_State of Marriage among the Indians._
Marriage, in the Samscred language, is called _Vivàha_, or
_Pànigrahanna_; the latter of which implies joining of hands, from
_Pàni_ the hand, and _Grahanna_ laying hold. In the common Malabar
dialect it is called _Pennbeta_; that is, a bond or an union with
a female. _Kettunu_ signifies to bind; _Pennkettunu_, to bind
one’s self, or to unite a woman to one’s self by means of a bond.
_Kettiastri_ signifies a bound woman; _Kettiaven_, a bound man, that
is, a man who gives a woman a love-pledge; who puts a necklace round
her neck, betrothes himself to her in this manner, and declares her
to be his married wife. _Bharta_ signifies a husband, he who rules;
and _Bharya_, a woman or wife, who is subject to rule. These modes of
expression are, however, common only among the noble casts, and are
to be distinguished from the word _Kùtticondupògunu_, which implies
the same as to lead a woman to your father’s house, or to take her
home to your own; by which is signified, at the same time, the method
of betrothing practised among the meaner casts. This second kind of
marriage is performed, as among the Romans, _per usucapionem_; but
with this difference, that the bridegroom must present himself before
the superintendant of his cast, tell him the name of his bride, and,
as a token that he actually takes her to wife, put into his hand a
small stone. From this it appears, that the foundation of marriage
among the Indians is in all cases a real contract or agreement,
which acquires perfect validity according to the laws, and in a court
of justice.
Though polygamy is tolerated by the Indian laws, because it tends
to promote population, the _Bharta_, whatever number of wives he
may maintain, has only one lawful spouse, to whom he is actually
married, and who superintends his domestic concerns. She is called
in the Samscred _Pànigrahidì_, the woman with whom he joined hands;
_Pradhaninì_, the chief; _Mahishì_, the great; _Cudbumbinì_, the
housewife; _Sadhadharmanì_, the woman of a thousand services, virtues
and advantages. The rest are called only _Bhòguinya_, concubines. The
children of the former are called _Sudharmaputra_, that is, lawful,
and inherit the property left by their father; but the children
of the concubines, as soon as born, are degraded into the cast of
the _Shudra_, which may with propriety be considered as a nursery
for the illegitimate children of the higher casts, as almost all
concubines belong to that of the _Shudra_, and as the rule in law,
_partus sequitur ventrem_, prevails, in full force, throughout all
India. It thence follows, that a prince who espouses a woman of a
cast different from his own, cannot make her children his heirs, and
much less appoint them his successors. Such was the case, while I was
in India, with the king of Cochin, _Perumpadapil_, and the king of
Travancor, _Rama Varmer_. When I resided at _Tiruvandaburam_, I saw
with my own eyes that the children of the latter were educated in the
same manner as the _Shudras_. The particular object of this law is,
that persons of a low condition may never rise to the throne or the
priesthood.
The crime of adultery, _Abàradha_, which may be committed by two
betrothed as well as married persons, is punished by expulsion from
the cast, and, according to circumstances, even with banishment.
If the bride or spouse is alone guilty, she loses the prerogative
of her cast, and is sold as a slave to some foreigner, whether he
be Christian, Jew, or Mahometan. This was the case, in particular,
with the celebrated wife of a Brahman at _Alangatta_, who had been
degraded and sold, and who was afterwards baptised by the bishop of
_Arcopolis_ in Malabar. She spoke and wrote the Samscred language
with great ease. I myself once baptised, at _Edapalli_, a Brahman
woman, who had also been guilty of the like offence. When I asked her
why she wished to embrace the Roman Catholic religion, she replied:
_Inika dòsham vannu poi_; that is, I have been guilty of a sin. This
is the common mode of expression employed by the Indians in such
cases; for adultery is one of the five mortal sins, which they call
_Pancia mahà pàva_. Other women, however, not of the Brahmanic cast,
are sold as slaves when they hold criminal intercourse with a man
of inferior condition, or do so when they have married into another
cast. But this crime is overlooked when women, over whom their cast
has no power, lead irregular lives, or when they indulge in such
licentiousness with men belonging to a higher cast. If the wife of
a man who married _per usucapionem_, and who belongs to an inferior
class, is guilty of conjugal infidelity, the husband repairs to the
superintendant of the cast, and causes him to return the stone which
he delivered to him at his marriage. If he has accused his wife of
adultery only in this manner, he conducts her back to the house
of her parents; and this ceremony supplies the place of an actual
separation. In India marriages are allowed to the third degree of
consanguinity. On the coast of Malabar a custom prevails, in the cast
to which the braziers belong, that the eldest brother alone marries;
but the rest, when he is absent, supply his place with their
sister-in-law.
According to a custom which the Brahmans, the _Vayshya_, the
_Kshetria_, and the Christians of St. Thomas in Malabar have
introduced among themselves, the bride must always carry her dowery
to the bridegroom. When she has done this, and left her father’s
house, she receives nothing farther, and loses her right of
inheriting any of the patrimony destined for the female part of the
family. By means of this regulation, which prevails throughout all
the superior casts, the Indians endeavour to prevent their property
from being divided, and their families from being reduced to poverty,
which would undoubtedly be the consequence if the married daughters
were allowed to come in for an equal share. The governor of Cochin,
M. Van Angelbeck, whom I have already had occasion to mention, was
desirous of making some change in this respect among the Christians
belonging to the Malabar cast, _Mundacàrer_, who were subject to the
Dutch East India Company. He therefore commissioned me to negotiate
on this head with these Christians, who assembled several times for
that purpose in my habitation at _Mattincèra_; but I was not able
to prevail on them to comply with his wishes. They always referred
to the antiquity of the practice; and maintained, that the greater
part of their families would be infallibly ruined if any other was
substituted in its stead. However this may be, it is certain that
many young women never get husbands, because it is considered as
absolutely necessary that they should bring with them a handsome
portion. This is the case in particular with the daughters of the
Brahmans, six or seven of whom are often in the same house together,
and remain unmarried for want of doweries. The condition of these
girls is indeed deserving of pity; and chiefly for this reason,
because the Indians, as I have already observed in another place,
combine a very contemptible idea with a state of celibacy. The
_Taly_, or love-pledge, is hung round the neck of a betrothed girl,
even so early as her seventh year, though she remains in the house of
her parents till her twelfth.
The ceremonies used in India, at betrothing and marriages, are as
follows:--When the parents of the _Canya_, or young woman, have
made choice of a young man whom they wish to give her as a husband,
they announce their intention to the two Brahmans, whom the two
families employ in astrological affairs. These Brahmans make strict
enquiry respecting the young man’s character, and examine the
constellations under which the presumptive bride and bridegroom
were born. If these constellations have a favourable aspect, the
parents of the _Canya_ must procure a considerable quantity of white
sandal wood, magnel, salt, coco-nut oil, betel, areca, and about
two or three hundred coco-nuts. When all these articles are ready,
the bridegroom is conducted to the house of the _Canya_; and the
Brahman, in the presence of all the relations assembled, performs in
due order the ceremony of the _Hòma_, or burnt-offering, presented
to the whole _Dèvà_, that is, the gods, under whom are understood
the seven planets, which are solemnly invoked as witnesses of this
betrothing, and entreated to grant a fortunate and long continuance
to the union. For this purpose he takes different kinds of costly and
sweet-smelling wood, such as sandal, _aghil_, _arasu_, and camphor
wood; cuts them in pieces about a palm in length; places them in
a square pit, and makes a fire of them; which, however, must not
be blown, but excited by a fan. As soon as it begins to burn, the
Brahmans repeat certain forms of prayer, by which they solicit the
protection of the before-mentioned gods; and throw into the fire oil,
butter, sugar, honey, barley, and rice boiled in milk. The bride
and bridegroom stand by with the most devout attention, and from
time to time throw into the fire also inflammable substances of the
like kind, that it may burn incessantly for at least a fourth part
of the day. When this ceremony is finished, the Brahman causes the
bridegroom to kneel down; places a piece of gold or silver brocade
on his head; puts a gold ring on his finger, and paints a crescent
on his forehead with pulverised sandal wood and _curcuma_. When he
has ornamented the bridegroom in this manner, he puts into his hand a
coco-nut painted with all sorts of colours, and says: “Such a person
(repeating his name), the son of ----, in presence of all the gods,
now gives his daughter (here he repeats her name), as wife to ----,
who is the son of ----.” This form the _Canya_ must repeat word for
word, and at the same time mention all the names. Two copies of it
are then written upon _Olas_, or palm-leaves, on which are inscribed
also the day of the betrothing, and the names of the constellations
under which the bride and bridegroom were born. These _Olas_, painted
with _curcuma_, and ornamented with various kinds of figures, are
exchanged by the newly-betrothed pair; and from that moment their
union is considered as insoluble. Different musical instruments
are then heard in concert, with singers of both sexes, who join in
songs of joy; and female dancers exhibit their whole art, to afford
entertainment to the wedding guests. During this time the mother of
the bride presents to the Brahmans a bason filled with consecrated
ashes, the remains of the above-described burnt-offering; and she
always chooses such a position that her face is directed towards the
east. The Brahman takes from the bason, three times in succession,
a handful of ashes, and suffers them to escape slowly through his
fingers. When these ashes form on the ground a round figure, it
is called _Sudharshana_ and _Ciakra_, that is, the wheel of happy
omen; for the _Ciakra_, or wheel, is the badge and characteristic
mark of _Vishnu_, and consequently has a reference to the unanimity,
happiness, and fruitfulness of the new-wedded pair. These consecrated
ashes, together with the above mentioned _Olas_, are carefully
preserved in a particular vessel, and considered as a valuable
pledge of mutual fidelity. The Brahman, however, first distributes a
small quantity of them to every person present; and paints on their
forehead, with a sort of ointment, consisting of pulverised sandal
wood, saffron, and dried cow’s dung, the name of God, or the word
_Tirunàma_. When these ceremonies are ended, the bride’s mother
washes the Brahman’s feet; but the father pours water on his hands,
and, having dried them, presents him with a piece of silk or cotton
stuff, and a few _panams_ in gold or silver. Sometimes the Brahman
receives also a calf; and this present is, in general, the most
agreeable.
When the marriage contract has, in this manner, been confirmed on
both sides, the bridegroom returns home, and the _Canya_ is left at
her own house; for the consummation does not actually take place till
the bride has had her monthly purification, so that no doubt can
remain of her being arrived at the state of puberty. As soon as this
is told to the bridegroom, he makes preparations for the wedding,
and with that view repairs, accompanied by all his relations, to the
house of the bride, before which an arbour has been constructed. It
is made fast to four poles sunk to a considerable depth in the earth;
but before the first pole has been erected, the Brahmans approach
the hole destined to receive it, and, in honour of _Gannèsha_ and
_Lakshmi_, besprinkle it with milk and water, and throw into it a few
_Arasu_ leaves, together with a little raw rice mixed with saffron.
When all the four poles are placed upright, a red cord, to which a
great number of _Mava_ leaves are fastened, is wound three or four
times round them at the top. In the middle of the arbour is raised a
small altar, on which is deposited the image of the god _Poleyar_,
who is the same as the before-mentioned _Gannèsha_; and behind the
altar is planted a twig of the tree _Arasu_, which, as I have already
said, is considered as a symbol of the Trinity of the Indians; that
is to say, of _Brahma_, _Vishnu_, and _Shiva_. Near this branch is
placed seven earthen vessels, in which rice has been sown, and which,
at the time of this solemnity, must be at least two inches in height.
These seven vessels have a symbolic reference to the seven planets.
When the arbour has been sufficiently ornamented in this manner,
preparations are made for washing and purifying the bride. For that
purpose seven married women, each of whom bears a vessel, go in
company with the Brahmans, and attended by musicians, singers, and
female dancers, to some river or pond in the neighbourhood, and draw
from it water, which, with various ceremonies, and the greatest
carefulness, is carried to the house where the wedding is celebrated.
Widows are altogether disqualified for this office, and in general
for all those which relate to marriage; and on such occasions dare
not even shew themselves, because they are considered as beings from
whom society derives no benefit whatever. The above seven married
women undress the bride; pour a few drops of water upon her head, and
rub her body over from top to bottom with the fibres of the _Ingia_
plant. They then anoint her breast, shoulders and knees with the
_curcuma_, and bind a piece of white muslin around her loins. This
piece of muslin is made fast behind to a girdle, which consists also
of a piece of muslin of the like kind. Over this sort of apron they
clothe the bride with the so-called _Pidambara_, being a piece of
very fine silk of a golden-yellow colour, which hangs down from the
head, is drawn under the left armpit, and, forming a kind of mantle
on the middle of the body, descends to the feet so as to cover
the legs behind. The Indians consider this _Pidambara_ as sacred;
because _Vishnu_, according to their mythology, always uses such a
robe when he appears to those who worship him. Such of my readers as
are acquainted with antiquities will here no doubt call to mind the
_Flammeum_ of the ancient Romans, which seems to have had a striking
similarity to this _Pidambara_.
The ornaments which the bride puts on are very numerous, and consist
of the following articles:
1st, The _Tòlvalà_, a bracelet, which is fastened on above the elbow.
2d, The _Cadacam_, a golden bracelet worn below the elbow.
3d, The _Nettipatam_, a small golden frontlet.--Both these may be
seen on the ancient Egyptian monuments.
4th, The _Shigamani_, a golden pin round which the hair is twisted up
in such a manner that it lies quite flat.
5th, The _Karniga_, a golden rose, which the Indian women, when they
wish to appear in state, fasten into the aperture of their ears,
because they are very long and wide.
6th, _Cundala_, golden ear-rings, which are often set with jewels.
7th, The _Màla_, a gold chain which is put around the neck, and hangs
down to the middle.
8th, _Urmiga_, a gold ring, which the bride wears on her finger.
9th, _Talà_, a silver hoop, or ring, which the Indian women fasten
round their naked ancles, because they use neither shoes nor
stockings.
10th, _Cadacam_, a second golden bracelet, which, besides the one
above mentioned, surrounds the wrist.
11th, _Pushpamàla_, a necklace of artificial flowers.
12th, _Tularsimàla_, a garland of sweet basil, for which the Indians
have a particular fondness.
When the bride is completely dressed, and covered with all her
ornaments, she is conducted, by the before-mentioned seven women,
to the door of the dressing-room, where she remains standing for
some time with her face looking outwards. She is preceded by one of
the women, who holds in one hand a burning lamp with seven wicks,
and in the other seven pieces of rice dough mixed with _magnel_.
The Brahman then repeats some prayers, the intention of which is to
protect the bride from all kinds of misfortune and witchcraft; but,
in particular, from the witchcraft of the eyes. For the same purpose,
the woman who goes before her raises the seven pieces of rice dough
three times above the bride’s head, and then does the same thing with
the lamp.
When this ceremony is ended, and the bride’s feet have been washed,
she is seated on a mat, which supplies the place of a marriage-bed.
The singers then begin to sing all sorts of nuptial songs, in which
great praise is bestowed on the new-married couple, with wishes that
they may produce many and good children; and, in general, that in the
married state they may be fortunate and happy. The bride, in the mean
time, holds a betel leaf before her face, in order to conceal her
virgin blushes. As a specimen of these songs, I shall subjoin the
following, in the dialect of Malabar:
Shri sagala gunna nàthane
Shri Lakshmi gunna madàve
Mahà Meru yatha sughame
Sadadam pùrti tarename
Sàdhu dèhangam sushilaye
Sàdhu cusuma sugha bàle
Mahà virakti su canyaghe
Mahà viren Kitti Bartavine.
That is: “Happy Sun! the giver of all felicity; and thou happy mother
_Lakshmi_! grant them the enjoyment of all those good things which
rejoice the heart on the mountain _Meru_ (the abode of the blessed
gods). Ensure this pleasure to the modest, timid bride, who exhales
an odour like that of the sweetest flowers.--Grant this, ye who have
blessed the beautiful, worthy maid with a good husband!”
While these songs are sung, the bridegroom puts on his wedding
dress, in another apartment of the same house in which the _Canya_
resides; and as soon as he appears, the _Hòma_ is kindled, which the
new-married couple carefully endeavour to keep up, by throwing into
it sandal wood, frankincense, oil, butter, and other inflammable
substances. After this ceremony the bridegroom seats himself on a
kind of stool, called _Pida_; places both his hands together, and
holds them straight out before him. The Brahman fills them with rice,
betel, and areca; puts a coco nut on the top, and binds around his
left arm a woollen band, to the end of which is fastened a piece of
_curcuma_, or Indian saffron. Whilst he is doing this he repeats the
names of the three chief Indian deities, viz. _Brahma_, _Vishnu_, and
_Shiva_ (or _Rudra_); and, at the same time, casts three knots on the
band. Still repeating the names of these deities, he next paints a
sacred sign on the bridegroom’s forehead with the hallowed ashes of
the _Hòma_ which have remained; and which are called _Tirunìra_. This
figure represents either the eye of Shiva, a crescent, the water-lily
(_Nymphæa_), or a pyramid, the emblem of fire. When these ceremonies
are finished, the bridegroom orders a small dish to be brought;
throws into it every thing put into his hands, as a token of his
respect for the gods; and makes a present of the whole to his barber,
or the man who washed him, and to the surrounding musicians. The
Brahman then steps forwards, and hangs a garland of flowers around
his neck; upon which he rises up from his stool, places himself in
a palanquin, and in that manner is carried through all the streets
of the town. He is attended by the company assembled to celebrate
the wedding, and by all the musicians, singers, and female dancers,
making a loud noise, which resounds throughout the whole place. As
such marriage-processions are generally in the night, a great number
of torches, lamps, candles and lights are exhibited on the occasion;
and various small transparent figures, painted upon paper, and
representing different Indian deities, are carried round at the same
time.
As soon as the bridegroom and his attendants have returned to the
house, a number of superstitious ceremonies are performed, the
object of which is to preserve the new-married pair from witchcraft.
When they are finished, a small copper vessel is placed before the
bridegroom, filled with betel, areca and bananas, on the top of
which lies a coco-nut streaked with saffron, and also the _Taly_
or pledge of conjugal fidelity. The father then desires the bride
to hold out her hands, pours all the above-mentioned articles into
them, and lays a piece of gold coin on the top. As soon as the bride
has received them, the father lays hold of her hands, and, taking
every thing from her that she held in them, puts them into the
hands of his son-in-law. At that moment the Brahman says, with a
clear loud voice, “All the gods are witnesses, that I give thee this
my daughter to wife. Behold her portion!” These words are repeated
three times by the bride’s father. The Brahman then takes the _Taly_,
pronounces a prayer over it, divides the coco-nut, which lay in
the bason, into two equal parts, and again deposits in it the two
halfs. After this he presents the _Taly_ to be touched by each of the
wedding guests, and, when that is done, gives it to the bridegroom,
who hangs it around the neck of the bride. The observation of this
circumstance is of the greatest importance; for upon it depends
properly the validity of the marriage, which is afterwards considered
as insoluble. The _Taly_ itself is a small gold figure, representing
the deity _Poleyar_, or, what amounts to the same thing, _Gannèsha_.
It is suspended by a small cord, dyed with saffron, and consecrated
by the Brahman. Some of the inferior casts use, instead of this gold
figure, the tooth of a tyger, which is dedicated to _Shiva_. When the
bridegroom has hung the _Taly_ around the bride’s neck, the Brahman
lays hold of the new-married pair, each by the ring-finger, and in
that manner leads them thrice round the small altar, upon which the
image of _Gannèsha_ is placed. During this ceremony the new-married
pair must always have a burning lamp near them. One thing never
neglected is, that the bridegroom, when he passes with his bride
over the flat stone on which the Brahman broke the coco-nut, must
always manage so that the bride may touch the stone with her foot.
When these ceremonies are ended, the bridegroom takes a vessel with
milk, applies it to his mouth, and gives it to his bride to drink:
the vessel is then handed round from guest to guest, who all put it
to their lips in succession. The solemnity is then concluded with
a second procession. The bridegroom again places himself in his
palanquin, and is borne round through the city in the same manner
as before. Some days after, the band, which the Brahman, as already
observed, bound round his arm with great solemnity, is unloosed. The
young wife now attends to the management of her domestic affairs;
performs her ablutions, purifications, and offerings; and never goes
beyond the threshold of her house without the express permission of
her husband.
* * * * *
To conclude this chapter, I shall here subjoin some Samscred verses,
which relate to the illicit amours of the Indians, and which place
the morality of these people in a very advantageous point of view.
Ròguinì, Reggiasuàlá, Garbhanni, Dhrdàvrda,
Ràgia vargida brshya, Lagida, Bhayàdhara.
Ittaram èszuvidham strìgenanghele Cennu
Satvaram parigrahicìduvan yògyamalla.
That is: “It is unworthy of a man to make use of the following kinds
of women: 1st, A sick woman, _Ròguinì_; 2d, One who has her monthly
purifications, _Reggiasuàla_; 3d, One who is pregnant, _Garbhannì_;
4th, One who has been divorced, _Drdhàvrda_; 5th, One who has been
proscribed, or excluded from her cast, _Ragia vargida brshya_;
6th, One who has no shame, _Lagidà_; 7th, One who is afraid of the
mysteries of love, _Bhyadharà_.”--Could any one have expected among
these Pagans such pure and sound morality?
I must also observe, that the marriage-ceremonies, which I have here
described, are every-where practised in the same manner throughout
_Malayalam_, that is, Malabar; in the kingdom of _Pandi_, or
_Madura_; in _Maïssur_, _Congao_, and _Carnàdage_ or _Carnate_. I
will not, however, assert that they are generally used in districts
where the ancient religious system of the inhabitants is not
preserved in its original purity. In the northern part of India,
which has been exposed to the hostile incursions of the Persians,
Greeks, Arabs, and Tartars, many things may perhaps be established on
a different footing; but I cannot speak of this with any certainty,
as I never had an opportunity of visiting those parts of the
country[162].