesis, 101.
Laius, 167.
Lama, Grand, 235-7.
Laomedon, 57.
Lao-tze, 228-231.
Lara, 108.
Lares, 108.
Latinus, 174.
Latona, 29, 54.
Lavinia, 174.
Leda, 123.
Lemnos, 64.
Lethe, 101, 104.
Leucothea, 98.
Loki, 247-250, 243, 251, 256.
Lotus-eaters, 158.
Lupercus, 84.
Luxor, 59.
Lycaon, 28.
Lycomedes, 153.
M.
Mæcenas, 147, 297.
Maia, 36.
Mama Oello Huaco, 285.
Manco-Capac, 285.
Mania, 108.
Marathon, 81.
Mars, Ares, 34.
Marsyas, 31.
Medea, 119.
Medusa, 47, 94.
Megæra, 101.
Megalesia, 73.
Meganira, 78.
Meleager, 140.
Melicertes, 97, 196.
Melpomene, 82.
Memnon, 58.
Menelaus, 52.
Menhirs, 271.
Mentor, 146.
Mercury, Hermes, 36, 37.
Mestra, 144.
Metamorphoses, 150.
Metempsychoses, 223.
Mezentius, 175.
Midas, 31.
Midgard serpent, 247.
Minerva, Pallas Athena, 27, 45, 51, 88, 166.
Minos, 102, 121, 142, 137.
Minotaur, 121.
Mistletoe, rite of the, 262.
Mnemosyne, 82.
Moloch, 214.
Momus, 67.
Mona, 270.
Montezuma, 283.
Muses, 48, 82.
N.
Naiades, 90.
Narcissus, 92.
Nemesis, 81.
Neptune, 17, 24, 54, 68, 93, 144.
Nereides, 90.
Nero, 184-90, 127.
Nessus, 117.
Nestor, 141.
Niffleheim, 241, 246.
Niobe, 88, 128.
Nisus, 142.
Norns, 241.
Numa, 63, 110.
Nymphs, 90.
O.
Oannes, 217.
Odin, 240-2, 245-6.
Odyssey, 146, 157.
Oceanus, 87.
Oceanides, 87, 90.
Oedipus, 167, 106.
Oeneus, 140.
Olympiads, 192.
Olympic Games, 191.
Olympus, Mt., 18.
Ops, Rhea, 24.
Oracles, 180.
Oreades, 90.
Orestes, 164.
Orion, 131.
Ormuzd, Ormasdes, 219.
Orpheus, 96, 125.
Osiris, 38, 209.
Ouisneach, 268.
Ovid, 148.
P.
Pachacamac, 284.
Palamedes, 157.
Pales, 92.
Palæmon, 98.
Palladium, 46, 157.
Pan, 31, 84, 184.
Pandora, 124.
Pariahs, 225.
Paris, 51.
Parnassus, Mt., 181, 189, 136.
Parthenon, 207.
Parsees, 220.
Patroclus, 154.
Pausanias, 184.
Pegasus, 48, 135.
Pelasgi, 181, 263, 299.
Peleus, 51, 98, 141, 153.
Pelops, 103.
Penates, 108, 171.
Penelope, 156, 160.
Pentheus, 41.
Perdix, 137.
Periander, 126.
Pericles, 204.
Perseus, 47, 94, 129.
Peru, 284.
Petasus, 36.
Phæton, 33.
Phæacia, 160.
Phoenix, 107.
Phidias, 81, 206.
Philip, 193.
Philoctetes, 118.
Philomelus, 184.
Phineus, 133.
Phorcus or Proteus, 94.
Phryxus, 119.
Pierides, 83.
Pleiades, 130.
Pliny, 139, 299.
Pluto, 24, 76, 99.
Plutus, 100.
Pollux, 123, 141.
Polydectes, 132.
Polybus, 168.
Polydorus, 155.
Polyhymnia, 83.
Polyidus, 135.
Polymnestor, 155.
Polynices, 168.
Polyphemus, 65.
Polyxena, 155.
Pomona, 92.
Pou-tou, 234.
Priests, Aztec, 278.
Priestesses, Aztec, 279.
Priam, 51, 154.
Procris, 56.
Procopius, 269, 302.
Proetus, 137.
Prometheus, 98, 123.
Proserpine, Persephone, 31, 76, 100.
Proteus, 95.
Pulcher, Cl., 179.
Pylades, 164.
Pyrrha, 136.
Pythia, 165, 181.
Pythian Games, 195.
Python, 29, 195.
Q.
Quetzalcoatl, 275.
Quirinus, Mars, 34.
R.
Ragnarok, 254.
Raymi, 289.
Rhadamanthus, 102.
Runic Letters, 258, 263.
S.
Salii, 35.
Salmoneus, 104.
Samhain, 266.
Sâmund Sigfûsson, 239.
Santa Sophia, 90.
Saturnalia, 62.
Saturn, 17, 24, 61.
Satyrs, 85.
Scylla, 96, 142.
Semele, 39.
Sibyls, 176.
Sibyl, Cumæan, 173, 176.
Sifa, 243.
Siguna, 252.
Silenus, 32, 40.
Sirens, 95.
Sisyphus, 103, 134.
Siva, 222.
Skalds, 239.
Solymi, 135.
Sophocles, 170, 304.
Sphinx, 105.
Statues, 206.
Stonehenge, 259, 272.
Strabo, 306.
Strophius, 164.
Styx, 33, 101.
Sudras, 224.
Sylla, 158, 184, 189.
Syrinx, 85.
T.
Tantalus, 88, 103.
Tao-sse, 229.
Tara, 268.
Tarann, 260.
Tarquin, 86, 177.
Tauric festival, 258, 267.
Telamon, 141.
Telemachus, 157, 161.
Terminus, 85.
Tezcatlipoca, 281.
Terpsichore, 82.
Teutates, 259, 266.
Thalia, 53, 83.
Thammuz, 216.
Thamyris, 83.
Theatres, 197.
Themis, 80.
Theseus, 121, 141.
Thetis, 98, 153.
Thor, 242-4.
Thoth, 259.
Thrym, 242-3.
Tisiphone, 101.
Titan, 24.
Tithonus, 57.
Titicaca, 285, 306.
Tityus, 103.
Tlaloc, 281.
Toltecs, 274.
Triads, 259.
Triptolemus, 78.
Tristia, 149.
Triton, 94.
Trophonius, 184.
Tse-tse, 231.
Tuisco, 256.
Turnus, 175.
Typhon, 102, 209.
U.
Ulysses, 46, 154, 156, 96.
Urania, 83.
V.
Valhalla, 242.
Valkyrior, 247.
Varro, 176, 307.
Ve, 240.
Vedas, 221.
Venus, 49, 51, 53, 65, 171.
Vertumnus, 86.
Vesta, 69.
Vestal Virgins, 70.
Vidar, 246.
Vili, 240.
Viracocha, 284.
Virgil, 147.
Virgins of the Sun, 290-1.
Virginia, 111.
Virtues personified, 110.
Vishnu, 222.
Vulcan, Hephæstus, 19, 64, 68, 154.
Vulcania, 65.
Vyasa, 221.
X.
Xerxes, 183.
Y.
Ymir, 240.
Z.
Zend-avesta, 218.
Zenodorus, 260.
Zoroaster, 218.
* * * * * * *
Transcriber's note:
A number of the page numbers in the index are incorrect, generally
only being out by a single page; as such, they have been preserved
as printed.
Archaic and variable spelling is preserved as printed.
Some names include acute accents to indicate pronounciation. The
positioning of these accents has been made consistent where there was
a variation in a few instances. However, other occurrences of the same
name may not include the accent. These have been preserved as printed.
Minor punctuation errors, e.g. omitted periods, have been corrected.
Hyphenation and accent usage have been made consistent where there was
a prevalence of one form over another.
Page 270 contains the following paragraph: "The superstitious
observances which are still practised on November, or All Hallow Eve,
in Ireland, Scotland, and some parts of England, are of pagan origin,
and seem to be relics of this festival." There seems to be a specific
day missing from the reference to November, presumably 'first,'
although All Hallow Eve is generally regarded as being October 31st,
with November 1st being All Hallow, or All Saints Day. As it is
uncertain what precisely the author was referencing, the text is
preserved as printed.
The following amendments have been made to give consistency in the
table of contents or index with the main text:
Page 7--Coeculus amended to Cæculus--"... Cacus--Cæculus ..."
Page 7--Megalecia amended to Megalesia--"... Festival of
Megalesia ..."
Page 11--Ashtaroth amended to Astaroth--"... Astaroth or
Astarte ..."
Page 13--Bealtime amended to Beal-Tinne--"... Beltane or
Beal-Tinne ..."
Page 13--Tetzcatlipoca amended to Tezcatlipoca--"... Victims
offered annually to Tezcatlipoca ..."
Page 309--Ashtaroth amended to Astaroth--"Astaroth, Astarte,
216."
Page 309--Athropos amended to Atropos--"Atropos, 101."
Page 313--Megalecia amended to Megalesia--"Megalesia, 73."
Page 313--Athenæ amended to Athena--"Minerva, Pallas Athena,
27, ..."
Page 315--Vyassa amended to Vyasa--"Vyasa, 221."
The following typographic errors have been corrected:
Page 31--presumptious amended to presumptuous--"The god was
not content with defeating the presumptuous musician, ..."
Page 40--personfication amended to personification--"He seems
to be the personification of drunkenness; ..."
Page 40--where amended to were--"What feasts were held in his
honor?"
Page 46--determed amended to determined--"... they
determined, therefore, to steal the Palladium."
Page 47--because amended to Because--"_Ans._ Because
this bird sees in the dark; ..."
Page 64--were amended to where--"... where he manufactured
Jupiter's thunderbolts, ..."
Page 67--be- amended to before--"... he was enabled to
foretell storms a long time before they happened; ..."
Page 91--refuse amended to refused--"... but refused to
listen to his addresses."
Page 91--repeated 'a' deleted--"... and was immediately
dissolved into a fountain."
Page 98--shipwreek amended to shipwreck--"He was supposed to
have power in saving vessels from shipwreck, ..."
Page 106--Hæman amended to Hæmon--"At length Hæmon, son of
Creon, ..."
Page 203--Iybcus amended to Ibycus--"... the fate of Ibycus
being still on every tongue."
Page 213--of amended to or--"Where was the Sun worshipped
under the name of Baal or Bel ..."
Page 260--excuted amended to executed--"... executed a statue
of Teu´tates ..."
Page 271--ef amended to of--"... extensive groups of menhirs
occur, ..."
Page 280--mearsures amended to measures--"It measures 176
feet in perpendicular height, ..."
Page 302--repect amended to respect--"... to prove that his
reputation in this respect was well deserved."
The following amendments were made to the index:
Page 312--there were two entries for Iphitus (one referencing
p. 192 and incorrectly located before the entry for Ino). The
two have been merged into a single entry in the correct place.
Page 312--Japetus amended to Iapetus, and entry moved to correct
place in index--"Iapetus, 123."
Page 312--Lucothea amended to Leucothea--"Leucothea, 98."
Page 315--page reference for Virgins of the Sun entry
added--"Virgins of the Sun, 290-1."