CHAPTER XLII.

CELEBRATED STATUES.

_Ques._ What are the most celebrated statues of the heathen

divinities?

_Ans._ The Olympian Jupiter, the Apollo Belvidere, the Diana à la

Biche, the Minerva of the Parthenon and the Venus de Medicis.

_Ques._ What was the Olympian Jupiter?

_Ans._ This statue, now lost, was forty feet in height, on a pedestal

of twelve feet. It was considered the finest work of art of the great

Athenian sculptor, Phidias, and there are still in existence busts

taken from it, which are remarkable for their calm majesty of

expression. The material was what the Greeks called chryselephantine;

that is, the flesh was composed of plates of ivory skillfully laid on;

but the drapery and ornaments were pure gold. This circumstance is

sufficient to account for the destruction of the statue. It was

executed for the temple of Jupiter at Olympia, which was worthy of

such an adornment, being one of the most magnificent edifices in

Greece.

_Ques._ Describe the Minerva of the Parthenon?

_Ans._ The statue was of the same dimensions and was composed of the

same materials as the Olympian Jupiter; it was also the work of

Phidias. The Parthenon was one of the most beautiful of the Greek

temples, and was enriched by the hand of Phidias with statues and

other ornaments. This magnificent temple would have been sufficient in

itself to confer immortal glory on the administration of Pericles. It

existed in its full beauty for more than a century after his death. It

was first despoiled by Lachares, who stripped the statue of Minerva of

its golden adornments. It is said he obtained in this manner an amount

of precious metal equal to nearly half a million of dollars. The

temple itself resisted the attacks of time; it was used successively

as a Christian church and a Turkish mosque, and was still entire when

the Venetians besieged the citadel of Athens in the year 1687. The

Turks converted the Parthenon into a powder magazine; it was

unfortunately struck by a bomb, and the entire edifice was reduced to

its present ruinous condition. Some of the sculptures and bas-reliefs

which once adorned this temple may now be seen in the British Museum.

They are called "Elgin Marbles," because they were brought from Greece

by Lord Elgin.

_Ques._ Describe the Venus de Medicis?

_Ans._ This statue, still perfect, is so called from having been in

the possession of the Medicis family. An inscription on its base

informs us that it was carved by Cleomenes, an Athenian sculptor, 200

B. C. The artist has succeeded in producing a figure quite perfect in

form; but there is nothing spiritual about the Venus, which is,

therefore, far inferior to the Jupiter and Minerva.

_Ques._ Describe the Apollo Belvidere?

_Ans._ This statue is so called from the Belvidere gallery of the

Pope's palace. The artist is unknown, but it is believed to be a Roman

work. The god is represented as having just discharged an arrow from

his bow against the monster Python. The form and attitude are perfect,

but the face is particularly admired for its expression of majesty and

power.

_Ques._ Describe the Diana à la Biche?

_Ans._ This beautiful statue, now at the Louvre, is considered the

counterpart of the Apollo. The goddess is engaged in the chase, and a

hind is running by her side. One hand is lifted to draw an arrow from

the quiver.

PART II.

CHAPTER I.

Egyptian Divinities.

OSIRIS--APIS--SERAPIS--ISIS--ANUBIS--HARPOCRATES.

_Ques._ Who was Osiris?

_Ans._ Osiris, Apis and Serapis, are three different names of one and

the same god. Osiris was the son of Jupiter and of Niobe, the daughter

of Phoroneus. He conquered Egypt, which he governed so well and wisely

as to receive divine honors from his subjects even during his life. He

married, as we have already learned, Io, the daughter of Inachus, who

was more generally known to the Egyptians by the name of Isis.

Osiris was cruelly murdered by his brother Typhon. Isis, after a long

search, found his body, which she laid in a monument in an island near

Memphis. Osiris became from that time the tutelar deity of the

Egyptians. He was regarded as identical with the sun, while Isis was

supposed, like Cybele, to personify the earth.

_Ques._ How was this goddess represented?

_Ans._ As a woman with the horns of a cow, sometimes, also, as crowned

with lotus. Heads of Isis are common among the decorations of Egyptian

temples. After the worship of this goddess was introduced into Rome,

her image was adorned with different emblems. The mysterious rites of

Isis became a cloak for much secret vice, and were repeatedly

forbidden at Rome. Tiberius caused the images of the goddess to be

thrown into the Tiber; her worship was, however, afterwards revived.

The abuses attending it are mentioned with indignation by the poet

Juvenal.

_Ques._ Who was Apis?

_Ans._ He was the sacred bull of Memphis. The Egyptians maintained

that the soul of Osiris passed after death into the body of Apis; and

that as often as the sacred animal died, the soul passed into the body

of its successor.

Sacrifices were offered to this strange divinity; his birth-day was

celebrated with great magnificence, and it was believed that during

this festival the crocodiles forgot their usual ferocity, and became

harmless. A temple, two chapels, and a court for exercise, were

assigned to this god, whose food was always served in vessels of gold.

It may be doubted whether the poor animal was capable of appreciating

these extraordinary honors; he was not permitted, however, to enjoy

them beyond a stated period. If he attained the age of twenty-five

years, he was drowned by the attendant priests in the sacred cistern;

his body was then carefully embalmed, and buried in the temple of

Serapis.

On the death of Apis, whether it occurred in the course of nature or

by violence, the whole country was plunged into mourning, which lasted

until his successor was found. The animal into whom the divinity had

passed, was known by many extraordinary marks; a square white spot on

the forehead, the figure of an eagle on the back, a white crescent on

the right side, and the mark of a beetle under the tongue. The priests

always succeeded in finding an animal with these extraordinary marks,

and the happy event was immediately celebrated throughout Egypt.

_Ques._ How did the people obtain replies from the oracle of Apis?

_Ans._ By various signs: the votary having proposed a question,

offered food to the sacred animal; if he ate, it was considered a

favorable omen. It was also a good augury if he entered, of his own

accord, a particular stall. When Germanicus offered food to Apis, the

animal refused to eat, and this circumstance was afterwards considered

as ominous of the early fate of the Roman prince.

_Ques._ Who was Harpocrates?

_Ans._ Horus or Harpocrates was the son of Osiris. He was worshipped

as the god of Silence, and is represented as a boy, seated on a

lotus-flower, with his finger on his lips.

Besides the gods we have mentioned, the Egyptians worshipped the dog,

the wolf, the crocodile, the ibis, and many other animals. They even

attributed divinity to certain plants and roots. Juvenal, in one of

his Satires, thus ridicules their superstition:

Who has not heard where Egypt's realms are nam'd

What monster gods her frantic sons have fram'd?

Here Ibis gorged with well-grown serpents, there

The Crocodile commands religious fear:

Where Memnon's statue magic strains inspire

With vocal sounds that emulate the lyre;

And Thebes, such, Fate, are thy disastrous turns,

Now prostrate o'er her pompous ruins mourns

A monkey-god, prodigious to be told!

Strikes the beholder's eye with burnish'd gold:

To godship here blue Triton's scaly herd,

The river progeny is there preferr'd:

Through towns Diana's power neglected lies,

Where to her dogs aspiring temples rise!

And should you leeks or onions eat, no time

Would expiate the sacrilegious crime.

Religious nations sure, and blest abodes,

Where every orchard is o'er-run with gods.

CHAPTER II.

EASTERN MYTHOLOGY.

Deities of the Assyrians.

BAAL, OR BEL--MOLOCH.

_Ques._ Who were these divinities?

_Ans._ The names Baal and Moloch seem to have been, at first,

different appellations of the Sun; later they assumed another

signification, and were applied to distinct deities.

_Ques._ Where was the Sun worshipped under the name of Baal or Bel

(the Lord)?

_Ans._ In Babylon. The famous tower of Babel or Belus, was there

devoted to his worship, although the highest apartment of the edifice

served also as an observatory, and was the repository of the most

ancient astronomical observations. Some writers have imagined that the

Chaldeans and Babylonians worshipped Nimrod under the name of Belus,

but it is generally believed that with these nations, and the ancient

Canaanites, this was one of the many appellations of the Sun.

_Ques._ What proof have we of the popularity of this god among the

Phoenicians and Carthaginians?

_Ans._ In their proper names; as among the former, Eth_baal_,

Jerub_baal_; among the latter, Hanni_bal_, Asdru_bal_.

_Ques._ By whom was the worship of Baal introduced among the

Israelites?

_Ans._ By King Achab or Ahab. They offered human sacrifices to Baal in

groves, or high places, and on the terraces of their houses. Jeremias

reproaches the Jews with building "the high places of Baalim, to burn

their children with fire for a holocaust to Baalim." This text shows

the extent to which the apostate Hebrews carried this abominable

worship.

MOLOCH.

_Ques._ Who was Moloch?

_Ans._ He was a divinity of the Ammonites. The Phoenicians were also

particularly devoted to his worship. Young children and infants were

offered as holocausts to this cruel god. These horrid sacrifices were

most frequent in Carthage. When the Sicilian Agathocles threatened

that city, we are told that five hundred infants, many the first-born

of noble parents, were consumed in one day on the altar of Moloch.

_Ques._ How was this god represented?

_Ans._ By a brazen image, which was so contrived that when a child

was laid upon its extended arms, they were lowered, and the little

victim immediately fell into the fiery furnace placed at the foot of

the idol.

_Ques._ Was Moloch worshipped by the Jews?

_Ans._ Yes; it would seem that they were addicted to this idolatry

before their departure from Egypt, since Moses in many places forbids

the Israelites, under pain of death, to dedicate their children to

Moloch, by passing them through fire. Solomon built a temple for his

worship on the Mount of Olives. Later human sacrifices were offered to

him in the valley of Hinnom, called also Tophet, which lay to the east

of Jerusalem.

_Ques._ Where does Milton refer to this god?

_Ans._ Assuming that the demons or fallen angels received the worship

of men, under the names of different heathen divinities, he thus

describes Moloch amid the host of Satan:

"First, Moloch, horrid king, besmear'd with blood

Of human sacrifice, and parents' tears;

Though, for the noise of drums and timbrels loud,

Their children's cries unheard, that passed through fire,

To his grim idol. Him the Ammonite

Worshipp'd in Rabba and her watery plain,

In Argob and in Basan, to the stream

Of utmost Arnon; nor content with such

Audacious neighborhood, the wisest heart

Of Solomon he led by fraud to build

His temple right against the temple of God,

On that opprobrious hill: and made his grove

The pleasant valley of Hinnom, Tophet thence

And black Gehenna call'd, the type of Hell."

_Ques._ Who was Astaroth?

_Ans._ This goddess, called by the Greeks Astarte, represented the

moon, in the same manner as Baal was held to be identical with the

sun. The Hebrews always connected the worship of these two divinities.

According to Cicero, Astarte was the Syrian Venus, and it is certain

that in her worship, and the festivals celebrated in her honor, there

is some foundation for this idea. Where human sacrifices were offered

to Baal, wheaten cakes, wine and perfumes were laid upon the altar of

Astaroth.

Notwithstanding these more innocent offerings, her worship was

rendered infamous by the license which prevailed during these

festivals, and the open immorality practised by her votaries.

THAMMUZ.

_Ques._ Who was Thammuz?

_Ans._ This was another name for Adonis, whose story is of Eastern

origin. His death, which we have already referred to in connection

with the goddess Venus, is said to have taken place in the mountains

of Libanus, from which the river Adonis flows to the sea. The Assyrian

women mourned for him in the autumn-time. It was believed that at this

season the river changed its color, and ran red, as if tinged with

blood. To this Milton alludes:

"Thammuz came next behind,

Whose annual wound in Lebanon allured

The Syrian damsels to lament his fate

In amorous ditties all a summer's day;

While smooth Adonis from his native rock

Ran purple to the sea, supposed with blood

Of Thammuz yearly wounded."

The prophet Ezekiel, in relating the iniquities committed in

Jerusalem, says that he saw women sitting by the north gate of the

temple, who mourned for Adonis. (In the Hebrew, Thammuz.)

OANNES.

_Ques._ Who was Oannes?

_Ans._ He was a god of the Assyrians, half man, half fish, who was

said to dwell in the sea, from which he came at stated times, to

instruct the Babylonians in wisdom and science. Oannes is the Dagon of

the Philistines.

CHAPTER III.

PERSIA.

_Ques._ What was the religion of the ancient Persians?

_Ans._ We derive our knowledge of their religion principally from

their Zend-avesta, or Sacred Book.

_Ques._ What does the Zend-avesta contain?

_Ans._ The doctrines of Zoroaster, an Eastern sage, who is thought to

have lived in Bactria about twelve hundred years before our era.

_Ques._ Was the Zend-avesta written by Zoroaster?

_Ans._ But a small portion, if any, of the Sacred Books were written

by him, but the most ancient passages, which are in verse, were

probably written soon after his time, when the knowledge of his

doctrines was still preserved. The Parsees, or modern followers of

Zoroaster, now scattered through India, say that the Zend-avesta

formerly consisted of twenty-one books, but that the greater part were

lost in the troubled times that followed the conquest of Persia by

Alexander the Great.

_Ques._ What is the form of the Zend-avesta?

_Ans._ It is in the form of a dialogue, in which Ormuzd, the supreme

deity, replies to the inquiries of Zoroaster, and teaches him his will

with regard to his creatures.

_Ques._ What were the doctrines of Zoroaster?

_Ans._ This philosopher was more enlightened than his contemporaries,

and was probably acquainted with primitive tradition. He taught the

existence of one supreme Being called "the Eternal," who created two

other mighty beings, and imparted to them a portion of his own eternal

divinity.

_Ques._ Who were these deities?

_Ans._ Ormuzd, or Oromasdes, who remained faithful and pure, governs

the world with all the attributes which are given to the true God.

Ahriman, on the contrary, uses all his energies for evil; and is, in

all respects, considered as a sort of independent demon, endowed with

infinite and untiring malice.

_Ques._ What part did each of these divinities take in the creation?

_Ans._ Ormuzd created men and angels, the sun, moon and stars, and

everything which can contribute to the welfare or pleasure of his

creatures. Ahriman created the wild beasts, poisonous serpents, etc.,

and sent diseases, earthquakes and storms. The Persians thus believed

in two independent principles, one of good, and one of evil, but they

worshipped only the first.

_Ques._ Did they not worship the sun?

_Ans._ They probably did in later times, but the early followers of

Zoroaster reverenced the sun and fire as emblems of Ormuzd. Perpetual

fire was kept burning on their altars. The Parsees of Hindostan say

that they have sacred fire which has never been extinguished since the

time of Zoroaster. All the sacred fires were originally lit from that

which Zoroaster brought from heaven. The Guebres, as these people are

sometimes called, often built their temples over subterranean fires.

_Ques._ Is there any such fire now reverenced by them?

_Ans._ Yes, near the town of Bakoo in Georgia, on the Caspian Sea,

there is a perpetual flame issuing from a limestone rock. It is

watched by priests, and is much venerated by the surrounding tribes.

Pilgrimages are made to this sacred fire from all parts of Asia.

_Ques._ What is the cause of this phenomenon?

_Ans._ Bakoo and the surrounding country abound in naphtha and

petroleum. The sacred fire is simply a jet of inflammable gas escaping

from the rocks, which, once lit, burns perpetually, as the supply is

inexhaustible.

_Ques._ Were the Persians attached to magical arts?

_Ans._ Yes, their priests mingled the fables of astrology with their

astronomical learning; hence, from the word magi, is derived our word

magician.

_Ques._ Where did the Persians offer their sacrifices?

_Ans._ Generally on the tops of lofty mountains.

_Ques._ When was the religion of Zoroaster suppressed in Persia?

_Ans._ After the conquest of Persia, by the Arabs, which took place in

the seventh century, those who refused to embrace the Koran fled to

Hindostan, where they still exist under the name of Parsees. At Bombay

they are an active, intelligent and wealthy class.

CHAPTER IV.

Hindoo Mythology.

BRAHMA--THE VEDAS.

_Ques._ What are the Vedas?

_Ans._ The Vedas are the Sacred Books of the Hindoos, and are much

reverenced by them. They maintain that they were composed by Brahma,

the Supreme Deity, at the creation.

_Ques._ When do the Hindoos think that the world was created?

_Ans._ At an incredibly remote period; they say the present

arrangement of the Vedas was made by a sage named Vyasa, some five

thousand years ago.

_Ques._ What is the more correct opinion?

_Ans._ That they were written in the second thousand years before our

era, a little later, probably, than the Books of Moses.

_Ques._ Had the Hindoos then conquered the country which now bears

their name?

_Ans._ No; they were only crossing the borders of India.

_Ques._ In what form are the Vedas written?

_Ans._ In poetry. The principal Veda contains ten thousand double

verses. These works are heavy and uninteresting, but very important to

historians.

_Ques._ Why so?

_Ans._ Because they throw light on the early history of the Indian and

European races.

_Ques._ What do the Vedas teach of God?

_Ans._ They teach one supreme deity, called Brahma, and like the

Persians seem to have some idea of the Trinity, speaking of Brahma,

Vishnu, and Siva, as one God. The modern Hindoos, however, worship

them as distinct divinities.

_Ques._ What are the offices of these gods?

_Ans._ Brahma created all things, Vishnu preserves them, and when the

end of the world is come, which the Vedas say will occur in about

twelve million years, Siva will destroy them.

_Ques._ What is there peculiar in the history of Vishnu?

_Ans._ His Avatars, or incarnations, which are numerous, but ten are

more especially celebrated.

_Ques._ What was the first Avatar?

_Ans._ The first Avatar was when Vishnu assumed the form of a fish,

and saved Manu, the father of the human race, from a universal deluge.

_Ques._ What is the ninth Avatar?

_Ans._ In the ninth Avatar, Vishnu appeared in the form of Krishna, a

sort of Indian Apollo; the last of the Sacred Books is that which

contains the life of Krishna.

_Ques._ What is there remarkable about this life?

_Ans._ So many circumstances closely resemble corresponding events in

the life of our Saviour, that it is impossible the coincidence should

be accidental. It is supposed this book was written after our era by

some one who had heard imperfect accounts of the life of our Lord.

_Ques._ What is to be the tenth Avatar?

_Ans._ The tenth Avatar is called Kalki, in which Vishnu will come to

judge the world, destroying the wicked and rewarding the good.

_Ques._ What do you say of Siva?

_Ans._ Siva, or Mahadeva, as he is more generally called, has a vast

number of followers. His worshippers and those of Vishnu form two

distinct sects. Brahma, having finished his work, has but one temple

in India. It is doubtful whether the worshippers of Juggernaut belong

to the sect of Vishnu, or of Siva.

_Ques._ What do the Hindoos believe of the soul?

_Ans._ They think that every soul is a part of Brahma, as a spark is a

part of the fire, and that finally all souls will be absorbed into

Brahma, as drops of water are lost in the ocean. They also believe in

metempsychosis.

_Ques._ What is metempsychosis?

_Ans._ The transmigration of souls. The Hindoos believe that if a man

lead a pure life, his soul will pass, after death, into another human

body, but that if he has been wicked, it will enter into the body of

some unclean animal. They think the soul will transmigrate many times

before being finally united to Brahma. This belief makes many of the

Hindoos afraid to kill animals for food, lest they may possess human

souls, and be perhaps their own friends or relations.

_Ques._ What are Castes?

_Ans._ They are different classes into which the Hindoos have been

divided from the earliest times.

_Ques._ How many castes are there?

_Ans._ Four; the Brahmins or priests, who sprung from the head of

Brahma; the Warrior caste, which issued from his arms; the

Agriculturists and Traders, who came from his thighs, and lastly, the

Sudras, or laborers, who sprung from his feet.

_Ques._ Is there much distinction between the castes?

_Ans._ Yes; they cannot under any circumstances intermarry; nor can a

member of a lower caste ever pass to a higher. Only, if he lead a good

life, he may console himself with the hope of being born in a higher

caste the next time.

_Ques._ Is there any caste lower than the Sudras?

_Ans._ No regular caste, but there exists a most unhappy race called

Pariahs, who are treated with the utmost contempt, and employed only

in the vilest offices. They cannot enter the house of any one

belonging to a pure caste, and they are not only unclean themselves,

but are supposed to contaminate everything they touch. Different

accounts are given as to the origin of these Pariahs.

_Ques._ Are the Hindoos allowed to eat flesh?

_Ans._ The three higher castes are forbidden it altogether. The Sudras

may eat every kind but beef, but the Pariahs are under no restriction

whatever. The idea seems to be that they are so vile that no kind of

food could pollute them.

_Ques._ Are the castes ancient?

_Ans._ So much so, that it is impossible to say when they were first

established. The Pariahs are being gradually raised from their

degradation by the efforts of Christian missionaries.

BUDDHA.

_Ques._ Who was Buddha?

_Ans._ Buddha is said by the Vedas to have been a delusive incarnation

of Vishnu, but his followers give a different account.

_Ques._ What do they say?

_Ans._ They say that he was a mortal sage, called Guatama, and also

Buddha, or the Wise.

_Ques._ When did Buddha live?

_Ans._ We cannot ascertain exactly, but it is probable he was a

contemporary of Solomon--that is, he lived about one thousand years

before our era. He was the son of a king, and was distinguished by

wisdom, virtue and every personal gift. He was so disgusted with the

wickedness of men, that he retired into a desert place, where he spent

six years in prayer and meditation. At the end of this time, he began

his career as a religious teacher. He preached first in Benares, but

his doctrines were received with so much favor that he lived to see

them spread over all India. Buddha died at the age of eighty.

_Ques._ Was Buddhism tolerated by the Brahmins?

_Ans._ It appears that for several centuries it was, and that it

extended to Ceylon, and the Eastern peninsula.

_Ques._ What are the doctrines of the Buddhists?

_Ans._ They reject the Vedas altogether, and the religious observances

prescribed in them. They allow animal food, and acknowledge no

distinction of castes. Bloody sacrifices are prohibited. One of the

duties of a priest of Buddha is to study the medicinal properties of

plants in order to benefit his fellow men. We may see, therefore, that

Buddha had more reasonable and humane ideas than those who composed

the Vedas, and that he was probably a true sage among his people.

_Ques._ Is Buddhism common in India?

_Ans._ No; after being tolerated for a long time, a fierce and

continued persecution was raised against it. This had the effect of

suppressing the sect almost entirely in India, and of spreading it in

the adjacent countries.

_Ques._ When was the worship of Buddha first introduced into China?

_Ans._ About the year 65 of our era. From China it spread to Corea,

Japan and Java.

In Japan, Buddhism has, to a great extent, supplanted the Sinto

religion, the ancient faith of Japan. The word Sinto signifies spirit

worship; the priests of this sect teach that the world is governed by

an infinite number of spirits. The chief of these animates the sun;

others rule the moon, stars, and different elements.

The worship of the sun is the most important exterior part of their

religion, and the Japanese were so much attached to this form of

idolatry, that the Buddhists have incorporated it with their own

rites.

CHAPTER V.

CHINA.

_Ques._ Is Buddhism universally followed in China?

_Ans._ There is, strictly speaking, no state or national religion in

China, but all forms of worship are tolerated, unless they are

considered politically dangerous. Among the pagan Chinese three

principal religions are admitted, which are now considered equally

good, although there were formerly bitter wars between their

followers.

_Ques._ What are these?

_Ans._ The first, of which Confucius is in some sort the founder, is

called the "Doctrine of the Lettered;" the second is regarded by its

professors as the primitive religion of the ancient inhabitants of

China. The priests are called Tao-sse, or Doctors of Reason, from the

principal doctrine of their great teacher, Lao-tze, who considered

primordial reason as the creator of all things. The third religion is

Buddhism, which, as we have seen, was introduced into China in the

first century of our era.

_Ques._ Who was Confucius?

_Ans._ Confucius is the Latinized name of a philosopher whom the

Chinese call Kung-fu-tse, (Reverend Master Kung). He was born in the

year 551 B. C., and died in 479; eleven years before Socrates was

born. Confucius was carefully educated in virtue and learning by his

widowed mother. At her death he retired, according to Chinese custom,

for the appointed three years of mourning. During this time, he

devoted himself to the study of ancient writers, and noticing how

completely the morality of the old sages was forgotten in China, he

determined to restore their usages and doctrines. After careful

preparation, he set himself up as a teacher, and his disciples were

soon numbered by tens of thousands. Confucius travelled through the

neighboring countries, preaching wherever he went; he was at one time

prime minister of the empire, but his last years were spent in

retirement with some chosen disciples. We read that he paid a visit to

Lao-tze, and was so confounded by the sublime wisdom of that

philosopher, that on his return home he remained three days buried in

profound thought, refusing to speak, or answer any of the questions

put to him by his disciples. Confucius enjoyed unbounded popularity

during life, but the honors paid to him after death, have no parallel

in history. His tablet is in every school in China and both master and

pupils are required to prostrate themselves before it at the beginning

and end of each class. Every town has a temple erected in his honor,

and his statue is to be found in every literary institution. Confucius

left one grandson, Tse-tse, whose descendants constitute the only

hereditary nobility in China. In the seventeenth century, they

numbered eleven thousand males.

_Ques._ What were the doctrines of Confucius?

_Ans._ This philosopher did not originate any religious creed: he was

simply a teacher of morality. It is thought, from many passages in his

writings, that he believed in one Omnipotent God. He does not,

however, inculcate any such doctrine, nor does he ever speak of any

future reward as a motive for virtuous actions. Filial piety and other

social and domestic virtues are strongly inculcated. It would be well

for the Chinese of the present day, if their conduct corresponded to

the maxims of their great teacher, whose morality, though often

defective, contains much that is to be admired. It is a proof, if any

were needed, that human motives are too weak to have any lasting

influence on the passions of men; and the Chinese, particularly the

followers of Confucius, seem to have lost even the last traces of

natural religion.

_Ques._ Why then do they persevere in his worship?

_Ans._ The honors paid to Confucius, as well as to the souls of their

ancestors, constitute an external religion for official persons and

literary men. There seems to be no sort of belief connected with

these observances.

_Ques._ What difficulties did this cause among the Christian

missionaries?

_Ans._ Some of these missionaries believed that the honors paid to

Confucius were purely civil observances; and that the worship of the

souls of deceased relations, the oblations made at their tombs, etc.,

were simply national customs to which no superstitious idea was

attached. As they were assured of this by the most learned men of the

Empire, they permitted the newly converted Chinese to continue these

observances. Others, however, considered that, among the ignorant,

these rites always degenerated into superstition, and often into

idolatry. The dispute was referred to Rome, and after a careful

inquiry, the latter opinion prevailed; the rites in honor of

Confucius, together with the worship of ancestors, were forbidden to

the Chinese Christians.

_Ques._ Who was Lao-tze?

_Ans._ He was a Chinese philosopher, contemporary with Confucius. With

regard to his life and actions, many absurd and impossible things are

related. His name, Lao-tze, means 'Old Child;' and the Chinese say

this appellation was given him because he was born already old, and

with gray hair. The followers of Lao-tze believe in a spiritual world,

in spiritual manifestations, and in the transmigration of souls. This

doctrine is called the religion of Tao, or Reason. The priests are

now only cheats and jugglers, living on the superstition of the

people, to whom they sell charms and spells.

Notwithstanding the degraded character of his followers, the writings

of Lao-tze prove that he was a true sage, a man of noble and elevated

ideas. He has been compared favorably with Plato, and some have

claimed that the Chinese philosopher travelled as far west as Athens.

Be this as it may, it is certain Lao-tze spent some time in Persia and

Syria. The Ten Tribes had just been dispersed over Asia by the

conquests of Salmanasar; and it is not possible that a sage so eager

in the pursuit of religious knowledge, should have failed to learn

something of the ancient prophecies and the Mosaic law.

_Ques._ What did Lao-tze teach with regard to God?

_Ans._ In his writings he declares plainly that the world was erected

by a threefold divinity. His followers, however, like the rest of the

Chinese, have no definite idea of God.

_Ques._ What class of Chinese follow the doctrines of Buddha, or Fo?

_Ans._ At present the Chinese Buddhists belong principally to the

lower classes. Formerly this religion was in higher repute, but the

magnificent temples of Buddha are now going gradually to decay, and

there seems no prospect that any attempt will be made to restore them.

The Bonzes, or Buddhist priests, are ignorant and degraded, and are

allowed to live in the greatest poverty. They are not permitted to

marry; to keep up their numbers they buy young children, who may be

had in China for a few sapecks, and these are trained for the service

of Buddha. These Bonzes have sunk so low in public estimation, that

they are often hired to perform inferior parts on the stage.

_Ques._ Where is the most celebrated temple of Buddha?

_Ans._ In Pou-tou, an island in the Archipelago of Chusan. This temple

retains many traces of its former magnificence, and is particularly

remarkable for a triple statue of Buddha. There are three gigantic

figures, richly gilt, which represent the divinity in the past, the

present and the future. In this temple is a hall dedicated to the

Goddess of Porcelain, and every part of the edifice is crowded with

hideous idols of the lesser divinities.

_Ques._ What is the general feeling of the Chinese on religious

subjects?

_Ans._ They are entirely indifferent, and have but a vague idea of the

existence of anything beyond the present life. This indifference is

the greatest obstacle with which the Christian missionaries have to

contend in China.

_Ques._ Do the Chinese ever argue among themselves on points of

belief?

_Ans._ Never. When Chinese, who are strangers to each other, meet, a

polite formula is to ask "To what sublime religion do you belong?"

Then one will call himself a Buddhist, another a follower of

Confucius, etc., upon which politeness requires that each one should

speak slightingly of his own religion, and praise the sect to which he

does not belong. These compliments end by all repeating in chorus a

proverbial phrase to the effect that all men are brothers, and

religions are of no consequence.

_Ques._ If such total indifference prevails in China, on the subject

of religion, how does it happen that Christianity should be so

severely persecuted?

_Ans._ This arises partly from the political fears of the Chinese

government, and its jealousy of strangers. The missionaries are, of

course, foreigners, and it is natural that the emperors should imagine

them to be working in the interest of the great western nations whose

power they so much fear. There are other reasons; the purity of

Christian morals has been always a reproach to pagan society, and the

spirit of darkness never fails to rouse the prejudices and passions of

men against the progress of the faith. In ancient Rome, where the

idols and superstitions of every conquered nation found a ready

welcome, Christianity obtained a foothold only after three centuries

of persecution.

CHAPTER VI.

Thibet.

THE GRAND LAMA.

_Ques._ What is the prevailing religion of Thibet?

_Ans._ Buddhism prevails in Thibet and Tartary. The people of these

countries are more thoughtful than the Chinese, and more earnest with

regard to religious matters. Their priests, called Lamas, live

together in large communities. They are given to study, and their

dwellings, or Lamaseries, often contain large and valuable libraries.

Many of the Lamas are addicted to demon worship and sorcery, but these

are generally looked upon with aversion by the more virtuous among

their brethren.

_Ques._ Who is the Grand Lama?

_Ans._ He is a sort of High Priest of Buddhism residing in Lassa, the

capital of Thibet; he is invested with an entirely supernatural

character.

_Ques._ How is this?

_Ans._ The Buddhists believe that the confinement of the soul in a

human body is a state of misery, and the punishment of sins committed

in a former state of existence. They maintain, however, that pure

spirits, from time to time, assume our human nature voluntarily, in

order to promote the welfare of mankind. Such are the Lamas, and since

the victories of Genghis Kan in the East, the Lama residing in Thibet

has been considered the Chief Pontiff of his sect, and a perpetual

incarnation of Buddha. He is also a temporal sovereign, although he is

controlled by the Chinese government.

_Ques._ How is the line perpetuated?

_Ans._ When the Lama dies, his soul enters immediately into the body

of some child, so that he is simply said to transmigrate.

_Ques._ How is the child discovered?

_Ans._ This is an affair of some difficulty, but the inferior Lamas

always succeed in finding the hidden divinity. The child into whom

they supposed the Lama's soul has entered, is required to remember the

most private acts of the Lama's life, to recognize, as familiar

objects, the articles which he was accustomed to use, etc. The

children thus examined have sometimes answered in so extraordinary a

manner that many have supposed Satan was permitted to aid in the

imposture.

CHAPTER VII.

MYTHOLOGY OF SCANDINAVIA.

_Ques._ What does this mythology include?

_Ans._ The ancient superstitions of that portion of Northern Europe

now known as Sweden, Norway, Denmark and Iceland.

_Ques._ What is the general character of Scandinavian mythology?

_Ans._ It has none of the grace and poetic beauty which characterize

the fables of Greece and Rome; and it differs equally from the more

mystical superstitions of the Persians and Hindoos. In warm and

fertile regions, the temper, even of the barbarian, is softened into

harmony with the scenes around him, and his superstitions, though

still sensual, are more gentle and refined. On the other hand, the

wild and rugged North made its own impress on the Scandinavian tribes,

and their superstitions were gloomy and extravagant, with sometimes an

element of savage grandeur and sublimity.

_Ques._ Was this mythology transmitted by oral tradition only?

_Ans._ This must have been the case for a long time; as the oldest of

the Eddas was compiled only in the eleventh century, and the stories

which it contains of the Northern gods and heroes, had been long

familiar to the people in the recitations of their bards. The

Scandinavian Skalds or bards were, like the Celtic, historians as well

as minstrels.

_Ques._ Who composed the Eddas?

_Ans._ It is impossible to say. The oldest, or poetic Edda, was

compiled by Sâmund Sigfûsson, an Icelandic priest, about the middle of

the eleventh century. He was educated in France and Germany, and spent

some time in Rome before his return to Iceland. He was induced to

compile the Edda, principally, it would seem, from a patriotic desire

of preserving the ancient legends of his race. The word Edda means

ancestress, and it is so called because it is considered the mother of

Icelandic poetry. The Sagas were written in Denmark and the

Scandinavian peninsula.

_Ques._ What account do the Eddas give of the creation?

_Ans._ They say that in the beginning, there was neither heaven nor

earth, but a world of mist, in which flowed a mysterious fountain.

Twelve rivers issued from this fountain, and when they had flowed far

from their source, froze into ice, which, gradually accumulating, the

great deep was filled up. Southward from the world of mist, was the

world of light. From this a warm wind flowed upon the ice, and melted

it. The vapors rose in the air and formed clouds, from which sprung

the Frost Giant and his progeny; also the cow Audhumbla, by whose milk

the giant was nourished. The Frost Giants were the enemies of gods and

men. From the ice of the lower deep a god arose, who married a

daughter of the giants, and became the father of three sons, Odin,

Vili and Ve. These slew the giant Ymir, and out of his body formed the

earth on which we live. His bones were changed into mountains, his

hair into trees; of his skull they made the heavens, and of his brain,

clouds charged with hail and snow. Odin next regulated the days and

seasons by placing the sun and moon in the heavens, and appointing

them their respective courses. As soon as the sun shed its rays upon

the earth, the plants and trees began to bud and sprout. The three

gods walked by the side of the sea, admiring their new creation, but

seeing that it was uninhabited, they resolved to create man. Aske and

Embla, the first man and woman, were therefore formed, the man out of

an ash, and the woman out of an alder. They were the parents of the

whole human race.

_Ques._ What idea had the ancient Scandinavians of the form of the

earth?

_Ans._ Their notions on the subject were childish in the extreme. They

thought that the ash tree Ygdrasill, supported the entire universe.

This tree had three roots, one of which extended into Asgard, the

dwelling-place of the gods; another into Jotunheim, the abode of the

giants; and a third into Niffleheim, the region of darkness and cold.

Under the tree lies Ymir, and his efforts to throw off the weight

cause earthquakes. The root that extends into Asgard is carefully

tended by three Norns, who correspond to the Fates of Greek mythology.

Asgard could only be entered by crossing the bridge Bifrost, (the

rainbow).

_Ques._ Describe Asgard.

_Ans._ It contained gold and silver palaces, the dwellings of the

gods, but the most famous and beautiful of these was Valhalla, the

residence of Odin. This god is represented as seated on a throne which

overlooks all heaven and earth. On his shoulders sit the ravens, Hugin

and Munin, who fly every day over the whole world, and on their return

report to him all that they have seen. At Odin's feet lie two wolves,

to whom he gives all the meat that is set before him, as he himself

stands in no need of food. Mead is for him both food and drink.

_Ques._ How is Odin's name sometimes written?

_Ans._ Woden; and from this comes the name of the fourth day of the

week, Woden's day, changed to Wednesday.

_Ques._ Has Odin any other name?

_Ans._ He was sometimes called Alfâdur, (All father,) but this name is

occasionally used in a way that seems to prove that the Scandinavians

had an idea of a divinity superior to Odin, Uncreated and Eternal.

_Ques._ What were the delights of Valhalla, and who were permitted to

enjoy them?

_Ans._ None were admitted to Valhalla but heroes who had fallen in

battle. Women, children, and all who had died a peaceful death, were

excluded as unworthy. The joys of Valhalla consisted in eating,

drinking and fighting. They feasted on the flesh of the boar

Schrimnir, which was cooked every day, and became whole again every

night. The goat Heidrun supplied them with never-failing draughts of

mead, which they drank from the skulls of their slaughtered enemies.

For pastime, they fought, and cut one another to pieces. When the hour

of feasting came, they recovered from their wounds, and were whole as

before.

THOR.

_Ques._ Who was Thor?

_Ans._ He was Odin's eldest son, and was god of thunder. His mighty

strength depended upon three things--his hammer, his belt of strength,

and his iron gloves. The giants at one time obtained his hammer, and

he was obliged to use a very singular stratagem to recover it.

_Ques._ What was this?

_Ans._ Thor was most anxious to recover his hammer, but the giant

Thrym had buried it eight fathoms deep under the rocks of Jotunheim.

Loki undertook to negotiate with Thrym; but the giant demanded the

hand of the goddess Freya, and refused to restore the hammer on any

other terms. Thor was much troubled, as he knew how vain it was to

expect that the bright goddess of love and song would consent to dwell

in the dismal regions of Jotunheim. The artful Loki proposed that Thor

should array himself in the garments of Freya, and accompany him to

the abode of the Frost Giants. Thor consented, and Thrym welcomed his

veiled bride with great joy, attributing her silence to a modest

reserve. He was much surprised, however, to see her eat for supper

eight salmons, besides a full grown ox and other delicacies, washing

down the repast with proportionate draughts of mead. Loki bade him not

to wonder at this, as her thoughts had been so much occupied by her

approaching nuptials that she had not eaten for many days. When Thrym

was startled by the fiery eyes he saw gleaming from beneath the bridal

veil, Loki again made an excuse which satisfied him, so he brought the

hammer, and laid it on the lap of the supposed bride. Thor seized the

weapon, and finding his wonted strength restored, he threw off his

disguise, and rushed upon Thrym, whom he slew with all his followers.

Loki had served Thor in this adventure; on another occasion he

incurred his wrath by an injury offered to Sif or Sifa, his wife. The

hair of this goddess flowed around her in sunny waves that shone like

gold. She was proud of this adornment; and Loki, willing to punish her

vanity, and always ready for mischief, found means to cut off her hair

while she slept.

The goddess was inconsolable, and Thor sought the insolent offender,

intending to crush him with his redoubtable hammer.

Loki was terrified, and sought the dwelling of the Gnomes. These

skillful workmen gave him a head of hair which they had spun from the

purest gold, and which was so wonderfully wrought that it would attach

itself to the head of the wearer, and increase in length like ordinary

hair. Sifa was enchanted with the golden locks, and the cunning Loki

escaped the threatened punishment.

From Thor's name is derived the word Thursday.

FREY AND FREYA.

_Ques._ Who was Frey?

_Ans._ He was one of the greatest of the gods. He presided over rain,

sunshine, and the fruits of the earth. From his name comes our word

Friday.

_Ques._ Who was Freya?

_Ans._ She was the sister of Frey or Freyr. She loved music, Spring

and flowers, and was a friend of the elves, or good fairies. Freya

was invoked by lovers, and seems to have been a sort of Scandinavian

Venus.

BRAGI.

_Ques._ Who was Bragi?

_Ans._ He was god of poetry, but he scorned all lighter strains, and

was the patron of those only who sung the praises of the gods and the

deeds of warriors.

Iduna, his wife, kept in a casket certain apples which the gods, when

they felt age approaching, had only to taste to renew the vigor and

bloom of youth. On the approach of the Great Twilight, and the end of

time, this fruit was to lose its magic power.

HEIMDALL.

_Ques._ Who was Heimdall?

_Ans._ He was the watchman of the gods, and was stationed at the

extreme verge of heaven to guard the bridge Bifrost. The gods

continually feared that the giants might force their way over the

shining arch, and invade Valhalla.

Heimdall required less sleep than a bird, and his sight was so keen

that he could distinguish the smallest object, for a thousand leagues

around, even in the darkest night. His quickness of hearing was

equally wonderful; he could hear the wool growing on the sheep's

backs, and the grain sprouting in the fields. He possessed a horn of

such construction that when he blew upon it, the sound spread in

widening circles until it reached the uttermost confines of the world.

Heimdall was not permitted to marry, lest any care for wife or

children might interrupt his unceasing watchfulness.

VIDAR.

_Ques._ Who was Vidar?

_Ans._ He was the god of silence. His strength was almost equal to

that of Thor; he was often employed like Mercury as messenger of the

gods. He had sandals which sustained him equally in the air, and upon

the water.

HODUR.

_Ques._ Who was Hodur?

_Ans._ He was a blind deity, endowed with prodigious strength. He was

mild and benevolent, but certain terrible predictions concerning him

inspired such terror in Asgard that it was not lawful for any god to

pronounce his name. Hodur seems to have been a personification of

night.

THE VALKYRIOR.

_Ques._ Who are the Valkyrior?

_Ans._ According to the Scandinavian tradition, they are warlike

virgins, the messengers of Odin, and their name signifies "Choosers of

the slain." Odin is desirous of collecting a great many heroes in

Valhalla, that he may be able to meet the giants in the final contest

at the end of the world. He sends the Valkyrior, therefore, to every

battle field to make choice of those who shall be slain. When they

ride forth on their errand, mounted upon war steeds and in full armor,

their shields and helmets shed a strange flickering light, which

flashes up over the northern skies, and is called by men, "Aurora

Borealis," or "Northern Lights."

LOKI AND HIS PROGENY.

_Ques._ Who was Loki?

_Ans._ Loki was an evil deity, the contriver of all fraud and

mischief. He was very handsome, but of fickle and malicious temper.

Loki had three children, the wolf Fenris, the Midgard serpent, and

Hela, or Death. The gods were not ignorant that these monsters were

growing up, and would one day bring much evil upon gods and men.

Odin, therefore, sent a messenger to bring them to him. When they

came, he threw the serpent into the deep ocean by which the earth is

surrounded. The monster soon grew to such an enormous size, that,

holding his tail in his mouth, he encircled the whole world. Hela was

cast into Niffleheim, where she receives as her subjects all who die

of sickness or old age. The wolf Fenris gave the gods much trouble

before they succeeded in chaining him. He broke the strongest fetters

as if they were made of cobwebs. Finally, the mountain spirits

fashioned a chain which he could not break. It was fabricated of the

roots of stones, the noise made by the footfall of a cat, and other

equally absurd and imaginary material.

BALDUR THE GOOD.

_Ques._ Who was Baldur?

_Ans._ He was the son of Odin, good and exceedingly beautiful. He was

tormented by terrible dreams, indicating that his life was in peril.

He told these things to the assembled gods, who resolved to do all in

their power to protect him. Frigga, the wife of Odin, exacted an oath

from the elements, fire, air, water, and from everything animate and

inanimate upon the earth--stones, plants, rocks and animals--that they

would do no harm to Baldur. The gods were so well satisfied with this,

that they amused themselves with throwing sticks, stones and all

manner of weapons at the hero, who was not harmed by anything. Loki,

with his usual malice, was determined on Baldur's death, but did not

know exactly how to bring it about. He assumed, therefore, the form of

an old woman, and went to see Frigga. The goddess asked him what the

gods were doing at their meetings. The disguised Loki replied that

they were throwing darts and stones at Baldur, without being able to

hurt him.

He inquired of Frigga, in his turn, if it were really true that she

had exacted an oath of all created things, to spare Baldur. "Aye,"

said Frigga; "all things have sworn, save a mistletoe which was

growing on a mountain side, and which I thought too young and feeble

to crave an oath from." As soon as Loki heard this, he went away

rejoicing. Having cut down the mistletoe, he repaired to the place

where the gods were assembled, and put the bough among the sticks

which they were casting in sport at Baldur. It was thrown with the

rest, and Baldur fell to the ground pierced through and through. The

gods were overwhelmed with grief, and broke forth in the wildest

lamentations. Then Frigga came, and asked, who among them would show

his love for her, and for Baldur, by procuring the deliverance of the

hero. Not having fallen in battle, Baldur had passed into the power of

Hela, who ruled over the gloomy regions of Hell, or Niffleheim.

Hermod, the son of Odin, offered to repair thither, and pay to Hela a

mighty ransom for the return of his brother Baldur. He set out,

therefore, mounted on Odin's horse Sleipnir, which had eight legs and

could outstrip the wind. For nine days, and as many nights, the hero

rode through darksome glens where no object could be discerned in the

gloom. On the tenth, he came to a dark river, which was spanned by a

bridge of gold; this was the entrance into Hell, and Hermod rode over

it fearlessly, although it shook and swayed under his living weight.

He passed the night in discourse with Baldur, and the next morning

preferred his petition to Hela. He offered any ransom she might name

for Baldur's return, assuring her that heaven and earth resounded with

lamentations for the hero. Hela would take no ransom, but wished to

try if Baldur were really so beloved. "If," said she, "all things in

the world, both living and lifeless, weep for him, then shall he

return; but if any one thing refuse to weep for him, then shall he be

kept in Hell."

On hearing the result of Hermod's mission, the gods made proclamation

throughout the world, beseeching all created things to weep for

Baldur's deliverance. All complied with this request; both men and

animals, all, even to the savage beasts of the forest, shed tears for

the hero. The trees and plants shed crystal drops like rain, and even

the rocks and stones were covered with a glittering dew. One old hag

only, sat in a cavern, and refused to weep, saying,

"Thankt will wail

With dry tears

Baldur's bale-fire.

Let Hela keep her own."

It was strongly suspected that this hag was no other than Loki

himself, who never ceased to work evil among gods and men. Thus Baldur

was prevented from coming back to Asgard.

Funeral of Baldur.

_Ques._ How was the hero buried?

_Ans._ Baldur's body was borne to the sea-shore, and placed upon a

funeral pile which was built of his own ship, the largest in the

world. All the gods were present, and even the Frost and Mountain

Giants were touched with kindness and came to do him honor. When the

wife of Baldur saw the funeral pile prepared, she died of grief, and

her body was consumed with that of her husband.

Loki's Punishment.

_Ques._ How did the gods revenge the death of Baldur?

_Ans._ They pursued Loki, who made use of his magical power to escape

their wrath. He changed himself at one time into a salmon, and hid

among the stones of a brook. He was taken, however, by Thor, who

caught him by the tail, and compressed it so, that all salmons ever

since have had that part remarkably thin. Being restored to his

natural form, Loki was bound with chains in a gloomy cavern. A serpent

was suspended over his head, whose venom falls upon his face drop by

drop. One comfort is allowed him; his wife Siguna sits by his side,

and catches the drops as they fall, in a cup; but when she carries it

away to empty it, the venom falls upon Loki, which makes him howl with

horror, and twist his body so violently that the whole earth shakes.

The Elves.

_Ques._ Who were the Elves?

_Ans._ They were beautiful spirits, clothed in transparent and

delicate garments. They loved the light, and were kindly disposed to

mankind. The country of the Elves was called Alfheim, and was the

domain of Freyr, the god of the sun, in whose light they were always

sporting.

_Ques._ Were all the fairies equally beneficent?

_Ans._ No; the Night Elves, also called Gnomes, and sometimes

Brownies, were at times exceedingly malicious. They were ugly,

long-nosed dwarfs of a dark brown complexion, and were never seen

except at night, because the sun's rays had the power of changing them

into stones.

_Ques._ Where did these dwell?

_Ans._ The Gnomes dwelt in mountain caverns and the clefts of rocks.

They were particularly distinguished for their knowledge of the

mysterious powers of nature. They were also skillful workers in wood

and metal, and were acquainted with the secret stores of gold and

silver which the gods had hidden in the earth. Many stories are

related of their malicious pranks; but they sometimes favored the poor

and friendless in an unexpected manner.

The principal works of the Gnomes were Thor's hammer, and the ship

Skidbladnir. This vessel was so wonderfully wrought, that while it was

large enough to carry all the deities with their war and household

implements, it could be folded together so small as to be carried in

the hand.

Runic Letters.

_Ques._ What are Runic letters?

_Ans._ One may occasionally meet in Norway, Denmark, or Sweden with

great stones of different forms, engraven with characters called

Runic, which appear, at first sight, very different from any letters

we know. They consist almost invariably of straight lines in the shape

of little sticks, either single or in groups. Divination was anciently

practiced among the northern nations by means of sticks of different

lengths. These were shaken up, and from the chance figures they

formed, the priests predicted future events. When alphabetic writing

was introduced, the letters naturally took the form of the ancient

runes. The magic verses were of various kinds. The noxious, or, as

they were called, the bitter runes were recited to bring evils on

their enemies; the favorable averted misfortune; some were medicinal,

others employed to win love, etc. In later times, the runes were used

for inscriptions, of which more than a thousand have been found.

The language is a dialect of the Gothic, called Norse, still in use in

Iceland. The inscriptions may, therefore, be read with certainty; but

they throw very little light on history, being principally epitaphs on

tombstones.

Ragnarok, the Twilight of the Gods.

It was a firm belief of the northern nations, that a time would come

when all the visible creation, the gods of Valhalla, the inhabitants

of earth, men, giants and elves, would be destroyed, together with

their habitations.

This fearful day will not be without its forerunners. First will come

a triple winter, during which clouds of snow, driven by piercing winds

from the four quarters of the heavens, will fall unceasingly on the

earth; tempests will sweep the sea, and the sun will impart neither

heat nor gladness. Three such winters will pass away without being

tempered by a single summer. Three other winters will then follow,

during which war and discord will convulse the universe. The solid

earth will tremble, the sea will leave its bed, and the heavens will

be rent asunder.

During this convulsion of nature, armies will meet in combat, and so

great shall be the slaughter, that wolves and eagles will banquet upon

the flesh of kings and heroes. The wolf Fenris will now break his

bands; the Midgard serpent rise out of the sea, and Loki, released

from his chains, will join the enemies of the gods. The Eddas give a

wild description of the last great battlefield on which the powers of

good and evil shall contend, and on which all alike, whether gods or

demons, are doomed to perish. When all are slain, the world will be

wrapped in flames, the sun will become dim, the stars will fall from

heaven, and time shall be no more.

After this universal destruction, Alfâdur (All-Father) will cause a

new heaven and a new earth to rise out of the abyss. This new earth

will produce its fruits without labor or care; perpetual spring will

reign, and sin and misery will be unknown. In this blissful abode,

gods and men are to dwell together in a peace which the powers of evil

can never again disturb.

Germany.

The Mythology of the Teutonic or Germanic race is neither so

picturesque nor so well defined as that of Scandinavia. Odin and

other Scandinavian divinities were worshipped by the tribes who dwelt

along the borders of the Northern Ocean; in other parts of Germany,

Druidism prevailed. The Germans had, however, their own deities and

their own superstitions. Tuisco (sometimes written Tuesco or Tuisto)

was worshipped by the Saxons as the god of war. The third day of the

week takes its name from this divinity.

CHAPTER VIII.

CELTIC MYTHOLOGY.

DRUIDISM.

_Ques._ From what is the term Druid derived?

_Ans._ There exists much difference of opinion on this point. The word

has been variously deduced from the Saxon, "dry," a magician, from the

German, "druthin," a master or lord, from the Celtic, "deru," an oak,

etc. The best informed writers now refer it to the compound Celtic

word "derouyd," from "De," God, and "rouyd," speaking. It would,

therefore, seem to signify those who speak of or for God.

_Ques._ Where did Druidism prevail?

_Ans._ In some parts of Germany, in Gaul, and in ancient Britain and

Ireland.

_Ques._ Where did it originate?

_Ans._ Various theories have been advanced on this subject. Some refer

it to the Siva-worshippers of Hindostan, others to the Magi of Persia;

but all agree as to its Eastern origin.

_Ques._ Who is the earliest writer on this subject?

_Ans._ Julius Cæsar. His account is considered perfectly reliable,

although, to render it more intelligible, he gives to the Celtic gods

the names of the Greek and Roman divinities whom they resemble.

_Ques._ What were the principal characteristics of Druidism?

_Ans._ The belief in one Supreme Being: in the immortality of the

soul, and a future state of rewards and punishments. This last

doctrine takes with them, as with the Hindoos, the form of

metempsychosis. The religion of the Druids was farther characterized

by the use of circular temples, open at the top; the worship of fire

as the emblem of the sun, and the celebration of the ancient Tauric

festival, (held on the first of May, when the sun enters Taurus.)

_Ques._ What name did the Druids give to the Supreme Being?

_Ans._ Esus, or Hesus; although this is sometimes mentioned as the

appellation of a subordinate divinity. Superior to the Roman Jupiter,

or the Zeus of the Greeks, Esus had no parentage; was subject to no

fate; he was free and self-existent, and the creation of the world was

his own voluntary act. The Druids taught that excepting this Supreme

God, all things had a beginning, but that nothing created would ever

have an end. Notwithstanding these enlightened ideas, they reverenced

many other divinities. The Assyrian Baal was worshipped among the

Celts as Bel or Belen. As he represented the sun, the Romans

recognized in him their god Apollo. Diodorus Siculus, a contemporary

of Cæsar, makes the following statement on the authority of an ancient

Greek writer.

"Apollo," he says, "is worshipped with solemn rites by the inhabitants

of a large island, which lies off the coast of Gaul, in the Northern

Ocean. This island is inhabited by the Hyperboreans, so named because

they live beyond the region of the north wind. The god has there a

remarkable temple, circular in form, and a magnificent forest is

consecrated to him." It is generally supposed that the temple alluded

to by Diodorus, was the Druidical circle of Stonehenge, of which we

shall speak later.

_Ques._ Who was Teu´tates?

_Ans._ This name is thought to be derived from "Tut-tat," signifying

"parent of men." This god was much honored by the Gauls, who

attributed to him the invention of letters and poetry. According to

the Triads, (Druidical verses,) he "wrote upon stone the arts and the

sciences of the world." In his more beneficent character, the name

Gwyon was often given to this divinity. He resembles, both in name and

attributes, Thoth, the Mercury of Egypt and Phoenicia. The ancient

Gauls had no idols, nor did they ever attempt any visible

representation of their deities. When the Romans established their own

worship in the country, they endeavored, according to their usual

policy, to conciliate the conquered tribes by adopting their gods, and

placing their images in the temples which they built. We read that

Zenodorus, a famous sculptor, said by some to have been a native of

Gaul, executed a statue of Teu´tates which cost forty million

sestertia. He spent six years upon this great work.

Camul, the Celtic Mars, Tarann, the god of thunder, and many other

divinities of inferior rank, were worshipped in Gaul and Germany.

_Ques._ How was the Druid priesthood divided?

_Ans._ Into three orders; the priests, the bards, and the Druids,

properly so called.

_Ques._ What were the duties of the priests?

_Ans._ They studied the hidden laws of nature and the mysteries of

earth and heaven. They offered public and private sacrifices, and

obtained a knowledge of the future from the entrails and the blood of

victims, or from the flight of birds. They also cured maladies with

certain mysterious charms. The bards held a still higher rank: they

preserved in their verses the mystic learning of the priests, the

traditions of their race, and the great actions of their heroes. No

sacrifice was duly offered without their sacred chant; they encouraged

the warrior going to the field of combat, and received him on his

return with notes of triumph. To live in heroic song was the

aspiration of every Celtic warrior, and to the coward or traitor,

there was no penalty so terrible as the denunciation of the sacred

bards. Music was the only gentle art known to the rude tribes of Gaul

and Britain, and they were, perhaps for this reason, the more

susceptible to its influence. The character of these minstrels was

peculiarly sacred in their eyes, on account of the gifts of prophecy

and second sight which they were believed to possess in moments of

inspiration.

The verses of the bards were never committed to writing, and a long

and painful course of oral instruction was necessary before a

candidate could be admitted to take his place in this influential

class. According to Cæsar, twenty years was the ordinary novitiate

required.

The bards of Gaul seem to have passed away with the religious system

to which they belonged; but in the British islands, they continued,

although divested of their sacred character, to be a highly esteemed

and privileged class. We may judge of their influence in keeping alive

the patriotic spirit of the people, from the fact that Edward I.

ordered their extermination as the surest means of extinguishing the

feeling of nationality among the Welsh tribes. In Ireland and

Scotland, the bards gradually passed away with the decline of the

feudal system, and the power of the native princes and chieftains

whose glory they sung.

_Ques._ Who were the Druids, properly so called?

_Ans._ They were priests of the highest order, who remained secluded

in caves and grottoes, or in the depths of oak forests, where they

were supposed to study the deeper mysteries of nature and religion,

and to consult more directly the secret will of the divinity. They

were also the teachers of youth.

The Druids must have possessed some knowledge of the motions of the

heavenly bodies, since they counted the year by lunations;

astronomical instruments have also been found among the druidical

remains in Ireland, which prove that they had made a certain progress

in this science. Like the Persians, they mingled astrology and

divination with their observations of the celestial bodies. The

healing art was also practised by the Druids. The effect of their

remedies was not, however, attributed to any natural cause, but rather

to a mysterious virtue residing in certain plants, and rendered

efficacious by the magic rites with which they were gathered.

The mistletoe, when found growing on the oak, was esteemed

particularly sacred; it was an antidote against poison, a remedy in

all diseases, and a preservative against the machinations of evil

spirits. To possess the proper efficacy, it should be gathered in

February or March, on the sixth day of the moon. As soon as the

mistletoe was found growing on the no less sacred oak, the Druids

assembled; a banquet and a sacrifice were prepared, after which a

priest in white vestments cut the plant with a golden sickle while two

others received it reverently into a white mantle spread beneath. Two

milk-white heifers were instantly offered in sacrifice, and the rest

of the day was spent in rejoicing. In like manner, the samolus, or

marsh-wort, possessed no virtue unless it were sought fasting, and

gathered with the left hand, without looking at it. They plucked the

helago, or hedge hyssop, barefooted, and without a knife, after

ablutions, and offerings of bread and wine. The vervain and other

plants had also their distinct ceremonial.

Amber was valued for certain mysterious properties; it was

manufactured into beads by the Druids, and these were given as charms

to warriors going to battle; such beads are sometimes found in their

tombs.

_Ques._ Were the Druids acquainted with the art of writing?

_Ans._ They were, at least in Gaul and Ireland. Their alphabet

contained seventeen letters, and resembled the characters used by the

ancient Pelasgi. It is probable, therefore, that they received it from

the early Greek colonists. Writing was employed for ordinary affairs,

whether public or private, but the mystic learning of the Druids was

handed down by oral tradition only. The few inscriptions they have

left are in symbolic writing, which resembles the runes of

Scandinavia, and originated in the same manner from the rods and

branches of certain plants used in divination. These inscriptions are

called in Ireland "ogham;" they are principally straight lines,

grouped in different ways.

_Ques._ Did the Druids exercise any political authority?

_Ans._ Yes; they were the legislators of the people, and had the right

of deciding in all controversies. There was no appeal from their

sentence, and those who ventured to resist were excommunicated and

outlawed.

The college of Druids was governed by a chief or Arch-druid, chosen by

vote from among their number. The elections were eagerly contested,

and were often attended with much bloodshed. The Arch-druid held his

office for life.

_Ques._ Who were the Druidesses?

_Ans._ They were prophetesses or sorceresses, most generally wives or

daughters of the Druids, who exercised an unbounded influence over the

people. They were supposed to read the future, to conjure tempests,

and appease them again at will. The Gallic mariner often went to

consult them amid the reefs of the Armorican coast, and trembled with

superstitious awe as he saw them gliding like phantoms among the misty

crags, waving flaming torches, and mingling their wild chants with the

voices of wind and sea. Some of these sorceresses were obliged to

assist at nocturnal rites, where, with their bodies painted black, and

their hair dishevelled, they joined in a frantic dance, and abandoned

themselves to the wildest transports of frenzy. A peculiar rite was

practised by the Druidesses who resided in an island at the mouth of

the Loire. They were obliged once every year, between sunrise and

sunset, to demolish and rebuild the roof of their rustic temple. If

any of their number should let fall the least part of the sacred

material, her fate was sealed. She was torn to pieces by her

companions, amid paroxysms of wild frenzy which recalled to the Greeks

the orgies of their own Bacchantes. It is said that no year passed

without a victim.

The nine virgin priestesses who dwelt on the island of Sena, an almost

inaccessible rock off the promontory of Plogoff, on the coast of

Brittany, were regarded with particular veneration, and constituted,

perhaps, the highest religious authority among the ancient Gauls.

There was a class of Druidesses in Gaul and Germany, who, in addition

to practices of sorcery and incantation, presided at fearful rites.

Strabo tells us that when the Cimbri had taken prisoners of war, they

were offered in sacrifice by these terrible women. The chief Druidess,

standing by a rude stone altar, received the victim dragged thither by

her companions. She plunged her knife into his heart, and watched

carefully to obtain an omen, according as the blood should flow more

or less rapidly. This ceremony was repeated with other victims until

the augury was deemed decisive. The superstitions with regard to

witches and their nocturnal revels, which prevailed so long in Europe,

originated, no doubt, from popular traditions concerning these

sorceresses.

In Ireland, they do not appear to have played either so terrible or

so important a part. We only know that at Tara, certain virgins of

royal blood were consecrated to Baal and Samhain, (the moon,) and

watched the perpetual fire which burned on their altars. In one of the

civil wars so common in the island, a chief of Leinster destroyed this

sanctuary and massacred its inmates. The entire country united to

punish the perpetrators of this sacrilege; they were put to death, and

a perpetual fine was imposed on the province of Leinster.

_Ques._ What sacrifices were offered by the Druids?

_Ans._ In time of peace, fruits and cattle; in war, human sacrifices

were preferred.

_Ques._ How were the victims chosen?

_Ans._ They were generally captives taken in war, slaves or criminals.

In some cases, warriors and others devoted themselves voluntarily to

the altar, either to propitiate the gods, and obtain victory for their

people, or because they were weary of life, and desired to hasten the

moment of transmigration. These acts of self-immolation were esteemed

exceedingly meritorious. Cæsar supposes Teu´tates to be the same with

Dis or Pluto; but in the mythology of the Gauls, there were no

infernal regions, and consequently, there was no Pluto. The soul

passed into another body, and the transmigration was happy, or the

contrary, as the actions performed during its last state of existence

had been good or evil.

According to the Druids, death was but the central point of a long

life.

_Ques._ What was the usual mode of sacrifice?

_Ans._ Victims offered to Baal were always burned. On important

occasions, a great number were enclosed in a huge frame of wicker work

in which they were consumed together. In offerings to other gods,

different rites were observed.

These remarks apply chiefly to Gaul, Germany and Britain. Human

sacrifices were rare in Ireland.

_Ques._ What were the principal festivals of the Druids?

_Ans._ The Tauric festival, which has been already mentioned, was the

most ancient, dating from the time of the Chaldees, or Babylonians. In

Ireland and in the Highlands of Scotland, the first of May takes its

name from this solemnity, being called in Gaelic, Beltane; and in

Irish, Beal-Tinne, or the Fire of Baal. The solstices were also

celebrated as the chief points in the sun's annual course. Wherever

Druidism prevailed, there was in the centre of each great district or

canton, a perpetual fire in honor of Baal. On the feast of the god,

this was extinguished, and again lighted, after which all the fires

throughout the country were rekindled from this sacred source. This

rite was observed with particular solemnity in Ireland. There the

Druids assembled around the sacred or "parent fire," which the

Arch-druid extinguished. At this signal every fire disappeared, and,

in an incredibly short space of time, darkness settled on the island.

The chiefs and princes, together with the assembled people, then

assisted in silent awe, while the Druids performed their nocturnal

rites. At length the fire was rekindled; torches lighted at the sacred

flame were passed from hand to hand, and the country was soon

illuminated by the Baal fires which blazed on every hill. The chief

scene of these solemnities was Ouisneach, in the centre of the island,

but the same rite was performed in many other places.

According to what seems an authentic tradition, it was during such a

ceremony that St. Patrick obtained the opportunity of holding a public

disputation with the Druids in the presence of the king and chieftains

assembled at Tara. It was Easter Eve, and the Saint, who must have

been well aware of the penalty of death attached to such an act,

commanded his disciples to light the paschal fire at the moment when

all around was plunged in darkness. The flame was seen at Tara, and

the Druids called loudly for the punishment of the sacrilegious

strangers. They were seized and brought before the assembly, but the

result was favorable to the missionaries, and from that day may be

dated the rapid though peaceful decline of Druidism in Ireland.

The idolatrous rites peculiar to the season of the summer solstice

have been long forgotten but the custom of lighting fires upon that

day, still prevails. The bonfires of St. John's Eve (June 21st)

recall, at least, one feature of the ancient Druid festival.

_Ques._ What rites were observed on the first day of November?

_Ans._ The day was consecrated to the Moon, (called in Ireland

Samhain,) and was observed both in Gaul and in the British islands. It

would seem that the spirits of the departed were also propitiated at

this season, and many curious traditions are connected with its

observance.

Before the invasion of Cæsar, Britain was so little known to the

ancient Gauls, as to be still a land of mystery. They believed that on

every feast of the moon, the souls of those who had died during the

year, were obliged to repair thither for judgment.

Connected with this, Procopius relates an Armorican legend of which

some traces may yet be found in Brittany. At the foot of the

promontory of Plogoff, around the sacred isle of Sena, are scattered

rocks on which the sea breaks with an unceasing moan. Thither

assemble, on the night of judgment, the spirits of the dead. Faint

wailings are heard, and pale phantoms are seen gliding above the

waves, which they are not yet spiritual enough to cross without human

succor. At the hour of midnight the sailors and fisher men along the

coast hear mysterious voices calling at their doors. They rise and

find strange barks waiting on the shore. Scarcely have they entered

these, when the light craft is weighed down by a ghostly band. The

terrified pilot has no need of helm or sail, for the barks are borne

westwardly with incredible velocity. When they touch the misty shores

of Britain, there is a hollow murmur--the boats ride lightly on the

water--the souls are gone.

The superstitious observances which are still practised on November,

or All Hallow Eve, in Ireland, Scotland, and some parts of England,

are of pagan origin, and seem to be relics of this festival.

_Ques._ At what period may we fix the decline of Druidism?

_Ans._ It was suppressed in Gaul by the Roman conquerors, who built

temples, and introduced the worship of their own gods, adopting also

those of the conquered race. Druidism retired, step by step, before

this more classic heathenism, but found a temporary refuge in the

German forests and in Armorica. It was suppressed in Britain during

the reign of Nero. The persecuted Druids took refuge in the island of

Mona or Anglesea, whence they were driven by the Roman troops with

great slaughter. They found a last asylum in the island of Iona. Here

they maintained a certain influence up to the latter part of the sixth

century, when the inhabitants of the island were converted by the

preaching of St. Columba, the Apostle of the Highlands. This

missionary was a native of Ireland, where Christianity had been

established for nearly a century.

_Ques._ What traces still remain of the ancient Druidical worship?

_Ans._ Certain monuments, which are called, according to their form,

menhirs, dolmens or cromlechs.

_Ques._ What are the menhirs?

_Ans._ The word is derived from the old Breton man, stone; and hir,

long. They are upright blocks of stone, often terminating in a point;

and are for the most part rough and unshapely; the ordinary height is

from seven to twelve feet; but in some rare instances, they exceed

thirty feet in height. The purpose of these menhirs is not well

understood. Where they stand singly, or in groups of two or three,

they probably mark a spot rendered memorable by some important event.

Similar monuments were common in primitive times, as we learn from

Scripture; when the Israelites had crossed the dry bed of the Jordan,

Joshua placed twelve stones on the bank, as a remembrance of the

miracle. Jacob marked in the same manner the spot on which he had been

favored by a celestial vision. In certain places on the Scandinavian

peninsula, extensive groups of menhirs occur, scattered irregularly

over the plain; these are supposed to mark ancient battle-fields.

Where the stones are arranged in a "cromlech" or circular form, there

is generally a dolmen in the centre. The dolmen is a large flat

stone, placed like a table, upon two others which are set upright.

Some of these were evidently altars, as the flat stone on the top is

furrowed and slightly inclined to facilitate as it were the flowing of

blood. Dolmens are found also in straight lines, forming a sort of

covered gallery.

_Ques._ Where are the most remarkable of these monuments?

_Ans._ On the continent of Europe, the most extensive series is that

of Carnac in Brittany. In the midst of a wide heath, stand rude blocks

of gray granite, set on end; they are angular, and show no marks of

polish. These menhirs are arranged in eleven lines, forming regular

alleys. The blocks numbered formerly about ten thousand; but there are

now many gaps in the stony lines, as every house in the vicinity seems

to have been built from this convenient quarry.

At Stonehenge, in England, is a large cromlech arranged in two circles

and two ovals. There are in all about one hundred and forty stones, of

which the smallest are estimated to weigh ten or twelve, and the

largest seventy tons. In the centre of the work is a massive slab of

fine sandstone, supposed to have been an altar. This cromlech is

surrounded by a trench and an earthen embankment. Numerous ancient

_barrows_, or burial mounds, are found in the neighborhood. In

Ireland, monuments constructed of stone are sometimes found; but

circular earthworks are more common. In this country, as in Brittany,

many popular superstitions still attach to these remains of ancient

paganism. Almost within our own day, many an Irish peasant has made

his scanty harvest still smaller, rather than violate with the plough,

the grass-grown "rath," or Druid circle. Death within the year is the

supposed penalty of such an act. In Brittany, malignant dwarfs and

night-elves still haunt the deserted cromlech, and have power at

certain times, to wreak their malice on the belated traveller. Some of

these giant stones are themselves subject to mysterious laws. Once in

a hundred years, they are obliged, at the hour of midnight, to pass in

weird procession to bathe in the waters of the Northern Ocean.

Then for a few brief moments the stars look down on the riches

buried in ancient times beneath the enchanted circle. It is the

treasure-seeker's golden opportunity, but woe to the avaricious wretch

who lingers over the spoil. He is crushed by the swift returning

stones, and the morning sun finds the grim sentinels silent and

motionless as before, bearing no trace of their wild nocturnal march.

CHAPTER IX.

Mexico.

MYTHOLOGY OF THE AZTECS.

_Ques._ What peculiarity has been remarked in the mythology of the

Aztecs or ancient Mexicans?

_Ans._ Its incongruity. On the one hand we find their priests

inculcating the most sublime truths of natural religion, and the

purest maxims of morality, while on the other, their sacrifices and

public worship were marked by a spirit of unexampled ferocity.

_Ques._ How has this been explained?

_Ans._ It is supposed that the religion of the Aztecs was derived from

two distinct sources. The ancient Toltecs, who preceded them in

Mexico, were a comparatively humane and enlightened race; they

retained many of the highest principles of natural religion, united,

probably, with truths derived from primitive tradition. The Aztecs

seem to have adopted the religion of their more civilized predecessors

without abandoning their own dark and cruel superstitions. Hence the

contradictions and inconsistencies of their mythology.

_Ques._ What did the Aztecs believe of God?

_Ans._ They believed in one Supreme Lord and Creator, to whom they

attributed all the divine perfections. The prayers which they

addressed to Him recall, in many instances, the very phraseology of

Scripture.

_Ques._ Did the Aztecs worship any other deity?

_Ans._ Yes, they worshipped many subordinate divinities who were

supposed to preside over the elements, the changes of the seasons and

the various occupations of men. Of these gods, thirteen held the most

exalted rank, while the inferior class numbered over two hundred.

_Ques._ Who may be considered the chief of these subordinate

divinities?

_Ans._ Huitzilopotchli, a sort of Mexican Mars, who was, in fact, the

patron deity of the nation. His temples were the most stately of all

the public edifices, and his altars in every part of the empire were

continually reeking with the blood of human victims.

_Ques._ Who was Quetzalcoatl?

_Ans._ The Aztecs, like many nations of the old world, had their

Golden Age. During this blissful period, Quetzalcoatl, god of the air,

dwelt on earth, and instructed men in the use of metals, in

agriculture and every useful art. Under his beneficent rule, the earth

brought forth its fruits without care or labor: and such was the

fertility of the soil that a single ear of corn was as much as a man

could carry. The dyer's art was not needed, for the cotton took, as it

grew, the richest and most varied hues. The rarest flowers filled the

air with perfume, and the melody of birds was heard in every grove.

This happy state was not destined to last; Quetzalcoatl incurred the

anger of one of the greater gods, and was obliged to abandon the

country. He proceeded to the shores of the Mexican gulf, where he took

leave of his followers, promising that, when many years had rolled

away, he would revisit their descendants. He then embarked in a skiff

made of serpent's skins, and sailed eastward towards the fabled land

of Tlapallan.

Quetzalcoatl was described by the Mexicans as tall, with a fair

complexion, long, dark hair, and a flowing beard. They looked

confidently for the return of the benevolent deity, and this tradition

had no small influence in preparing the way for the future success of

the Spaniards.

It is evident that Quetzalcoatl was the name given by the Mexicans to

some beneficent ruler who instructed them in the arts of civilized

life. It is singular that he should have been described with every

characteristic of the European race; and some have conjectured that he

was indeed a native of the Eastern hemisphere, cast by some strange

accident among the simple natives of the New World.

_Ques._ Did the Aztecs worship any household divinities?

_Ans._ Yes; the images of their penates, or household gods, were to be

found in every dwelling.

_Ques._ What did the Aztecs believe with regard to a future life?

_Ans._ Their priests taught that the wicked were sent after death to

expiate their sins in a region of eternal darkness. Those who died of

certain diseases were entitled, after death, to a state of indolent

contentment; but the Aztec paradise, like the Elysium of the Greeks

and Romans, was reserved for their warriors and heroes. In this class

were included those who were offered in sacrifice. These privileged

souls passed at once into the presence of the Sun, whom they

accompanied with songs and choral dances in his journey through the

heavens. After a certain period, their spirits went to animate the

golden clouds which floated over the gardens of paradise, or, assuming

the form of singing birds, revelled amid the blossoms and odors of its

sacred groves.

_Ques._ What peculiar rite was practised by the Aztecs in the naming

of their children?

_Ans._ The lips and bosom of the infant were sprinkled with water.

During the ceremony they implored the Lord, that the holy drops might

wash away the sin that was given to it before the foundation of the

world, so that the child might be born anew.

_Ques._ How did the Aztecs bury their dead?

_Ans._ Immediately after death, the corpse was clothed in certain

sacred habiliments, and strewed with charms, which were supposed to be

necessary as a defence against the dangers of the unknown road which

the spirit was about to travel. The body was then burned, and the

ashes, carefully collected in a funeral urn, were placed in the house

of the deceased. In this mode of burial, we may notice a certain

resemblance to the funeral rites of the ancient Greeks and Romans.

There was, however, this distinction, that although the latter

occasionally sacrificed their captive enemies to the manes of a

departed warrior, this offering formed no necessary part of the burial

rite; on the other hand, the obsequies of an Aztec noble were always

accompanied by the sacrifice of unoffending slaves, the number of

victims being proportioned to the rank of the deceased.

_Ques._ Did the Aztec priests form a distinct order?

_Ans._ They were altogether distinct from the people, and formed a

numerous and powerful hierarchy. Their different functions were

exactly regulated; those who were best skilled in music formed the

choirs--Others arranged the festivals according to the calendar. Some

were engaged in the education of youth, and others had charge of the

hieroglyphical paintings and oral traditions, while the dreadful

rites of sacrifice were reserved to the chief dignitaries of the

order.

_Ques._ Were women permitted to exercise any sacerdotal functions?

_Ans._ Yes; the Aztec priestesses exercised every function except that

of sacrifice. They superintended the schools in which the daughters of

the higher and middle classes received their education. These schools,

as well as those for boys, directed by the priests, were under the

strictest discipline. Ordinary faults were punished with extreme

rigor; graver offences, with death.

_Ques._ How was this numerous priesthood maintained?

_Ans._ A certain quantity of land was annexed to each temple, and the

priests were further enriched by first fruits and other offerings.

This large provision became necessary from the fact that the Aztec

priests were allowed to marry. The law prescribed that any surplus,

beyond what was actually required for their support, should be

distributed among the poor. This, and other benevolent provisions,

seem very inconsistent with the cruelties practised in their public

worship.

_Ques._ What was the form of the Mexican temples?

_Ans._ They were solid pyramids, constructed of earth, but completely

cased in brick or stone. They were disposed in three or four stories,

each smaller than that below. At the top was a broad area, in which

stood one or more towers, containing images of the presiding deities.

Before these towers were generally placed, besides the dreadful stone

of sacrifice, two lofty altars on which burned perpetual fires. So

numerous were these sacred fires in the city of Mexico, that the

streets were brilliantly lighted even on the darkest night. The ascent

was made, in some cases, by a stairway which led directly up the

centre of the western face of the pyramid. More generally, it was so

arranged, that the religious processions were obliged to pass two or

three times around the pyramid before reaching the summit. The

Mexicans called their temples Teocallis, or "houses of God."

_Ques._ Are any of these structures still in existence?

_Ans._ Yes; of those which yet remain, the pyramid of Cholula is the

largest, and perhaps the most perfect. It measures 176 feet in

perpendicular height, and is 1425 feet square; it covers 45 acres. It

is very ancient, having been built before the Aztecs conquered

Anahuac, as that part of Mexico was formerly named.

_Ques._ What sacrifices were offered by the Aztecs?