Transcriber’s Note:
Words and phrases in italics are surrounded by underscores, _like
this_. Footnotes were renumbered sequentially and were moved to the
end of the book. Obvious printing errors, such as backwards, upside
down, or partially printed letters and punctuation, were corrected.
Final stops missing at the end of sentences and abbreviations were
added. Duplicate or missing letters at line endings were removed or
added, as appropriate.
Words have inconsistent spelling, hyphenation, and use of
diacriticals. These were not changed unless indicated below. Dialect,
obsolete and alternative spellings were not changed. Long dashes were
converted to elipses in Book 2, chapter 7.
The following were changed:
“1738” to “1778” ... a second time in 1778....
“emploped” to “employed”
“merchanchise” to “merchandise”
“ex-jesuist” to “ex-jesuit”
“contorsions” to contortions
“obstables” to obstacles
Pius “XVI” changed to Pius “VI”
“too” to “two” ... two days in arrest ...
“to” to “too” ... or see too clearly ...
“consideraby” to “considerably” ... are considerably changed ...
“di” to “die” ... die Zigeuner ...
“engaving” to “engraving” ... an engraving of which ...
“apparations” to “apparitions” ... In these apparitions ...
“concentred” to “concentrated”
“Phenicians” to “Phoenicians”
“too” to “two” .. yields two crops every year ...
“tranformed” to “transformed” ... transformed himself ...
A
VOYAGE
TO THE
_EAST INDIES:_
CONTAINING
An Account of the Manners, Customs, &c. of the NATIVES,
With a Geographical Description of the Country.
COLLECTED FROM
Observations made during a Residence of Thirteen Years,
between 1776 and 1789, in Districts little
frequented by the EUROPEANS.
BY
FRA PAOLINO DA SAN BARTOLOMEO,
Member of the Academy of Velitri, and formerly Professor of the
Oriental Languages in the Propaganda at Rome.
WITH NOTES AND ILLUSTRATIONS BY
_JOHN REINHOLD FORSTER, LL.D._
Professor of Natural History in the University of Halle.
TRANSLATED FROM THE GERMAN
BY WILLIAM JOHNSTON.
LONDON.
PRINTED BY J. DAVIS, CHANCERY LANE:
AND SOLD BY VERNOR AND HOOD, POULTRY; AND
J. CUTHELL, HOLBORN.
M.DCCC.
PREFACE.
The original of this work appeared at Rome in the year 1796[1]. A
German edition was published, in 1798, at Berlin, by the well-known
Dr. John Reinhold Forster, with copious Notes; and from the latter
the English Edition now offered to the Public has been translated.
The Notes, a very few excepted, the Translator has retained, and it
is hoped they will be found useful to illustrate various parts of the
Text.
The author, Fra Paolino da San Bartolomeo, a barefooted Carmelite,
resided thirteen years in India, and therefore may be supposed to
have been well acquainted with the subject on which he treats. He
was born at Hof, in the Austrian dominions, in 1748; and, before he
embraced the monastic life, was known by the name of John Philip
Wesdin. He was seven years Professor of the Oriental Languages in the
Propaganda at Rome, and since his return from India has published
several works relating to that country.
In regard to the present work, Dr. Forster, in his Preface to the
German Edition, says:
“It is the more valuable, as the author understood the Tamulic or
common Malabar language; and, what is of more importance, was so well
acquainted with the Samscred, (a language exceedingly difficult,) as
to be able to write a Grammar of it, which was published at Rome in
1790[2]. It appears from some of his quotations, that he understood
also the English and French.
“His knowledge of the Indian languages has enabled him to rectify our
orthography, in regard to the names of countries, cities, mountains,
and rivers. The first European travellers who visited India were, for
the most part, merchants, soldiers, or sailors; very few of whom were
men of learning, or had enjoyed the advantage of a liberal education.
These people wrote down the names of places merely as they struck
their ear, and for that reason different names have been given to
the same place in books of travels, maps, and military journals. To
this may be added, that the authors were sometimes Dutch, sometimes
French, and sometimes English; consequently each followed a different
orthography, which has rendered the confusion still greater. The
author of the present work thought it of importance to correct these
errors; a task for which he seems to have been well qualified by his
knowledge of the Indian dialects. Thus, for example, he changes the
common, but improper, appellation Coromandel into _Ciòlamandala_,
Pondichery into _Puduceri_, &c.; but the Reader ought to remember,
that, as the author wrote in Italian, his _c_ before _e_ and _i_ must
be pronounced _tch_, &c.
“As the changed orthography of the names of countries, cities, and
rivers, rendered a Geographical Index in some measure necessary, one
has been added at the end of the work.--Readers acquainted with the
tedious labour required to form such a nomenclature, and who may have
occasion to use it, will, no doubt, thank the Translator for his
trouble.”
CONTENTS.
BOOK I.
CHAP. I.
_Arrival at Puduceri (Pondichery)--Coast of Coromandel--
Going on shore--Capuchins--Jesuits--Description of the
City--Its Trade--Fortifications--White Ants--Bitter
Drops--Error of the Heathens in regard to Christianity_ Page 1
CHAP. II.
_Virapatnam--Seminary there--Error of Ptolemy the
Geographer--Apis--Error of some modern Geographers--
Etymological Catalogue of Places in Carnada, Tanjaur,
and Madura_ 18
CHAP. III.
_Geographical, statistical, and historical Observations
on the Kingdoms of Tanjaur, Marava, Madura, and Carnada_ 35
CHAP. IV.
_Journey from Puduceri to Covalan, Maïlapuri, and
Madraspatnam_ 67
CHAP. V.
_Indian Weights, Measures, Coins, and Merchandise_ 78
CHAP. VI.
_Topographical Description of Malabar_ 102
CHAP. VII.
_Population of Malayala--Manners, Customs, and Industry
of the Inhabitants--Political State of the Country_ 149
CHAP. VIII.
_Missionary Affairs--Audience of the King of Travancor_ 177
CHAP. IX.
_Quadrupeds, Birds, and Amphibious Animals on the Coast
of Malabar_ 210
CHAP. X.
_Seas, Rivers, Vessels used for Navigation, Fish,
Shell-fish, and Serpents in India_ 229
BOOK II.
CHAP. I.
_Birth and Education of Children_ 253
CHAP. II.
_State of Marriage among the Indians_ 269
CHAP. III.
_Laws of the Indians_ 284
CHAP. IV.
_Classes or Families of the Indians_ 293
CHAP. V.
_Administration of Justice among the Indians_ 309
CHAP. VI.
_Languages of the Indians_ 313
CHAP. VII.
_Religion and Deities of the Indians_ 324
CHAP. VIII.
_Hieroglyphical Marks of Distinction among the Indians_ 340
CHAP. IX.
_Division of Time--Festivals--Calendar of the Indians_ 345
CHAP. X.
_Music, Poetry, Architecture, and other Arts and
Sciences of the Indians_ 364
CHAP. XI.
_Medicine and Botany of the Indians_ 401
CHAP. XII.
_Author’s Voyage to Europe--Some Account of the Island
of Ceylon_ 424
CHAP. XIII.
_The Author’s Voyage to Europe continued--Short Account
of the Isles of France and Bourbon, the Cape of Good
Hope, and the Island of Ascension._ 437
ERRATA.
Page 28, last line, for _Krishavaram_, read _Krishnavaram_.
56, sixth line from the top, for _Condur_, read _Coudur_.
64, third line from the bottom, for _Tindacalla_, read
_Tindacolla_.
125, first line, for _Clagnil_, read _Elagnil_.
A
VOYAGE
TO THE
EAST INDIES.
BOOK I.
CHAPTER I.
_Arrival at Puduceri (Pondichery)--Coast of Coromandel--Going
on shore--Capuchins--Jesuits--Description of the City--Its
trade--Fortifications--White ants--Bitter drops--Error of the
heathens in regard to Christianity._
The ship _l’Aimable Nannette_, commanded by Captain Berteaud, in
which I sailed from l’Orient, arrived in the road of _Puduceri_[3]
on the 25th of July 1776, after a tedious passage of six months and
as many days. Our patience was, therefore, almost exhausted; and we
longed not a little to set our feet once more upon dry ground. We
directed our anxious looks towards the shore over the blue waves, and
flattered ourselves with the hopes of reaching it that evening[4]:
but, as the duration of the twilight is exceedingly short in India,
night suddenly overtook us, disappointed the accomplishment of our
wishes, and spread her dusky veil over both sea and land. At sun-rise
next morning we saluted the citadel of _Puduceri_ with eleven guns;
a compliment which the garrison returned with nine, and at the same
time hoisted the French flag.
The coast of _Ciòmandala_[5], which the Europeans very improperly
call _Coromandel_, has at a distance the appearance of a green
theatre. The sea-shore is covered with white sand; and a multitude
of beautiful shells are here and there to be seen. The country is
intersected by a great many rivers and streams, which flowing down
from the high ridge of mountains on the west, called the _Gauts_,
pursue their course towards the east, and discharge themselves into
the sea; some with impetuosity and noise, others with gentleness
and silence. In the months of October and November, when the rainy
season commences, these streams are swelled up in an extraordinary
degree, and sweep from the mountains a multitude of serpents, which,
to the no small terror of the unexperienced traveller, they carry a
great way out with them into the sea. This, in all probability, has
given rise to the fabulous tales of sea monsters, which some pretend
to have seen in the Indian ocean. The land here is covered, to a
considerable distance, with trees of all kinds, and particularly that
called by the Europeans the real Indian palm or the coco-nut tree.
The Indians give it the name of _tenga_, and make much use of it for
planting neat gardens, with which not only the coast of Malabar,
but a great part of that of _Ciòlamandala_ also is, in a manner,
overspread. Various hamlets and villages are interspersed between
these gardens, and the whole surrounding country delights the eye
with never-fading verdure.
During my travels through India I found the climate every where
mild and healthful; and in no place did I hear complaints of bad
weather. The Indians generally sleep with their doors and windows
open, except when there is any appearance of the _Caracatta_, which
is a certain kind of wind that blows from the quarter of the _Gauts_.
This chain of mountains begins at Cape _Comari_[6], in the eighth,
degree of north latitude, and extends thence towards the north; so
that it almost intersects India in the middle. The eastern part
is called _Ciòlamandala_, that is, the _land of millet_[7]; the
western _Malayala_, or the _land of mountains_. The latter is called
by the Arabians and Europeans Malabar, or the Malabar coast. The
_Gauts_, the highest ridge of mountains in this country, occasion
that difference in the weather, and that remarkable change of
seasons which take place on both these coasts. This is one of the
most singular phenomena of nature ever yet observed. On the coast
of _Ciòlamandala_ the summer begins in June; but on the coast of
Malabar it does not commence till October. During the latter month
it is winter on the coast of _Ciòlamandala_, whereas on the coast
of Malabar it begins so early as the 15th of June. The one season
therefore always commences on the east coast at the time when it ends
on the western. When winter prevails on the coast of Malabar; when
the mountains and valleys are shaken by tremendous claps of thunder,
and awful lightning traverses the heavens in every direction, the
sky is pure and serene on the coast of _Ciòlamandala_: ships pursue
their peaceful course; the inhabitants get in their rice harvest, and
carry on trade with the various foreigners who in abundance frequent
their shores. But when the wet season commences; when these districts
are exposed, for three whole months, to storms and continual rains,
hurricanes and inundations, the coast of Malabar opens its ports to
the navigator; secures to its inhabitants the advantages of trade,
labour and enjoyment; and from the end of October to the end of
June presents a favourable sky, the serene aspect of which is never
deformed by a single cloud. This regulation of nature appeared to
Strabo, the geographer, altogether incredible; and he, therefore,
abused those travellers who, on their return from India, asserted
that in the course of the year, in that country, there were two
summers and two winters. In this manner must the writers of travels
often suffer by the ignorance of their readers[8]. “When I called
in the aid of commentators to illustrate such passages,” says
Chardin, “I every where observed the most palpable errors; for these
people grope in the dark, and endeavour to explain every thing by
conjecture.”
On the 26th of June I left the ship about noon, and, in company with
M. Berteaud the captain, went on board a small Indian vessel of that
kind called by the inhabitants _shilinga_. As it is exceedingly
dangerous and difficult to land at _Puduceri_ and _Madraspatnam_,
these _shilingas_ are built with a high deck, to prevent the waves of
the sea from entering them. This mode of construction is, however,
attended with one inconvenience, which is, that the waves beat with
more impetuosity against the sides; raise the _shilinga_ sometimes
towards the heavens; again precipitate it into a yawning gulph, and,
at length, drive it on shore with the utmost violence[9]. In such
cases the vessel would be entirely dashed to pieces, if the _Mucoas_,
or fishermen, who direct it, did not throw themselves into the sea,
force it back by exerting their whole strength, and in this manner
lessen the impetuosity of the surf. I was greatly alarmed before I
reached the shore; and was so completely drenched by the waves, that
the water ran down my back.
When I approached the city, I was exactly in the same state as if
I had entered a furnace; for the sun had rendered the sand, with
which the shore is covered, almost red hot. The reflection of his
rays caused an insufferable smarting in my eyes, and my feet seemed
as if on fire. I was met on the road by some Indian Christians,
who conducted me to the convent of the Capuchins, in the southern
extremity of the city. These good fathers were then employed in
building: for the English, in the year 1764, had bombarded _Puduceri_
from their ships lying in the road; and the poor Capuchins, as
well as others, felt the effects of their vengeance, their church
and convent being converted into a heap of ruins. The English,
perhaps, were not acquainted with the maxims of the Pagan Indians,
who consider it as an unpardonable crime to destroy the temple and
house of God; for they say, _Covil kettium tannir pandel kettium
nashikarudàae_; which may be thus translated: “It is never lawful to
destroy a temple, and the halls in which travellers have lodged.”
For want of room the Capuchins were not able to admit me into their
convent, and therefore I repaired to the French missionaries,
belonging to the so called _Missions étrangères_, who resided in
the pagan quarter of the city. Here I found the procurators of this
establishment, Messrs. Jallabert and Mouthon, by whom I was received
with every mark of kindness and attention. After dinner I took a walk
to the Jesuits’ college, where I saw Father Julius Cæsar Polenza, a
learned Neapolitan, who was celebrated on account of his political
talents, but still more on account of his knowledge of the Tamulic
language; also Father le Fabre, Father Anzaldi; and fifteen other
missionaries who had not long before assembled there, for the first
time, from _Tanjaur_ and _Madura_.
The governor of _Puduceri_, at that time, was M. Law de Lauriston, a
man of very moderate principles, who perfectly understood the art of
living in a state of peace and friendship, both with the English at
Madraspatnam, and the Pagan Indians his neighbours. Few of those who
preceded him in the government of Puduceri possessed the same virtue.
On the contrary, most of them made it their chief study to endeavour
to extend their dominion. This man’s prudence and moderation were
not, therefore, approved by some of his hot-headed countrymen; and
Sonnerat[10] inveighs bitterly against the friendly reception which
Lord Pigot the governor of _Madraspatnam_ experienced when he passed
through _Puduceri_. _Cum vitia prosunt, peccat qui recte agit_--When
vice thrives, those who act right become criminal.--The moderation of
M. Law de Lauriston could not then fail to give offence to illiberal
minds, subject to the impulse of their passions.
_Puduceri_, in my time, was a large and very beautiful city. The
governor resided in an elegant palace. It was not uncommon to
see a hundred covers on this gentleman’s table; and I once had
the honour, together with M. Jallabert, of being invited to one
of his entertainments. The city, towards the north and south, is
defended by excellent fortifications, constructed in the year 1769,
under the direction of M. Bourcet, who also formed the plan of
them. In the southern part, some of the houses, inhabited by the
Europeans, are exceedingly large and beautiful, and are ornamented
with projecting galleries, balustrades, columns and porticoes. The
European quarter is entirely separated from that of the Mahomedans
and Pagan Indians. The latter live altogether in the western part.
When a certain quarter is in this manner assigned to the Indians for
their residence, one of their countrymen is always placed over them
as a superintendant, who is obliged to preserve peace and good order
among them, and to take care that they do not transgress the laws. At
_Cottate_, _Padmanaburam_, _Tiruvandapuram_, _Cayancollam_, and other
towns on the Malabar coast, the same establishment is made, that no
strife or contention may arise among the various tribes, castes, and
religious sects, on account of the difference of their manners and
customs. Every one here is allowed to live in his own manner, and to
enjoy his own belief; as it is not possible that so many classes and
so many thousands of people should ever unite in one common system of
religion[11].
The gate of the city towards the west was guarded by the so called
_sipoys_ (seapoys) or Indian soldiers, who consist of people of every
caste, and of all religions. They were exercised according to the
French manner. _Hayder Aly Khan_, that celebrated and formidable
warrior, who reduced under his dominion _Maissur_, _Carnate_,
_Concao_, _Canara_ and _Calicut_, was originally a seapoy who did
duty at this gate of _Puduceri_[12]. In that city he became first
acquainted with the French tactics, which he afterwards employed not
only against the Indian kings and princes, but against the Europeans;
and it is not improbable that another Indian hero may arise in
the course of time, and, in like manner, make use of the military
discipline of the English, which that nation still teach to the
native Indians. As the English and French in India are in a continual
state of enmity, some enterprising Indian generally steps in between
them, and attacks either the one or the other of the contending
parties. Such was the conduct of _Hayder Aly Khan’s_ son, _Tippoo
Sultan Bahader_, who overran a considerable district in the southern
part of India, and defeated the British troops in several engagements.
_Puduceri_ was given up to the French, on the 15th of July 1630, by
_Rama Rajah_ a son of _Sevagi_ king of the _Marattas_. This prince
was sovereign of the province of _Gingi_, and possessed a fortress of
the same name, which was situated among the mountains on the south
of _Puduceri_. _Rama Rajah_ had wrested this province, to which
_Puduceri_ belonged, from its original and lawful owner; and he
resigned the city to the French on condition of their paying two per
cent. on all the goods which should be there exported or imported.
When Captain Ricaut established the French East India Company in
1642, he entered into partnership with twenty-four other merchants;
and the only object of this society, as they then pretended, was to
carry on trade in India. These merchants, however, shewed only too
soon that their views were directed to things totally different. By
little and little they began to extend their boundaries; endeavoured
to get into their hands new possessions; from being merchants became
warriors, and at last ventured to refuse the two per cent. which they
had solemnly contracted to pay. This was done, in particular, after
the year 1695, in which the Moguls took the fortress of _Gingi_[13].
There is just reason then to be surprised at the singular conduct of
the Abbè Raynal, who throws out the bitterest reproaches against the
Portuguese, as the first conquerors of India; and yet passes over, in
perfect silence, what might be said of the violent proceedings of the
other European nations, who certainly trod in the footsteps of the
Portuguese. M. Dupleix, who was then governor of _Puduceri_, caused
the Mogul to create him a nabob, that is an Indian chief or prince;
and after that period the before-mentioned engagement and duty were,
in the course of a few years, buried in oblivion. The haughtiness of
the French still increased; the utmost degree of jealousy prevailed
between them and the English; and a war was the consequence, in
which the French soon lost their trade and their Indian possessions,
which they afterwards recovered, and lost and recovered in turns.
The Dutch East India Company, more attentive to its interest, and
less inclined to war, possessed also several considerable settlements
in India; but it excited much less jealousy, because it observed a
peaceable conduct, and by these means acquired greater riches. In
the year 1693, the Dutch took _Puduceri_, but restored it at the
peace of Ryswick. In the year 1748 it was besieged by the English;
and in 1761 it was taken by them, but given up at the peace of 1763.
They made themselves masters of it a second time in 1778, when De
Bellecombe was governor, but abandoned it afterwards in 1783. On the
commencement of the French revolution it came under the dominion of
the nabob _Mohamed Aly_ prince of _Arcate_, a faithful adherent of
the English; and ever since it has remained in his hands, or rather
in the hands of the English. To such a state have the affairs of the
French in India been reduced by their pride, their ambition and their
rage for war! What benefits or advantages could France expect, as an
indemnification for the monstrous sums which it was obliged to expend
on this Indian colony, during its varied and ever changing fate? When
in its most flourishing condition, it was said to contain, including
the district belonging to it, about 20,000 inhabitants. Of these from
four to five thousand, at least, were employed in collecting cotton;
and in carding, spinning, weaving and printing it. By means of this
industry the trade might have been so far improved that it would not
only have sufficiently indemnified the Company for their expence,
but have procured them the greatest advantages. On my arrival at
_Puduceri_, five French ships were lying in the road, and the
_Aimable Nannette_ made the sixth. Some days after four others came
to anchor. Three of these vessels were more than sufficient to supply
the colony with every necessary; for three or four French merchants
only resided in it. These ships were laden with wine, iron, cannon,
fire-arms and French cloth. Now the Indians drink no wine, and their
clothing consists of white cotton stuffs manufactured in their own
country. How then did the French dispose of their commodities? They
sold their wine, cloth, cannon, fire-arms, and, in a word, their
whole cargoes to the English at Madraspatnam and Bengal, who employed
these very cannon and arms against the French troops. On the other
hand, the greater part of the money which the French received for
these goods remained in India, as they purchased with it muslin,
cotton stuffs, ginghams, sugar, pepper, cinnamon, cardamums,
handkerchiefs, pearls, precious stones, and male and female slaves.
Whether such a trade could be beneficial to France, I shall leave the
reader to determine[14].
The garrison of _Puduceri_ consisted of 4000 men. The city is
situated on a sandy plain, not far from the shore, which produces
nothing but palm trees, millet, and a few herbs; though the
surrounding district produces cotton, with a little rice and capers.
Neither _Puduceri_ nor _Madras atnam_ can be compared with the
cities on the Malabar coast, in regard to abundance in provisions.
On the coast of _Ciòlamandala_, which forms the eastern part of
this peninsula, the heat is more intense, and the soil much sandier
than any where else; and fewer rivers are found here, because it is
too far distant from that ridge of mountains called the _Gauts_. To
these circumstances it is to be ascribed that it produces very little
cotton, and much less rice; that a greater trade is carried on here,
while agriculture is neglected; and, in short, that its inhabitants
are much more active and ingenious, handsomer, blacker, and more
superstitious than on the coast of Malabar. The kingdom of _Tanjaur_
forms, however, an exception; for this district is watered by several
rivers that flow through it, and supplies with rice the whole coast
of _Ciòlamandala_. The English, therefore, never ceased quarrelling
with the Indian princes till they had reduced this kingdom under
their subjection, as I shall soon relate in a more particular manner.
I remained at _Puduceri_ till the 8th of September. During that time,
which I employed in making myself acquainted with the geography of
the country, the manufactures and manners of the Indians, I met with
two incidents, which to me were new, and on that account excited
more my astonishment. I had put all my effects into a chest which
stood in my apartment, and being one day desirous of taking out a
book in order to amuse myself with reading, as soon as I opened the
chest I discovered in it an innumerable multitude of those white
insects which the _Tamulians_, that is the inhabitants of the coast
of _Ciòlamandala_, call _Carea_, and those of Malabar _Cedel_. They
are the white ants which have been already described by naturalists,
but which I never before had an opportunity of seeing[15]. When
I examined the different articles in the chest, I unfortunately
observed that these little animals had perforated my shirts in a
thousand places; gnawed to pieces my books, and among others had
already half destroyed a copy of Father Gazzaniga’s Theology; my
girdle, my amice, and my shoes fell to pieces as soon as I touched
them. The ants were moving in columns each behind the other, and each
carried away in its mouth a fragment of my effects, As I expressed my
astonishment by a loud shout, M. Jallabert ran into the room, and,
seeing the swarms of these insects, repeatedly exclaimed, _Carea!
Carea!_ He then ordered my chest to be placed in the sun, and as
soon as these careas found themselves exposed to his rays, they all
speedily left it. My effects, however, were more than half destroyed;
but it was very fortunate for me, on this occasion, that cotton goods
are sold exceedingly cheap at _Puduceri_. One of the finest shirts,
ready made, costs no more than five Roman paoli, or a rupee[16],
according to the course of exchange in that settlement. I therefore
clothed myself anew from head to foot, and with articles made of
cotton.
One evening, a few days after, I had entered into a conversation with
M. Jallabert on the religious ceremonies of the Heathens, and the
properest means of converting them to the Christian faith; while his
two servants had thrown themselves down on mats, spread out in the
fore hall, in order to sleep. All of a sudden one of them began to
scream out dreadfully; to beat his forehead; to stamp on the floor,
and to roar and writhe his body like a madman. On asking him what was
the matter, he pointed to one of his ears. We found on examination
that a centipede had got into it; and the animal not being able
to find its way out, kept pushing itself forwards, and gnawed the
interior part of the ear. M. Jallabert immediately made the poor
fellow lie down, and poured into his ear a spoonful of bitter drops
(_droga amara_). The insect was dead in a moment; the patient’s pain
and terror ceased, and, as soon as a little water was poured into his
other ear, the centipede dropped out. These bitter drops are prepared
in the following manner. You take mastic, resin or colophonium,
myrrh, aloes, male incense, and calamba root, and pound them very
fine when the weather is dry, that is to say when the north wind
blows, which, in other parts of the world, supplies the place of what
is here called the _Caracatta_. If you wish, therefore, to make a
quantity of this medicine equal to 24 pints, you must take 24 ounces
of resin or colophonium, 12 ounces of incense, 4 ounces of mastic, 4
ounces of aloes, 4 ounces of myrrh, and a like quantity of calamba
root. Put all these ingredients into a jar filled with strong
brandy, and keep it for a month in the sun during dry weather. If the
brandy is sufficiently impregnated, it assumes a red colour, and the
mass is deposited at the bottom. You then draw off the brandy very
slowly, and bottle it up for use. One or two spoonfuls is the usual
dose administered to sick persons. This medicine is of excellent
service in cases of indigestion, colic, cramp in the stomach, and of
difficult parturition; also for wounds and ulcers; against worms, and
in scorbutic and other diseases which arise from corrupted juices.
It is the best and most effectual remedy used by the missionaries
during their travels. It is prepared in the apothecary’s shop of the
ex-jesuits at _Puduceri_; at _Verapoli_ by the barefooted Carmelites;
and at _Surat_ by the Capuchins. I myself cured with these drops a
young man who was almost totally deaf. After pouring two spoonfuls of
them into his ear, a cylindric piece of a hard yellow substance came
from it, and the patient immediately recovered the perfect use of his
hearing.
As I resided in the Pagan quarter of the city, I was visited by
several young Indians; some of whom were heathens, and others
professors of Christianity. Some of them spoke exceedingly good
French; but others, who had received instruction from the Jesuits,
spoke Latin. From this I concluded that the Indians are by nature
well qualified for study; and that the Indian dialect facilitates,
in an eminent degree, their acquiring the European languages.
Those who were still heathens, boasted much of their theology; and
extolled above all measure their learned language, which they call
the _Samscred_. This confirmed me so much the more in the resolution
I had formed of learning it, let it cost me whatever labour it
might. I observed, however, at the same time, that these young
people, either from ignorance or perversity, frequently confounded
the doctrine and principles of Christianity with the doctrine and
principles of Paganism. Thus, for example, they said that their
female divinity _Lakshmi_ was our Virgin Mary, and that _Brahma_,
_Vishnu_, and _Shiva_, represented our Trinity; that we paid to
images as much adoration as they did; and that our solemn processions
were in nothing different from theirs[17]. I shall hereafter convince
the reader of the falsity of this assertion, and shew how highly
important it is that the missionaries should make themselves well
acquainted with the religious doctrines of the Indians, in order to
open the eyes of these people, so worthy of pity, and to convert them
to the Christian faith[18]. They deceive not only themselves, but
others; for, as they endeavour to lay to the charge of the Christian
religion their own absurd tenets, they do not think it necessary to
embrace it; and as they assert that there is no difference between
their belief and ours, they mislead other Christians, who then
imagine that the religion of the Pagan Indians is nothing else than
Manicheism, or corrupted Christianity; and this error arises, like
the former, from perverted principles and fables.
As the Pagans, Mahometans, and Christians in India all wear white
cotton dresses, and made almost in the same manner, you must look
very closely at their forehead, or breast, if you wish to distinguish
an Idolater from a Christian. The former have on the forehead certain
marks which they consider as sacred, and by which you may know to
what sect they belong, and what deity they worship. In the second
book I shall explain all these marks[19].
CHAPTER II.
_Virapatnam--Seminary there--Error of Ptolemy the geographer--
Apis--Error of some modern geographers--Etymological
catalogue of places in Carnada, Tanjaur and Madura._
M. Jallabert had given-me a particular account of a seminary at
_Virapatnam_, in which young Indians who embraced the Christian
religion were educated. As education is an object which deserves the
particular attention of the traveller, we made a little excursion
thither from _Puduceri_. _Vira_, in the Samscred language, signifies
strong or courageous; and _Patna_, or _Patana_, a city. _Virapatnam_,
therefore, signifies the _strong city_. This place, at present, is
a small town situated at the distance of six miles from _Puduceri_,
towards the south west, on the banks of a river, which takes its
rise in the mountains on the east, and, flowing part _Virapatnam_,
discharges itself into the sea on the south side of _Puduceri_.
_Pudu_ in the Tamulic and Malabar languages, signifies new; _Puduna_,
newness; _Ceri_, a town: _Puduceri_ therefore signifies the _new
town_. From this etymology it is clear that _Puduceri_ cannot be a
place of any antiquity; and it was indeed built by some emigrants
from _Virapatnam_. When the Arabians first came to India, several
cities lying on the sea coast arose in the like manner. It is
therefore ridiculous when certain geographers, who endeavour to
explain Ptolemy’s geography, consider cities first built in modern
times to be the same as some of those mentioned in that author,
though they must undoubtedly have been unknown to him, as they were
not then in existence. It deserves also to be remarked, that Ptolemy,
in giving the distances of places, generally errs from two to three
degrees of latitude. The reason is, that the ancient travellers
were accustomed to reckon the latitude according to the length or
shortness of the day; and, consequently, to determine the distance of
one place from another in the same manner. But as the day and night
near the equator are almost always of equal length, it may readily
be conceived, that the degree of latitude in which a place was
situated could not be accurately ascertained in that manner; and that
Ptolemy, and all those who depended upon him, must have fallen into
errors[20]. The case has been nearly the same with M. D’Anville, as
will be shewn hereafter.
The seminary of _Virapatnam_ was situated in a palm-garden; or,
to speak more correctly, in a garden planted with coco-nut trees.
It was founded by M. Mathon, a celebrated member of the so called
_Missions étrangères_, who, at the time we were there, presided
over it as rector. The building resembled a convent, but was much
better divided; and so contrived, that these oriental seminarists did
not find the least impediment, either in their study, their bodily
exercise, or their other labours. Between three side apartments,
where the three tutors lodged, was a large hall on the ground floor,
in which were constructed two rows of small chambers all adjoining.
They were separated from each other by thin wooden partitions, of
only three or four palms in height; so that each of the students
had an apartment to himself, and all of them could be observed by
their teacher. The teacher sat at a desk, where he read his lessons;
and, while employed in teaching, he could with one view see every
thing that was doing in the different apartments. The pupils not
only studied in these apartments, but also slept in them. A table,
on which lay a mattress, supplied the place of a bed; and both
above and beneath it another small table was suspended, which could
be lowered or raised up at pleasure. If any of these young people
wished to write, he had no occasion to leave his chamber, as he had
nothing to do but to sit down at the foot of his bed; and when he
wished to go out, he had only to remove his table and fold it up.
On the other table above the bed were books, paper, pens and ink;
his long seminary dress, and several small articles necessary for
preserving cleanliness. The doors of the hall, which were exactly
opposite to each other, stood always open to afford a free passage
to fresh air; but no one could go out unperceived by the tutor, who
in his apartment was continually observing every thing that passed.
The refectory was situated in another part of the building; and it
was customary to read in it during meals. The shops of the taylor,
shoemaker, and carpenter, together with the printing-office and ovens
for baking bread, were without, and all occupied by seminarists; for
each of them was obliged to learn a trade. They all went bare-footed;
and one of their employments was to water and look after the young
palm-trees which were planted in the garden. Their time was so
divided, that they studied daily four hours; devoted one hour to
manual labour; and spent the remaining part in prayer, singing and
meditation. On two days in the week they conversed in their mother
tongue; but on other days they were obliged always to speak Latin.
M. Mathon shewed me a bull of his present holiness Pope Pius VI.
issued in favour of this seminary, and in which he bestowed great
praises upon it. This institution was destined merely for young
persons from China, Cochinchina, Tunquin, and Siam. It is much to
be lamented that no establishment of the like kind is to be found
here, for the natives of Malabar, and other parts of the peninsula
of India, who are all formed to the ecclesiastical state in other
countries, and return, for the most part, men of corrupted morals.
On the day of my return to _Puduceri_, I had an opportunity of
seeing a very singular scene; as on that day the god Apis was led
in procession through the city. This deity was a beautiful fat
red-coloured ox, of a middle size. The Brahmans generally guard
him the whole year through in the neighbourhood of his temple; but
this was exactly the period at which he is exhibited to the people
with a great many solemnities. He was preceded by a band of Indian
musicians; that is to say, two drummers, a fifer, and several persons
who with pieces of iron beat upon copper basons. Then came a few
Brahmans, and behind these was an immense multitude of people. The
Pagans had all opened the doors of their houses and shops, and before
each stood a small basket with rice, thin cakes, herbs, and other
articles in which the proprietors of these houses and shops used to
deal. Every one beheld Apis with reverence; and those were considered
fortunate of whose provisions he was pleased to taste a mouthful as
he passed. Philarchus conjectured, as we are told by Plutarch in his
treatise on Isis and Osiris, that Apis was originally brought from
India to Egypt by the inhabitants of the latter. Plutarch himself
asserts that the Egyptians considered Apis as an emblem of the soul
of Osiris; and, perhaps, he here meant to say, that under this
expression they understood that plastic power by which Osiris had
produced and given life to every part of the creation. I shall, in
another place, endeavour to prove, that Osiris was nothing else than
the Sun, and consequently what among the Indians is represented by
the idol _Shiva_, or _Mahadèva_. Hence it happens, that this _Shiva_,
the emblem of the Sun, rides on an ox; and that in the solemn
invocations of the Brahmans he is called _Pashupadi_, that is, _the
man of the cow_. The cow again is nothing else than a symbol of the
goddess _Ishami_, or the woman, as the Indians are accustomed to
call the Isis to whom the cow is dedicated when they speak of her
by her sacred name. On the Egyptian monuments Osiris, as the symbol
of the Sun, is represented with rays around his head; and his wife
Isis bears horns, the symbol of the cow, and also of the new moon,
between which and the sun there is the same relation as between wife
and husband. On the Indian monuments the idol _Shiva_ has an ox under
him; and the goddess _Ishami_, as she is represented in one of the
oldest Indian temples, is leaning with one of her arms on a cow[21].
Pliny in his Natural History, speaking of Apis, makes use of the
following remarkable words: “When he eats out of the hand of those
who come to consult him, it is considered as an answer. He refused to
have any thing from the hand of Germanicus Cæsar, and the latter soon
after died[22].” From this it appears that the Egyptians entertained
the same opinions respecting Apis as the Indians. In Egypt, as well
as India, people were accustomed to consider him as an oracle; to
place food before him, and, according as he accepted or refused it,
to form conclusions in regard to their good or bad fortune. Does not
this evidently shew an analogy in the religious veneration which both
these nations shewed to Apis? As the ox, or Apis, represents the
plastic power of the sun, the cow, in the like manner, is a symbol
of the plastic power of the moon and the earth. The ox, or Apis, is
called in the Samscred _Uksha_, _Bhadra_, _Urszabha_, _Gau_, and
_Mahisha_; but, in the Malabar and Tamulic languages, _Kàla_, _Muri_,
and _Cruda_. The cow in the Samscred is called _Mahey_, _Saurabhei_,
_Gò_, _Usra_, _Mahà_, _Shranguini_; when she is red, _Argiuni_; when
she is white, _Rohinni_: in the Malabar and Tamulic languages she is
called _Pashu_, _Gova_. All these appellations express some of the
properties of oxen and cows. Thus, for example, _Bhadra_ means good;
_Mahisha_, great, magnanimous; _Mahà_, a large cow, a noble animal;
_Shranguini_, handsome, ornamented, beautiful. The idolaters of
Malabar call her _Ama_ or _Tala_, mother; and the ox _Appen_, father.
May not the name Apis employed by the Egyptians and the Greeks be the
corrupted _Appen_, or _Appa_ of the Indians, which signifies father
or creator? The Egyptians were accustomed to give to their Isis the
horns of a cow, instead of a head dress. The Indians also worship the
cow as a divinity. Most of the houses belonging to the Pagan Indians,
not only at _Puduceri_, but upon the whole of both the coasts of
_Malabar_ and _Ciòlamandala_, are covered on the outside and inside
with cow-dung. The Pagans are accustomed to drink cow’s urine, in
order to purify them from their sins. When near the point of death,
they take in their hand a cow’s tail; and, according to their belief,
if they die in this manner, they are immediately transported to
paradise. I have already said, that the cow is a symbol of the moon
and the earth. For this reason she is also in India the goddess
_Parvadi_ or _Isháni_, _Ishi_ or _Isha_; that is, the woman, the
hallowed; under which appellation they understood the moon. She is
also the goddess _Ma_ or _Lakshmi_, that is the great, dedicated to
the beautiful goddess; and all these sacred names properly signify
the earth. The cow has evidently a mystic sense also, which denotes
the plastic power of the moon, and the fertility of the earth. For
this reason she is held so sacred, and honoured so much, that in
Malabar, and every other place where the Pagans have the superiority,
any person who kills a cow is hung on a gibbet. The ox which
represents Apis, must every three years give place to another. If he
dies in the course of these three years of his deification, he is
committed to the earth with all that pomp and ceremony observed at
the interment of persons of the first rank. Various pagodas, or pagan
temples, have on their front the figure of a cow, or perhaps two, of
a colossal size[23].
The habitations of the Pagans at _Puduceri_, as well as on the
coasts of _Malabar_ and _Ciòlamandala_, are in general very low and
dark. In the last-mentioned district they are built of bricks dried
in the sun, and are covered with palm leaves. The _Pondiyalas_, or
warehouses, in which the Indians keep their merchandise, are also
very dark, especially at _Puduceri_ and _Madraspatnam_. As a great
deal of muslin is sold at both these places, it is not improbable
that the merchants employ such a mode of construction, that the
faults of their wares may be better concealed.
The Capuchins of the province of Tours in France have the right of
sending a missionary priest to _Puduceri_ when the place becomes
vacant. The Ex-Jesuits, in virtue of a decree issued by Louis XVI,
have united with the society of the _Missiòns étrangères_, so that
they now form only one body. The Europeans are under the care of the
Capuchins, and the Indian Christians under that of the Ex-Jesuits.
The latter have to attend four thousand Christians: but this number
is sometimes greater, sometimes smaller, according as it is peace
or war; for, in the time of war, many Indian Christians remove from
the place, and either wander about or take refuge in the mountains.
Not long before my time, the seminary of _Virapatnam_ had been,
transferred to _Ariancopan_, which is the residence of a bishop, who
at _Puduceri_, in the kingdoms of _Tanjaur_, _Madura_, and _Carnada_,
as also in the province of _Gingi_, is invested with the dignity
of apostolical vicar. This man is involved in continual quarrels
with the bishop of _Mailapuri_, or _St. Thomas_, a Portuguese, who
endeavours to dispute with him the right of spiritual judicature.
According to M. de la Tour’s map, which is the correctest, _Puduceri_
lies in 12° N. lat. and 78° E. lon. On the 1st of January the sun
rises here at 23 minutes past six, and sets at 37 minutes past five.
On the 28th of August he appears above the horizon at 51 minutes
after five, and sinks below it at 9 minutes after six. On the first
of December he makes his appearance at 21 minutes past six in the
morning, and sets at 38 minutes past five in the evening. From these
data the reader may easily calculate the length of the days and the
nights.
The river which runs past _Virapatnam_, and discharges itself into
the sea on the west of _Puduceri_, is called properly _Ciovanàru_,
and not _Chonenbar_, as it is named by the European geographers.
_Aru_, in the Malabar and Tamulic languages, signifies a river, and
_Ciovano_ red: the compound word is _Ciovanàru_, the red river:
and its water, on account of the earth which it washes down in its
course, is sometimes indeed of a blood-red colour. But as the Indians
shorten the first half of the word, and say _Ciona_, or _Tchona_,
instead of _Ciovana_, the Europeans have mutilated it completely,
and made of it _Chonenbar_. A similar mutilation of Indian words
and appellations is in general not uncommon, especially when they
are introduced into foreign languages. On the map of Coromandel,
published by M. De la Tour at Paris, in the year 1770, the above
river is distinguished by the improper name of _Chonenbar_. That
the case is the same with the word _Coromandel_, used instead of
_Ciòlamandala_, has been observed before. M. D’Anville, with equal
impropriety, not only in his _Geographical Antiquities of India_,
printed at the king’s printing-house at Paris, in the year 1775,
but also in all his maps of India, gives the name of _Carnata_ to a
large kingdom lying to the west of _Puduceri_. Its proper name is
_Carnàda_; that is, the black land; from _Car_, black, and _Nada_,
land. It is so called in the Tamulic and Malabar languages, in order
to distinguish it from _Ciòlamandala_, the land of millet; for the
millet thrives best on the districts not far from the sea coast.
But the former land lies at a distance from the sea; abounds with
excellent pastures; and produces large quantities of rice, pepper,
cotton, and other things of the like kind, which can neither grow
nor be cultivated in a sandy soil impregnated with marine salt. Of
a hundred Indian names which belong to towns and villages in those
districts, there are scarcely ten which have not been mutilated and
corrupted by foreigners. Those who study the history and geography
of India in the works of the Europeans, will every moment meet with
passages which require to be amended. In order that this may be done
in part, I shall here present the reader with an etymological list of
the principal places and towns on the coast of _Ciòlamandala_, or,
as the Europeans say, of _Coromandel_; and shall adhere as much as
possible to the orthography of the Indians.
NAMES OF CITIES, TOWNS, &C. IN CARNADA
AND CIÒLAMANDALA.
_Valiacàda_, the great mountain; or _Valiacadà_, the great passage,
or ford, called by the Europeans _Pallicate_; is a city on the sea
coast, at the mouth of a small river. The Dutch have a settlement
here.
_Ottocutta_, or _Ottukottei_, a solitary city, a solitary castle.
_Pondamala_, or _Pondalamey_, a high mountain; from _Pondu_, high;
and _Mala_ or _Maley_, which, in the Tamulic and Malabar languages,
signifies a mountain. It is a fortified mountain, called by the
Europeans, _Grand Mont_.
_Madraspatnam_; _Patnam_, the city; _Madraspatnam_, the city of
_Madras_.
_Maïlapuri_, or _Maïlapuram_, the city of peacocks: the _Meliapur_,
or _St. Thomas_ of the Europeans.
_Tirupati_, a sacred place, a sacred temple; called by the Europeans
_Tirupeti_. It is situated in _Carnada_, under 14° N. lat. and 77°
15′ E. lon. It is dedicated to _Vishnu_, and is much resorted to by
people from all parts of India. The pilgrims, who repair thither
to perform their devotions, cut off their hair, and bring it as an
offering to _Vishnu_.
_Tirunamalà_, or _Tirunamaley_, the sacred mountain; corrupted into
_Tirnimalet_.
_Govalam_, the circuit of the cow; corrupted _Govelan_.
_Uttamalùr_, the good town; corrupted _Outremalour_.
_Arrucati_, a city or castle, from which one can see the river
_Paler_; corrupted into _Arcate_.
_Cangipuri_, or _Congipuram_, the golden city; from _Puri_, or
_Puram_, the city; and _Cangi_, which in the Samscred signifies gold;
corrupted into _Cangivaron_.
_Vencàtighiri_, the woody mountain; corrupted into _Vincatighiri_.
It is compounded of _Quiri_, or _Shiri_, a mountain; _Ven_, white;
and _Cati_ or _Catil_, in the forest: a city situated on the mountain
where the white forest is.
_Ciacrapuri_, or _Ciacrapuram_, the circle city, the round city;
corrupted into _Sacrapour_.
_Perumaculam_, the large pond, the large bath; corrupted into
_Permacoul_.
_Mangalur_, the fortunate city, the fortunate town.
_Calianatur_, the town of joy.
_Velur_, the town of the lance. At present it is a city.
_Villanùr_, the town of the arrow. On the maps it is called
_Villenour_.
_Puduceri_, the next town; on the maps called _Pondichery_.
_Attùr_, the town of goats, or the town where the coco-nuts are
ground.
_Krishavaram_, the blessing of the god _Krishna_: a town
distinguished on the maps by the name of _Quichenavaron_.
_Divycotta_, the divine castle; from _Divya_, divine; and _Cotta_, a
castle or fortress. On the maps it is called _Divicoté_.
NAMES OF CITIES AND TOWNS IN THE KINGDOM
OF TANJAUR.
_Tanjaur_, a low situation; or _Tanjiaur_, a miserable, mean,
detestable town. It is the capital of a province of the same name.
The former orthography seems to be the properest; for _Tanjaur_
really stands on low ground, which is often exposed to inundations.
_Turangaburam_, or _Turangaburi_, the water city, or horse city: by
the Europeans called _Tranquebar_.
_Carincala_, the black stone, or rock. It is the _Carical_ of the
Europeans.
_Nàvur_, the dogs’ town, or the new town: the _Naour_ of the
Europeans.
_Tirumaladùvsam_, the temple of the God of the Holy Mountain, that is
of _Shiva_. By the Europeans it is called _Tiremalevasen_.
_Nàgapatnam_, or _Nàgapatana_, the city of the snake, or the city of
the elephant; for _Naga_ signifies a snake, and likewise an elephant;
and _Patna_, a city. It is the same city as that usually called by
the Greeks _Nigamos_, or _Nigama Metropolis_.
_Tiramannùr_ the town of the Holy Land: the _Tremanour_ of the
Europeans.
_Cirangam_, or _Cirangapatnam_, the city of the beautiful limbs: from
_Cir_, beautiful; _Anga_, a limb; and _Patnam_, the city. It is the
_Cheringam_ of the Europeans[24].
_Celiaolam_, the slimy pond; the _Chelicolon_ of the Europeans.
_Tricolùr_, the town of the three pools, or places of lustration. On
the maps it is called _Tricoloùr_.
_Palancotta_, the castle of the bridges, for several bridges must
be passed before one can arrive at it: from _Pàlam_, or _Pàlan_, a
bridge; and _Cotta_, a castle. On the maps it is called _Palancottè_.
NAMES OF CITIES AND TOWNS IN THE KINGDOM
OF MADURA.
_Madura_, _Matura_, and _Madhura_, the lovely, the mild city, or
the city of the hero _Madhu_. It is the capital of the kingdom
of _Madura_, which takes its name from it, but by the Europeans
is called _Madure_. This kingdom is named also _Pandi_, or
_Pandimandala_, the land of _Pandi_, _Pando_, or _Pandava_, an
ancient Indian king, by whom, according to the opinion of the
Brahmans, it was founded. Pliny calls this city _Modusa regia
Pandionis_; but Ptolemy gives it the name of _Methora_.
_Tricinnapalli_: from _Tri_, three; _Cinna_, small; and _Palli_, a
temple or a school. At present it is the capital of _Madura_, and on
the maps is called _Trichenapali_.
_Manelùr_, the town on the sand: a town.
_Tindacalla_, the dirty stone or rock; on the maps _Tinducallu_. It
is the _Tindis_ of Ptolemy and Arrian.
_Tirnaveli_, or _Tirunnaveli_, the place where the tide ends: is at
present a considerable city.
_Mantòpo_, or _Mantòpu_, the garden on good soil: a city.
_Ciangracoil_, the temple of _Ciangra_, or _Shiva_: on the maps
called _Sangaravacoil_.
_Uttamapàleam_; from _Uttama_, the best; and _Pàleam_, or _Pàliyam_,
the house of government. On the maps it is called _Uttamapaleon_.
NAMES OF CITIES AND TOWNS ON THE COAST
OF PESCARIA, OR, AS THE ANCIENTS CALLED
IT, PARALIA.
_Ràmanàthapuram_, the city of _Rama_, of the lord. On the maps it is
called _Ramanadaburon_.
_Vayparra_, the three large rocks; a town which is situated near
these rocks.
_Tùtucuri_, or _Tùducudi_, a town or place where linen cloth is
washed.
_Mannapara_, earth and rocks; from _Manna_, earth; and _Pàrra_, a
rock.
_Vadakencolam_, a pond or bath towards the north; at present a city.
_Gòvalam_, the circuit of the cow; at present a town: the _Colis_ or
_Colias_ of the antients, lying not far from _Tovala_. It is a strong
fortress belonging to the king of _Travancor_, and guards the passage
from the kingdom of _Madura_ to Cape _Comari_. On the maps it is
called _Covalan_.
NAMES OF CITIES AND TOWNS IN THE KINGDOM
OF MAISSUR.
_Maissùr_; from _Maï_, colour; and _Ur_, a land; _Maissùr_, the land
of colour. It is not improbable that it obtained this name either
from the reddish earth found there in abundance, or the dye plants it
produces, and with which the cotton cloth is dyed. This kingdom lies
between _Carnada_, _Madura_, and the coast of Malabar.
_Bengalùr_, the white land, the white earth. This name is given to
the capital where the nabob Hayder Aly Khan formerly resided. It is a
considerable city, strongly fortified.
_Ciringapatnam_, the capital and fortress where the nabob _Tippoo
Sultan Bahader_ resides. It lies at the distance of twenty leagues
from _Bengalur_, towards the west. On the maps it is called
_Chiringapatnam_.
_Dhermapuri_, the city of good works, or the city of virtue; from
_Dherma_, virtue; and _Puri_, a city. On the maps it is called
_Darmapuri_.
_Dharàburam_, or _Dharàpuram_, the city where the rain water runs
off; for it lies at the bottom of that ridge of mountains called the
_Gauts_, from which the water pours down in torrents. On the maps it
is called _Daraburu_.
_Budhapadi_, the town of _Budha_, an Indian idol. On the maps,
_Budapari_.
_Gòculatùr_: from _Go_, a cow; _Cula_, a herd; and _Ur_, the land
or town; consequently the land of the herds of cows. On the map,
_Guclaturu_.
_Cinnabellapuram_, the small city of strength. On the maps called
_Sinnaba’lambaram_.
_Ciandrapati_, or _Tschandrapadi_, the spot in the moon. On the maps
_Sandarupati_.
* * * * *
Of such changed and corrupted names a great many more might be
produced, but most of them so mutilated, that their real meaning
can no longer be guessed, and people would only lose themselves
in uncertain conjectures if they endeavoured to discover their
etymological origin. It, however, appears by those above mentioned,
that some of the Indian cities and towns received their names from
Indian deities, others from local circumstances or the nature of
their situation; and that such appellations cannot have originated
from the Egyptians, Persians, Greeks, or Romans. In the eastern part
of India no traces of Sesostris or the Greeks are to be found, as
some learned men in Europe have erroneously asserted. That India
was already civilised in the time of Sesostris, shall be proved
hereafter. In regard to the Grecian language and mythology, these
were not known in India before the invasion of Alexander the Great,
and even then only in some of the maritime cities of the northern
part of the country[25].
* * * * *
After this digression I shall now give a short account of the
kingdoms of _Madura_, _Tanjaur_, and _Carnada_, according to the
information I received from the missionaries resident in those
countries; for, as I was not able to remain longer on the coast of
_Ciòlamandala_ than from the 26th of July till the 20th of October,
it was impossible for me in the course of these few months to learn,
by my own experience, every thing that regards this remarkable land.
The reader, therefore, will not take it amiss, if I here insert what
was communicated to me by intelligent missionaries, who had spent the
greater part of their lives in those provinces.
CHAPTER III.
_Geographical, statistical, and historical Observations on the
Kingdoms of Tanjaur, Marava, Madura, and Carnada._
The principal cities in the northern part of India are the following:
_Caschemir_, which, according to the map published at Paris in the
year 1781, is situated under the 35th degree of north latitude.
This city is certainly the _Caspira_ or _Caspirus_ of Herodotus, as
D’Anville has already very properly observed[26].
_Cabul_, a city which, on the side of Persia, is as it were the key
of India. It was obliged formerly to pay _tria millia nummum talenta_
to Alexander the Great, as he was returning from the war against
Porus. It lies in the latitude of 34°[27].
_Tatta_, or _Tattanagar_, occurs in Pliny under the name of
_Pattala_, or _Pattalena_, and is situated at the mouth of the Indus,
or _Sindhu_. In this city Apollonius of Tyana once resided a month.
It contained formerly 30,000 looms employed in weaving cotton cloth.
_Hastinapuri_, in the Samscred _Hastinanagari_, called by others very
improperly _Assanapur_, or _Hassnapur_, and by D’Anville _Astanagar_.
At present it is known by the name of _Hassanabad_, and is the first
and oldest city in all India. It lies in the latitude of 32° and
a few minutes. In the book _Bharada_ the following passage occurs
respecting it:
_Hasti tàn nirmicion puramàyadu mùlam
Hastinapuramennu ciollunit arignàlum._
That is: “King _Hasti_ built a city, and therefore it was called
_Hastinapuri_, from king Hasti.” Its inhabitants, and in all
probability some of its kings, were once subdued by the Assyrians:
afterwards they fell under the dominion of Cyrus, to whom they were
obliged to pay tribute. The celebrated Indian kings known by the
names of _Pandu_, _Pando_, or _Pandavi_, resided thirteen months
in the city of _Hastinapuri_. They lived 1550, and not 3102, years
before the birth of Christ, as Mr. Wilkins erroneously asserts. It
appears from my copy of the work called _Bharada_, written on palm
leaves, that _Hastinapuri_ existed a long time before these _Pandos_
or _Pandavi_, and was built at least 2000 years before Christ,
consequently must be of the same antiquity as the Assyrian monarchy.
The consort of king Hasti was named _Ashodara_, and was a daughter
of king _Trigarta_. They had a son called _Vikugnen_, who married
_Sumanda_ a daughter of king _Dashahanda_[28].
The city _Dionysiopolis_, mentioned by Ptolemy and Arrian[29], is
_Nisa_, the city of _Devanishi_, that is of Dionysius, or the Indian
Bacchus. In the Samscred language it is called _Shrinagari_, which
signifies the city of the celebrated, the fortunate, or the blessed
Bacchus[30]. It is called also _Nishadabury_ or _Naishadabur_, that
is, the city _Nisa_. It lies in the latitude of 31°, on the river
_Allakandara_, which discharges itself into the Ganges. According to
the assertion of St. Jerome, it was built by Bacchus 550 years after
the birth of Abraham. _Pallibothra_ was likewise built by Bacchus.
That city, however, is neither the present _Patna_ on the Ganges, as
Major Rennel pretends, nor _Eleabad_, or _Allahabad_, which lies also
on the Ganges, in the latitude of 25 degrees and some minutes; but
_Pallipatur_, now a small town on the river _Yamunà_, at its influx
into the Ganges, in the latitude of 26°. Robertson and D’Anville, who
assert that _Pallibothra_ is the present _Eleabad_, or _Allahabad_,
deserve no credit; because these appellations are of Persian and not
of Indian extraction[31].
_Benares_, _Venares_, or _Kasi_, a celebrated temple, together with
an academy and an observatory, is situated on the Ganges, in the
latitude of 25°, and is the _Cassidia_ of the ancients[32].
_Ayodhya_, an ancient Indian city, where the first Indian monarchs on
the Ganges resided, was situated on the river _Deva_, in the latitude
of 25°, exactly in the spot where _Faizabad_ now stands. It was the
birth-place of _Shiràna_, or _Rama_, an Indian hero, or the younger
Bacchus, whose heroic achievements were celebrated in songs before
the times of the Pagan Indians.
_Modhura_, or _Moturapuri_, called by Pliny _Modura Deorum_, is
also a very ancient city, lying between _Agra_ and _Delhi_, in the
latitude of 27°. It is the birth-place of the god _Krishna_, or the
Indian Apollo, who here tended his herds. For this reason it is
called likewise _Gocula_ and _Ambàdi_, that is, the circuit of the
cows. It is situated on the river _Yamuna_, for which the Pagans have
the utmost veneration.
_Eloura_ or _Illoura_, properly _Ellur_, the city of sesamum, is at
present a town called _Douletabad_. It lies four Indian miles to
the north-west of _Aurungabad_. There is here a very ancient and
celebrated temple, a description of which has been given by Thevenot.
_Canudi_, and not _Canouge_, as Renaudot writes, is an ancient city,
the residence of the first Indian kings. The five brothers _Pandu_,
or _Pando_, who make so great a figure in the ancient history of
India, kept here their court. It lies in the latitude of 27°, on the
river _Càlini_, at the place where it discharges itself into the
Ganges.
_Patna_, a celebrated city on the Ganges, is placed in Father
Tiefenthaler’s map under the latitude of 25°. It contains a million
and a half of inhabitants, according to the assertion of Father
Marcus a Tumba, who has written a description of it. The English have
here a council and government, who are, however, subordinate to the
supreme council at Calcutta.
A more minute account of Indian cities and places may be found
in Tiefenthaler’s description of Hindostan, Anquetil du Perron’s
Historical and Geographical Researches, Rennel’s Memoir, and a very
important manuscript of Father Marcus a Tumba, preserved in the
Borgian museum at Velitri, and entitled _Su i luoghi santi dell’
India_. My object was merely to mention some places in the southern
part of India, which have been passed over in silence by the above
writers.
According to the assertion of the before mentioned Capuchin, Father
Marcus a Tumba, who resided a long time as missionary at _Patna_
and _Tschandranagar_, the _Chandernagor_ of the French, the flux
and reflux of the sea extend, by means of the Ganges, more than
sixty leagues into the country, so that ships of war can proceed
that far up the river. On the _Dèva_ or _Sarayuva_ vessels can go
even to Delhi, and on the river _Son_ to _Rotasgar_. The English
possess, on the Ganges, the cities of _Calcutta_, _Monguiri_,
_Patna_, _Benares_, and _Allahabad_ or _Eleabad_, and have at all
these places factories, fortresses, governors, and collectors of the
public revenues. The province of Bengal alone brings them an annual
income of above three millions sterling. It appears from a letter of
Mr. Hastings, formerly governor-general of Bengal, that the English
ships which sailed from that settlement between the 1st of December
1782, and the 1st of January 1784, had on board goods to the value of
two _cores_ (or _codi_) and sixty-five lack of rupees[33]. A rupee
is equal in value to five Roman _paoli_; a hundred thousand rupees
make one lack; and a hundred _lac_, a _core_ or _codi_. This immense
sum was exported too at a time when the English were involved in a
war with the Indian princes; but to how much will their exports at
last amount in times of war?--Their great revenues will and must
infallibly decrease hereafter; for, in the first place, the natives
are too much oppressed: 2dly, In a state of continual warfare and
plundering, agriculture is neglected: 3dly, Trade and manufactures
decline: 4thly, The country is ruined by monopolies: 5thly, An
immense quantity of specie has been drawn from it of late years; and
at present much fewer rupees and pagodas are seen in circulation than
formerly[34].
Those who wish to form a clear idea of the degraded condition of
the greater part of the Indian kings and princes in the southern
and northern part of India, must recur to the hostile invasions
by which foreign conquerors reduced those countries under their
dominion. In the year 1202 the Tartar _Gingsa Khan_, or _Gengis
Khan_, made an incursion into the kingdom of _Tangut_, and in 1209
into India. He was followed in 1409, two centuries later, by _Timur_
_Bec_, or Tamerlan, when he had crushed the dynasty of the Moguls,
which afterwards was divided into two branches, the eastern and the
western. Timur established himself in the neighbourhood of _Agra_;
expelled, as far as his power extended, the legal Indian kings and
princes; and committed the care of the provinces he had subdued to
nabobs and governors of his own appointment. This was the first time
that the Mogul Tartars took possession of India. Some writers assert,
that _Gengis Khan_ did not enter India till the year 1218, and that
the conquest of that country by Timur falls about the year 1398.
However this may be, _Mir Shah_, called by some _Mirzan Pir Mohamed_,
kept possession of the northern part of India for several years,
and composed for his subjects a new code of laws according to the
political system of the Moguls. The next conqueror of India was _Abu
Said Shemor Ami Shah_, who reigned in 1493. During the persecution
which Timur permitted against the Indians, the Gypsies, who belonged
originally to the caste of the _Pareas_, a people residing on the
_Sindhu_, or Indus, fled from their native country, wandered through
Scythia, and, proceeding thence to Hungary, dispersed themselves
over various parts of Europe[35]. In the year 1519, or, according to
some, 1526, the celebrated conqueror _Bahur_, a descendant of Timur,
extended the Mogul empire in India; or was rather, as some assert,
the real founder of it. He had four sons, _Homaon_ or _Omayoun_,
_Sehir Shah_, _Selim Shah_, and _Firuz Shah_, who reigned after him.
In the year 1550, or 1556, _Akbar_ the wise, a son of _Homaon_,
rebuilt the city of Agra, introduced new laws, and appointed new
nabobs or viceroys in the provinces. He caused various Indian books
to be translated also into the Persian language; and among these
were the work called _Mahabhàrada_, and another named _Ayin Akberi_.
The latter was a book of Indian laws, which had been collected by
his minister _Albufazel_. _Akbar_ died in 1605, and was succeeded by
_Gehanguir_. The latter had five sons, one of whom swayed the sceptre
of the kingdom of _Dàkshima_ or _Decan_, which he had subdued by
force. In 1627 _Gehanguir_ was followed by _Shah Gehan_, who also
left behind him five sons. According to some, however, a prince named
_Bolasci_ reigned a considerable time before him. _Akbar_ restored
to the Brahmans their observatory at Benares, in order that they
might continue their astronomical observations, which had been long
interrupted by the war. _Gehanguir_, on the other hand, had no taste
for the sciences, and could not prevail upon himself to tread in
the footsteps of his father: both he and _Shah Gehan_ were rather
formed for war. These Moguls made an incursion, for the first time,
into the kingdom of _Carnate_, or more properly _Carnada_, in 1632
or 1633; and they thence over-ran the southern part of India, into
which no foreign conqueror had ever before penetrated. _Shah Gehan_
transferred the seat of government from _Agra_ to _Delhi_. The
dominion of the Moguls was still farther extended under the reign of
_Aurengzeb_, one of the sons of _Shah Gehan_. This prince conquered,
in 1686, the kingdoms of _Velur_, _Visapur_, and _Goloonda_; in
1695, subdued _Carnada_ a second time; and, in 1698, made himself
master of the provinces of _Gingi_, _Satara_, and _Panin_. Major
Rennel says, that the revenue of this monarch amounted annually
to thirty-five millions sterling. He died in 1707, and left four
sons, one of whom, _Shah Alem_, assumed the reins of government
the same year. The latter had two sons, who reigned till the year
1739. Their successor _Shah Mohamed_ was dethroned by _Thamas Kuli
Khan_, who plundered the treasury, levied exorbitant contributions
from the people, and carried off an immense booty. _Thamas Kuli
Khan_, or _Nadir Shah_, was followed in 1748 by _Achmet Shah_, a
son of _Mohamed Shah_. After this the throne of Delhi was possessed
from 1756 to 1760 by _Azizeddoulah_ or _Alemguirsani_, king of the
Patans. Under the government of this prince almost all the nabobs
refused obedience to his lawful commands. The districts over which
they presided as viceroys being of considerable extent, and at a
great distance from Delhi, it was therefore much easier for them to
render themselves totally independent. His son was deprived of the
throne by his own prime minister; and bloody feuds ensued, which
continued, without interruption, till the year 1773. As it was far
more advantageous, in every case, to have to contend with several
weak and petty princes, than so formidable and powerful a monarch,
the English, during this state of warfare, considered it as of great
importance to support the rebellious nabobs against their supreme
lord, in order that they might establish themselves more firmly in
the possession of their colonies, and at the same time have allies
in case of need. After this period the power of the Great Mogul
sunk into nothing. The policy by which the English, as well as the
_Subadars_, or Mogul governors, effected this change, may be found
circumstantially described in Pallebot de St. Lubin’s Historical
Memoirs, under the head Revolutions of Bengal. The _Seiks_, whom I
consider as a people originally Christians, but who again adopted
the Pagan religion, taking up arms, now entered in a hostile manner
into _Lahor_, _Multan_, _Delhi_, and other possessions of the Great
Mogul; while the English, in another quarter, combining their own
private interest with that of the rebellious nabobs or viceroys, made
themselves masters of several provinces also: and thus this mighty
empire, notwithstanding its greatness, its monstrous extent, and its
riches, sunk back into its former insignificance. After this period
nothing but war and contention prevailed in _Carnate_, _Tanjaur_,
_Gingi_, _Madura_, and _Maissur_, and in all the provinces, of which
I shall soon give a more particular account.
The first province on the coast of _Ciòlamandala_, which begins in
the south-west, and extends towards the north-east, is _Marava_, the
capital of which, having the same name, is situated, according to M.
De la Tour, in the latitude of 9° 35′ north; as appears by the map
which he published at Paris, in 1770, under the title of _Theatre de
la Guerre dans l’Inde_. This map, which was constructed with great
accuracy on the coast of _Ciòlamandala_, exhibits with much clearness
and precision the different districts, cities, and rivers in the
theatre of the war carried on by the English, French and Indians
against each other, as well as the boundaries of these districts, and
the principal roads through them. It was constructed by order of the
French government for the trial of Count Lally, who had been governor
of _Puduceri_. I consider it as much more correct than the map of the
Brahmans, which Anquetil du Perron has inserted under the title of
_Portion d’une Carte du Sud de la presqu’Isle de l’Inde, faite par
des Brahmes_, in the first part of his _Récherches Historiques et
Geographiques sur l’Inde_, published at Berlin in 1786. The Brahmans
were unprovided with good astronomical instruments, and consequently
not in a condition to construct an accurate map.
The province of _Marava_ is bounded on the east and south by the
sea, on the north by _Tanjaur_, and on the west by _Madura_. It is
intersected by the _Veyarru_, that is, the great river, which flows
down from the _Gauts_, divides the kingdom of _Madura_ or _Pandi_
into two parts, and, running past the ancient city of _Madura_,
spreads itself through the province of _Marava_ into several
branches. By means of this river vessels can be navigated to the sea
through both the before-mentioned provinces, in a direction from west
to east; but it is exceedingly difficult and laborious to return.
While the flood, called by the Indians _Velli_, continues, there is
no impediment, as it each time drives the vessel three or four miles
up the country; but when it is over, the troublesome part of the
navigation commences, because the sailors must then row against the
stream with all their strength. The case is the same, in general, on
the coasts of _Ciòlamandala_ and _Malabar_, with all the rivers which
flow down from the _Gauts_, and which for the most part have their
sources in that ridge of mountains. But with whatever difficulties
this return may be attended, the advantages procured by these rivers
to the inhabitants of the surrounding districts are of the utmost
importance. They facilitate inland as well as foreign trade, render
the soil fruitful, purify and cool the air; in a word, it is to be
ascribed to them alone that the country is habitable by human beings;
which certainly would have been impossible, had not Providence placed
in this part of the torrid zone that immense ridge, and supplied it
so abundantly with water.
The principal cities in the province of _Marava_ are: _Elluvancotta_,
_Ciangucotta_, _Tiruvananganur_, _Ciòlaburam_, _Kavaricotta_, and
_Ràmanàthapuram_, of which I have already spoken. The country is
covered with forests, underwood, and shrubs. The inhabitants are
rude and uncultivated. The men, though of low stature, are strongly
built and excellent warriors. I saw several of them, who had behaved
with great gallantry in the war which _Rama Varmer_, the king of
_Travancor_, carried on against the nabob _Tippoo Sultan Babader_.
Each wore around his head a turban of blue cotton cloth; had a white
jacket which descended to his thighs, a sabre by his side; in his
right hand a lance, and in his left a shield. These people march,
however, in bodies without any certain order, and perform their
evolutions by the sound of a horn. They let their beards grow; have
coarse hands and faces; go bare-footed; and wear a blue girdle around
the body. They are much braver than the _Tamulians_, who can never be
accustomed to the fatigues of a military life.
_Marava_ was formerly a province of the kingdom of _Madura_. The
ruler of it was called _Nyaquen_, that is, the lord; but the
Europeans have corrupted this word, and made of it _Naik_ or
_Naiken_. The northern part of _Marava_ is at present under the
dominion of the nabob Mohamed Aly and his friends the English; but
the western is subject to the king of _Travancor_, who possesses also
a part of _Madura_ and _Marava_ on the east, from Cape _Comari_,
in consequence of a treaty which he entered into with the English
and Mohamed Aly. This king of Travancor, however, is obliged to pay
the _Coppa_, that is, a yearly tribute, to Mohamed Aly, who may be
called a creature of the English, and whom they generally employ as
a state engine when they wish to exercise their oppression against
the Indian princes. The Jesuits formerly had a great many Christian
congregations in _Marava_, and this missionary establishment was
connected with those in _Tanjaur_ and _Madura_; but, in my time,
these congregations had for the most part dropped off; and the few
still remaining were under the direction of priests from _Goa_, who
did not bestow too much attention upon them. The interior parts
of _Madura_ and _Marava_, in matters of spiritual judicature, are
subject to the archbishop of _Cudnegalur_ or _Craugalor_; and places
on the sea-coast, which do not extend farther than ten miles into
the country, belong to the diocese of the bishop of _Cochin_.
_Tanjaur_ lies between the tenth and eleventh degree of latitude, and
25 seconds farther towards the north east. This kingdom is bounded
on the south by the sea and the province of _Marava_, not far from
the fortress of _Tiruvananganur_, which belongs to _Marava_. On the
east it is washed also by the sea, and towards the north by the
rivers _Cavèri_ and _Colàrru_, the latter of which is very improperly
written _Colram_. In the Samscred language it signifies the river of
the wild hogs; from _Cola_ a wild hog, and _Arru_ a river; for these
animals were formerly found there in great abundance. Both these
rivers, the _Cavèri_ and _Colàrru_, are exceedingly large, and are
held in as great veneration by the eastern Indians as the Ganges is
by the northern. Those who belong to the sect of the _Vishnuvites_,
address their prayers to _Vishnu_ as the ruler of the waters; and
they believe that he created the universe from water: for this reason
they perform their lustrations at rivers, and on their return carry
with them some bits of yellow earth, which they pick up on the banks.
When an individual of this sect dies, his body is burnt, and the
ashes are thrown into one of these rivers. From this it appears that
the Indians show divine honours to the elements after the manner of
the ancient Persians.
_Tanjaur_, the capital of the province, is situated in 10° 35′ north
latitude, between the two arms of the river _Cavèri_. The most
considerable cities next to this are: _Vallam_, _Màdèvipatnam_, or
the city of the great goddess _Lakshmi_, _Patucòtta_, _Tiruvalur_,
and _Tirumannur_. Beyond the boundaries of _Tanjaur_, towards the
west, on the left bank of the _Cavèri_, and in the latitude of 10°
45′, lies the celebrated city of _Tricinapalli_, where at present the
English have their seat of government, and the principal part of
their forces. They made choice of it for the capital of the province,
and their chief magazine of arms, because they can thence keep in
subjection, with the greatest ease, the two kingdoms of _Tanjaur_
and _Madura_; overawe the deposed kings and princes; collect the
public revenue, the rice crops, and the taxes, without much trouble;
and can be always ready to march with their troops, at a minute’s
warning, to any quarter wherever symptoms of insurrection may appear.
On the sea-coast, towards the east, in the kingdom of _Tanjaur_,
lies the temple _Collamedu_; and the city of _Negapatnam_, which
belongs to the English, and is strongly fortified; also the city
of _Torangapuri_, or _Tranquebar_; _Naur_, particularly celebrated
on account of its cotton manufactures; the city and fortress of
_Karinkalla_, which once belonged to the French; _Cialenbron_,
an ancient Pagan temple; and _Divyacotta_, which was formerly an
excellent castle. The river _Cavèri_ divides itself into several
arms or channels: one of these, which branches off not far from
_Cirangam_, is distinguished by the name of _Colàrru_. It is much
larger and broader than even the _Cavèri_ itself. The latter flows
towards the east, but the former pursues its course towards the
north; and both discharge themselves into the sea through several
mouths. It is to be ascribed chiefly to these two rivers that the
kingdom of _Tanjaur_ produces such an abundance of rice. It grows
there in so great quantities, that this land may with propriety
be called the granary of all _Ciòlamandala_. Most foreigners
endeavour to establish themselves in this province, or at least
to carry on trade with it. In the year 1619 the king of Tanjaur,
_Raghu-nathe-nayaguen_, gave up the city of _Torangapuri_, or
_Tranquebar_, to the Danes, who immediately formed there a celebrated
missionary establishment for propagating the Lutheran religion.
In 1638 the French obtained from _Sovadsadiragia_, another king
of Tanjaur, the city and harbour of _Carinkalla_, which they name
_Carikal_. In 1658 the Dutch and the Portuguese made themselves
masters of the city of _Nagapatnam_, and in 1783 it was taken from
the Dutch by the English, and never again restored. It is of the
utmost importance to the latter, since they have had possession
of the kingdom of _Tanjaur_. Before they added this country to
their Indian possessions, they employed every method possible, by
their creature and ally the nabob of _Arcate_, _Mohamed Aly_, to
get it into their hands; but when they at length obtained it, the
injustice of the measure appeared so glaring, that the Court of
London protested against the violent proceedings of the government
of _Madraspatnam_, and sent out Lord Pigot to India, with orders to
restore the kingdom to the Maratta prince, its lawful owner. Lord
Pigot, in my time, was kept in a state of arrest at _Mont Grand_,
not far from _Maïlapuri_. The merchants of _Madraspatnam_, who
derived immense advantages from the kingdom of Tanjaur, opposed the
disposition made by the British Court for restoring it; and General
Stuart, whom the adherents of Mr. Stratton and the merchants had
brought over to their party, enticed Lord Pigot to take an airing
in his carriage; had him arrested on the road, and conveyed to the
before-mentioned fortress _Mont Grand_, which lies at the distance of
a few miles towards the west from Madraspatnam. Here he remained for
a considerable time in confinement, till he at length died in 1777.
_Tullasuragia_, king of _Tanjaur_, who, by the command and exertions
of Lord Pigot, was restored to the throne, experienced a similar
fate. He was put in confinement also by the assistance of Mohamed
Aly, and died in prison in 1776. Such is the manner in which kingdoms
and provinces are acquired in India! The Europeans first get a
footing there as merchants; imperceptibly endeavour to extend their
power; are no longer satisfied with the advantages of trade, and
begin gradually to oppose their own private interest to the interest
of those princes who have admitted them into their dominions. In a
little time they find means to involve them in a war; sometimes they
give them assistance, in order that they may afterwards make them
pay for it; and sometimes they incite one prince against another,
or endeavour to create confusion in their political relations: in a
word, they never rest until they get possession of the land which is
the object of their ambition. _Timur-Bec_, _Thamas Kuli Khan_, the
_Moguls_ and _Marattas_, the _English_ and _French_, all pretended to
have just reasons for seizing the possessions of others; and no man
was able to refute these reasons, which, while they had arms in their
hands, were rendered sufficiently valid. “The right of conquest,”
says Montesquieu, in his Spirit of Laws, “is a necessary, lawful, but
unhappy power, which leaves the conqueror under a heavy obligation of
repairing the injuries done to humanity[36].”
It has been already said, that in former times the kingdom of
_Tanjaur_ was dependent on that of _Madura_. The princes who were
subordinate, and obliged to pay tribute to that of the latter, were
called _Nayaga_, that is, lords; and not _Rajah_, or kings. In the
ancient classical writers they are seldom mentioned, and at later
periods all intercourse between Europe and India was interrupted by
the incursion of the barbarians, so that scarcely any traces of them
are to be found. The relation of the two Arabian travellers of the
ninth century, a translation of which has been given by Renaudot,
is exceedingly dry and barren; for these travellers speak only of
such princes in India as received them with friendship, and of places
where they were kindly entertained by their countrymen the Arabs.
The most authentic information now extant, respecting the kingdom
of _Tanjaur_ and its sovereigns, has been collected by Anquetil du
Perron in the first part of his _Recherques historiques_, &c. often
already mentioned, under the following head: _Suite chronologique
des rois Marates du Tanjour commençant à Ekogi (Egavàgi), l’an 1471
de l’ere Chretienne jusqu’a Toullason Rajah en 1783; accompagnée de
détails sur les principaux rois de la presqu’ile de l’Inde depuis
la fin du 15 siecle_. In the year 1360 _Tanjaur_ was under the
government of king _Prabudhadeven_, which signifies the attentive,
careful god; from _Prabudha_, attentive, careful; and _Deven_, a god.
People who were ignorant of the Indian languages corrupted this word,
and made of it _Parabudeideven_. After him, an officer of the king
of _Bisnagari_, or _Narasinha_, called the Emperor of the Coast of
Coromandel, was raised to that dignity. This kingdom fell afterwards
into the power of some Maratta princes, who retained it till the year
1773, when the nabob of Arcate, _Mohamed Aly_, an Arabian prince, was
forcibly put in possession of it by the English, in whose hands it
remains at this day[37].
Some of the missionaries, such as, Father de Magistris, Frederick
Schwarz a Dane[38], and Father Johannes de Brito, whose manuscript
works, never yet published, I have now in my hands, complain
bitterly of the oppression which the subjects of the Pagan kings had
to endure. M. Anquetil du Perron endeavours to defend the latter,
and to prove that private persons enjoyed real and individual
property, among which he reckons gardens and meadows. I can, however,
establish, by historical documents, that this assertion is altogether
false, and that Anquetil was totally unacquainted with the ancient
Indian laws. The kings either let their rice fields to the farmers
called _Vayshya_, or gave up the use of them to their soldiers for
military service. It is very certain that a great many abuses were
connected with the regal authority; and, in my opinion, this was
the principal cause why the kings of _Madura_, _Maïssur_, _Tanjaur_
and _Marava_ came at last to destruction. Their subjects were,
indeed, divided into nobles, patricians and plebeians; but these
three ranks were always at variance, and the people groaned under
the severest oppression. It was very customary for one, under the
pretence of avenging some injury he had sustained, to fall upon the
property of another and to carry it off. The monarchs were at great
pains to keep up these feuds, and they seldom suffered the offended
party to receive justice. Continual jealousy prevailed between these
petty tyrants; military discipline was totally neglected, and
nothing was encouraged at court but luxury and flattery. Under these
circumstances, it needs excite no wonder that the people received
foreigners bent upon conquest with open arms; and that these kings,
after a dominion of two thousand years, brought themselves at last to
ruin, as must be the case with all those who suffer such abuses in
their government. The revolution which happened in these kingdoms,
when the English interfered in the affairs of India, might perhaps
have been of some use, had not that nation, as avaricious as it is
industrious, carried away all the productions and other riches of the
country. It is thus that the nations of the earth are punished, when
they abandon themselves so completely to vice that they shut their
eyes against the light of reason, and in their blindness stray from
the paths of justice and virtue.
At _Navur_ great quantities of cotton articles, _Tapissendis_[39],
and cloth of all colours are manufactured. The blue cotton stuffs of
_Nagapatnam_ and _Torangapuri_ are sent throughout all _Tanjaur_,
_Madura_ and _Malabar_. _Nagapatnam_ is the place where the
spiritual jurisdiction of the bishop of _Cochin_ ends, and that
of the bishop of _Maïlapuri_ commences. The latter extends not
only over the whole coast of _Ciòlomandala_, but over that also of
_Orixa_, and throughout all _Bengal_, where the above-mentioned
bishop has a vicar-general. The Jesuits formerly were in possession
of a great many Christian churches in _Tanjaur_, and the missionary
establishment there depended on that of _Madura_, which was founded
by Father Robert Nobili, a native of the Papal territories. At
present an ex-jesuit resides at _Tricinnapalli_.
The kingdom of _Madura_ begins, in the south, under about 8° 10′ N.
lat. near the sea, and extends thence, towards the north, between the
_Gauts_, which lie on the west, and between _Madura_ and _Tanjaur_,
the latter of which lies on the east and ends in the north at the
rivers _Cavèri_ and _Veyàrru_, in 11° 15′ N. lat. These rivers
intersect the whole country. The _Veyàrru_, or great river, is, on
Anquetil’s map, named by the Brahmans _Madura_. It directs its course
from west to east, and flows past the ancient city of _Madura_, which
is the capital of the kingdom, and from which the whole province
derives its name. The _Cavèri_ descends also from the Gauts, and,
running past _Tricinapalli_, _Ceringham_, and various other cities,
discharges itself through several mouths into the sea. This tract of
land lies much higher than the rest, and therefore it produces much
less rice; but for that reason it abounds more with cotton, cummin,
garlic, ginger, gum-lac and capers. There are found here also a great
many bezoar goats, civet cats, wild hogs, deer, antelopes, tygers,
apes, and elephants. In some of the valleys there grow likewise
considerable quantities of very white rice, the grains of which are
small, and which has an excellent aromatic taste. The inhabitants of
this province, like all mountaineers, are large, robust people, and
capable of bearing the heaviest burthens on their head and shoulders.
They carry on a considerable trade with the maritime cities on the
coast of _Ciòlamandala_, and since the earliest periods have been
accustomed to cross the _Gauts_, mountains of tremendous height; so
that they even transport their cotton stuffs to the coast of Malabar,
and either sell them in some of the towns and villages lying at the
bottom of these mountains, or exchange them for salt, dried fish,
areca nuts, pepper, copper, iron, and other articles in which the
kingdom of Madura is deficient. Necessity is the oldest and first
instructor which mankind had in regard to commerce; avarice, luxury,
and the thirst of gain afterwards associated themselves with her, and
still follow in her train. Among the trading cities, at the foot of
the Gauts, on the Malabar coast, is _Arampalli_, the _Arguropolis_ of
the ancient Greeks, which lies nine miles up the country from Cape
_Comari_, and as much from _Covalam_. Formerly there were in this
city above two thousand looms employed in weaving cotton stuffs.
Even at present it is a place of some importance in regard to its
cotton trade; but formerly it was, as it were, the mart or general
magazine to which the inhabitants of the Malabar coast and the
province of Madura carried all their merchandize. Since navigation
increased, many of the manufacturers have removed from this as
well as from other cities, and formed new settlements and places
of trade at a distance from those harbours which are frequented
by foreign ships. The other Malabar cities, which still keep up
their former connection and trade with _Madura_, are: _Cottàte_,
_Càgnarapalli_, _Iratugè_, _Pugnàda_, _Mohatugè_, and _Codamangalam_.
The cities in the interior part of the kingdom of _Madura_,
which formerly sent and still send merchandize to the Malabar
coast, are: _Cambam_, _Uttamapàliam_, _Periaculam_, _Sindacalla_,
_Badagare_, _Tuvàrencurici_, _Veluvàracotta_, _Andipatti_, _Tevàram_,
_Ciundrapandi_, _Cettur_, _Shivagari_, _Tirunaveli_, _Cencotta_,
_Condùr_, _Tèdanàda_, _Perumanel_, _Ceruvatti_, _Caricàttur_, and
_Manimàla_. Notwithstanding the great number of missionaries and
European geographers who have written on this country, not one of
them has so much as mentioned the names of these cities, or given
any account of the connection which subsists between the two coasts
of the peninsula of India. All of them confine themselves rather to
a general view, and speak only of the possessions of the Europeans.
I can, however, with truth assert, that I have seen whole companies
of these merchants from _Madura_, partly at _Codamangalam_ at the
bottom of the Gauts, and partly at _Mohatuge_ and _Padmanaburam_.
They are accustomed to transport their merchandize upon oxen, which
are loaded with cotton goods of every kind. These merchants are
almost all well armed, because they are obliged to pursue their way
through narrow passes in the mountains, which, on account of the
numerous tygers found in them, are exceedingly dangerous. From the
before-mentioned cities, in the interior part of Malabar, merchandize
is transported to those on the coast both by land and by water. They
are sent to _Covalam_ at Cape _Comari_, _Coleci_, _Tiruvancòda_,
_Collam_, _Porrocàda_, _Muttam_, _Cocci_, _Cudungalùr_, _Colicòtta_,
_Cannanùr_, _Valiapatnam_ and _Calianapuri_, and thence conveyed
on board foreign ships. Some of these cities were celebrated in
ancient times. Thus, for example, _Arampalli_ was by the Greeks
called _Arguropolis_; and _Covalam_, _Colis_ or _Colias_; _Coleci_,
in Strabo, is named _Cojaci_; and _Cottàte_ occurs, in Ptolemy,
under the name of _Cottiara Metropolis_, and in Pliny under that of
_Cottona_. Neither the Egyptians, whose vessels consisted merely of
papyrus, nor the Greeks and the Romans, who were not very expert in
the art of navigation, and whose ships were built in an exceeding
slight manner, ever ventured to double Cape _Comari_, where such
violent storms sometimes prevail, that the Portuguese called it _The
Little Cape of Good Hope_. The mariners of these nations ran their
vessels, therefore, either into the small harbours of _Covalam_ or
_Coleci_, where the sea forms a bay or haven, in which ships of a
moderate size can lie at anchor in perfect security. It was necessary
that every article of merchandize from Bengal and Pegu, the island of
Ceylon, the coast of _Coromandel_, _Tanjaur_, and _Madura_, should
be sent to both these places, which was done more frequently by Land
than by water. A part of them were then transported up the Red Sea to
Alexandria; the rest were conveyed through the Persian gulph to the
Tigris and the Euphrates, and thence they made their way to Greece
and Rome; as has been very justly remarked by Strabo, Pliny, Arrian,
Marco Polo, Schmidt, Montesquieu, and lately by the celebrated
Robertson.
The kingdom of _Madura_ or _Pandi_, said to have been founded by one
of the five brothers _Pandu_ or _Pandava_, A. M. 1550, was always
governed by its own lawful sovereigns, natives of the country.
_Porus_, or _Puru_, sat upon the throne in the time of Octavius
Augustus. King _Cerambotti_, who is mentioned by Pliny, Arrian,
and Ptolemy, under the names of _Cuprobottes_, _Celebothras_, or
_Cerobothron_, was descended from this family; and his government
extended both over _Malabar_ and the kingdom of _Canara_. The
kings of _Travancor_, who about sixty years ago were very obscure
princes, had their origin also in _Madura_. The kings of _Madura_
kept their court in the city of the same name, and their vassals
shewed them a veneration almost without bounds. After the death
of _Virabhanàyaguen_, no fewer than three hundred of his wives
ascended the funeral pile, and voluntarily suffered their bodies to
be burnt with that of the king. In the year 1740 the Marattas made
an incursion into _Madura_, and since that period the dominion of
the national kings has been at an end. After the Marattas _Nisam al
Malek_ penetrated into the country, and at last came _Mohamed Aly
Khan_, in the year 1742. The latter caused the viceroy of _Madura_,
named _Khan Saheb_, to be put to death; took possession of the
throne; entered into an alliance with the English at _Madraspatnam_,
and divided the kingdom of _Madura_ between himself and his allies.
The English then converted the city of _Tricinapalli_ into a place
of arms; beset the high ways with guards, and got into their hands
the whole trade. By these means the ancient _Madura_ fell totally
into ruin. The English have also another army at _Tirunaveli_[40],
a city lying to the south of _Madura_. This place is separated from
_Paliamcotta_ only by a river, which serves as a boundary between
the English and the king of _Travancor_. _Paliamcotta_, a strong
fortress, is situated on the southern bank of that river, and belongs
to the king of _Travancor_, who is also in alliance with the English.
When the English are desirous of procuring money from this prince,
they instigate their ally _Mohamed Aly Khan_ to send an army against
_Tovala_, in the neighbourhood of Cape _Comari_; and if the king of
_Travancor_ wishes to prevent this disagreeable visit, he must pay to
the English whatever they choose to demand. When I was at the court
of this prince, in 1784, the army of _Mohamed Aly Khan_ required
him either to send them a certain sum, or to give them permission to
march through _Tovala_, in order that they might obtain money from
_Travancor_. _Cumàren Cembaga Ràmapulla_, however, a man of talents,
who was then prime minister, settled the whole business by paying to
the English 200,000 rupees[41].
The kingdom of _Carnada_, from the year 1754 to 1762, was the
continual theatre of the war carried on against each other by
the English and French, _Hayder Aly Khan_, the father of _Tippoo
Sultan_, and the nabob of _Arrucate_. It is bounded on the west by
that ridge of mountains called the _Gauts_; and lies between the
12th and 14th degree of north latitude, and the 77th and 78th of
east longitude. Towards the south it is bounded by _Tanjaur_, or the
river _Vellaru_, which flows down from the mountains in _Maïssur_
on the west, intersects _Carnada_, and throws itself into the
eastern sea at the extremity of the kingdom near _Puorto Novo_.
_Golconda_ forms its boundary on the north, in the latitude of 15°.
_Carnada_ is the kingdom so much extolled by ancient travellers
under the name of _Narasinha_. It is watered by three rivers, the
first of which, called the _Paler_, runs past the cities of _Velur_,
_Arrucate_, _Cangipuri_ and _Sadras_. It is extremely broad at the
last-mentioned place, and discharges itself into the eastern sea.
The second, named the _Ciovanàrru_, falls into the sea on the south
of _Puduceri_, after having united, not far from that city, with
the _Gingi_, which flows down from the mountains of the same name.
The third is called the _Ponarru_, or the golden river. It has its
source in the Gauts, not far from _Dhermapuri_ in _Maïssur_, runs
past _Tricolur_, and on the north of _Gudelùr_ throws itself into
the sea. The interior part of this country produces abundance of
rice, though not in such quantity as _Tanjaur_. Numerous herds of
cattle are also seen in it; and, according to the assertion of the
Indians, it contains mines of gold and silver. The cotton articles
manufactured here are exceedingly fine. The maritime cities of
_Carnada_ are, _Gudelùr_, _Puduceri_, _Cangimaram_, _Sadras_,
_Maïlapuri_, _Madraspatnam_, and _Valiacada_ or _Paliacate_. Various
kinds of cotton stuffs, both coloured and white, are manufactured to
a considerable extent in all these cities. _Gingi_, the capital of
a small province, and _Arrucate_, are two pretty strong fortresses
in the interior part of the country, and at the same time cities
of great antiquity. According to Ptolemy, _Brahmanes Magi_ resided
formerly at _Cangipuri_ in the kingdom of _Carnada_, and therefore
it is beyond all doubt that in the first century of the Christian
æra there were magi in India as well as in Persia. In the remotest
periods there was a temple at _Cangipuri_, which is still frequented
by a great number of pilgrims. It is dedicated to _Vishnu_, who,
according to the doctrine of the Indians, first created water, and
from water the whole universe. The image of this deity, who is
here represented with four hands, is carried round in triumph, on
certain days, in a very high carriage drawn by sixty persons. In his
first hand he holds the sacred wheel; in the second, a huntsman’s
horn; in the third, a diamond; and in the fourth a club, in order
to combat the giants. A festival is still held here in honour of
Fire, which has been already described by Sonnerat in the second
part of his Voyage to India. _Tirunamala_, _Tirupadi_, _Tiruvalur_,
_Cirangam_, and _Cialembron_, are also very beautiful pagodas or
Pagan temples, which are not unworthy of a particular description.
Some of these occupy a large square, surrounded by four lofty walls.
In the middle of each wall stands a very high sharp-pointed tower,
ornamented with the figures of various animals, which represent
the different symbols of the deity. Under the tower is a gate,
through which you enter the forecourt of the pagoda; and as there
are commonly four towers on each wall, the most of these pagodas
have also four gates. These towers, with their gates, are called
_Gòburam_, which signifies both the tower and the gate of the
fore-court of the temple. The before-mentioned symbols are in part
offensive to decency. They allude to the creation and destruction
of all created things, which are effected by the sun, moon, and the
earth; and these are represented under the symbols of the three
deities _Shiva_, _Parvadi_, and _Lakshmi_. The towers are square,
and consist of several stories; some of which are large, but others
very narrow. Each story is furnished with windows, and in the upper
story a lamp is kept burning during the night. The temple itself
stands in the middle of the court, and for the most part is of a
conical form. These pagodas or Pagan temples, which in the Samscred
language are called _Ksetra_, _Devassa_, or _Devalea_, consist of
three divisions. The first forms the main body, or nave; the second,
the sanctuary; and the third, the _Shrikoil_, that is, the chapel,
in which the _Bimbam_ (statue) or the _Deven_ deity, or the _Punya
Murti_, sacred body, is preserved. This chapel is constructed in
the middle of the sanctuary, and has only one small window, so that
in the inside it is exceedingly dark: a circumstance which not only
increases the reverence and respect entertained for the divinity,
but contributes also to conceal the functions of the _Eburandiri_,
or high priest, who alone has the right of approaching the image.
A great many lamps, filled with oil and butter, are kept burning
around the chapel; and the offerings, which consist of rice, coco
nuts, flowers, sesamum, pisangs, and other fruits, are deposited on
a stool before the god, and left at the disposal of the priest. From
the roof of the temple arises a long pole, to which is fastened, on
days of solemnity, a large flag 70 feet in length. On this flag is
represented an ox (the _Vahana_ or riding animal of the god _Shiva_)
when the temple is dedicated to that deity; and in that case the ox
or Apis is represented also in bas-relief above the small door of
the chapel already described. There must always be a stream in the
neighbourhood, in order that the Indians may wash themselves, and
perform those ablutions which the service of the god requires. The
sanctuary, for the most part, is surrounded by five or six rows of
stone pillars, from eighteen to twenty feet in height, and ornamented
with bas-reliefs of ingenious workmanship. In many temples the number
of these columns amounts sometimes to sixty. It is astonishing
how carefully the rules of architecture have been observed in
constructing them: and as some of these temples are of very great
antiquity, it consequently follows that this art must have flourished
in India in the remotest periods.
The most considerable cities and fortresses in _Carnada_, the
latter of which are almost always built in the form of a square,
are: _Palancotta_, _Balancada_, _Atur_, _Calianatur_, _Shelon_,
_Tatagari_, _Calicurici_, _Tirucolur_, _Tiruvanelur_, _Trividi_,
_Tiruvamatur_, _Valdur_, _Villamur_, _Perumaculam_, _Vìcravandi_,
_Tindivanam_, _Gingi_, _Tirumala_, _Penatur_, _Palur_, _Cettupeli_,
_Vandavagi_, _Uttamatur_, _Tiruvatur_, _Harani_, _Timeri_,
_Arcati_, _Caveripac_, _Tacaculam_, _Tirupassur_, and _Tirupadi_.
One will scarcely find a country so pre-eminently distinguished
by its architecture, and which can exhibit so great a number of
elegant temples and other public buildings. It is therefore highly
probable that the sovereigns of _Carnada_ were formerly in the most
flourishing circumstances, and that population and industry were
carried to their utmost extent; for, without the united effect of
these causes, such magnificent monuments could never have been
erected[42]. In the early periods this district was subject to the
kings of _Bisnagari_ or _Narasinha_. It afterwards came under the
dominion of the great Mogul, who caused it to be governed by a nabob
or viceroy; but as one unjust possessor generally endeavours to
expel another, the Marattas found means to make themselves masters
of it in 1740. They were, however, again driven out by the nabob
of _Arrucate_, a prince of Indian extraction, who had embraced the
Mahometan religion. The French, at that time, espoused the cause of
the great Mogul; but the English, who lived in a state of hostility
with the Marattas, interested themselves for the nabob of _Arrucate_,
who had rebelled against the great Mogul, and with whom they were
besides in alliance. A bloody war ensued, during which the English
and French, together with their different allies, fought more than
fifteen battles in the kingdom of _Carnada_; and the contest was
continued, with various success, till _Carnada_ at length came
under the dominion of the nabob of _Arrucate_ and the English, the
latter of whom are now in possession of _Puduceri_, the capital of
the French colonies in India. They made a conquest of it since the
commencement of the French revolution; and as the English at present
have great power in India, this city is not likely to fall again into
the hands of the French, unless it be restored on the conclusion of a
peace.
The missionary establishment in _Carnada_, which was entrusted
to French Jesuits, can boast of a great many celebrated men. It
commences in the west at the mountains of _Maïssur_, which separate
this province from _Carnada_; extends thence towards the east along
the rivers _Vellaru_ and _Paler_, and comprehends the whole kingdom.
The principal places where the Jesuits resided, were: _Puduceri_,
_Gingi_, _Vencàttiguiri_, and _Arrucate_. The most considerable
congregations, which they formed in the kingdom of _Madura_, were at
_Madura_, _Tindacalla_, _Aur_, _Ilpiur_, _Puradacudi_, _Ayambel_, and
_Conacupam_. In Tanjaur they had congregations of the like kind at
_Varugapattì_, _Sirgani_, _Tanjaur_, _Suran_, _Camanaichenpatti_,
and _Tirnaveli_. Monseigneur Dolicha, the apostolic vicar, resides
sometimes at _Puduceri_, sometimes at _Ariancopan_, and belongs
to the _Corps des Missions étrangeres_ at Paris. The Portuguese
bishop at _Maïlapuri_ pretends to act as superintendant of all these
congregations, which were formed neither by him, nor any other
Portuguese; and though he is expressly forbidden by the Pope to
exercise his spiritual jurisdiction in places which are not under
the dominion of Portugal[43]. Since the destruction of the order of
the Jesuits, many of these congregations have fallen into decline,
because they were destitute of proper pastors. Some of them, however,
still exist; and the bishop of _Maïlapuri_ furnishes them with
priests, natives of India, sent from Goa to discharge the sacerdotal
functions: but these men can never be so useful as Europeans, because
they are not much respected by the heathens, and have too little
learning to support the reputation of a Christian congregation, while
surrounded by Pagans and Mahometans. In my time there were reckoned
to be in _Madura_ eighteen thousand Christians; in _Carnada_,
twenty thousand; and in _Tanjaur_, ten thousand: whereas the Danish
missionaries at _Torangapuri_, or _Tranquebar_, with all their
exertion could scarcely muster a thousand Lutheran Christians, as
I was assured by several Catholics who resided at _Puduceri_[44];
and many even of this insignificant number abjured the Lutheran
religion, as soon as they removed to any place beyond the boundaries
of _Torangapuri_. The native Christians are fond of the images of
the saints, processions, and in general the ceremonies and solemn
festivals of the Catholic church; and, as the Protestants want all
these things, it may be readily conceived that their simple religion
can have very few attractions for the Indians[45].
* * * * *
This general account of the above countries, in which I resided three
months, I must here conclude. It was necessary to be given, that the
reader might be better enabled to understand the remaining part of my
Travels.
CHAPTER IV.
_Journey from Puduceri to Covalan, Maïlapuri, and Madraspatnam._
In the year 1776, a Portuguese ship, the _Nossa Senhora de Luz_, was
lying at anchor in the road of Puduceri, the owner of which, John
Gonzalvez, had made a voyage to Madraspatnam on his own account.
As this vessel was now destined for the coast of Malabar, and as
I was obliged to proceed thither in consequence of my mission, I
thought it advisable not to neglect so favourable an opportunity,
and to request M. Gonzalvez to give me a free passage: a request
which I found myself the more obliged to make, as I had not money
to defray the expences of a voyage in any other manner. Having
some business, however, to settle at Madraspatnam, I set out from
Puduceri on the 9th of September, in a _Dooly_ or palanquin, the
bottom of which is woven of Indian cane, after the manner of our
chairs, and which is covered with cloth supported by pieces of
wood, in order that the traveller may not be incommoded by the
beams of the sun. This palanquin is suspended from a pole, and born
by six men, whom the Indians call _Coolies_, or porters; and the
English, _Boys_. These people go almost naked, having nothing on
their bodies but a small piece of cotton cloth, which covers what
nature bids them conceal, and which is fastened round the loins
with a girdle. This cloth is called by the Indians _Lingacutti_,
that is, the covering of the _Lingam_ or privities, which the
Europeans have converted into _Langotti_. In the Malabar language
it is called _Cila_, a clout. These _Coolies_, almost perfectly
naked, convey the traveller from one place to another with as much
speed as a posthorse; but they must from time to time be relieved
by other six of the same kind. The dexterity and expedition with
which they carry the _Dooly_, or palanquin, is really astonishing.
_Puduceri_ is 100 miles from _Madraspatnam_; and yet some of the
servants of the English East India Company commonly perform that
journey in fifteen hours. These, however, are forced journeys, for
which a great number of such palanquin-bearers are necessary. The
road from _Puduceri_ to _Madraspatnam_ is exceedingly good, and in
many places bordered by bushy trees, under the shade of which the
traveller is protected from the scorching beams of the sun. Every
two or three miles there are elegant _Balam_, _Ambalam_, or taverns,
by the Europeans called _Chauderies_, and in which conveniences of
all kinds are to be found. They are beautiful edifices, raised by
the charitable contributions of the Indians, and not unfrequently
by the benevolence of some wealthy individual, for the use of
travellers; as hospitality, so rare among us Europeans, forms, among
the Orientals, a point of religion, and is one of the chief virtues
by which they are distinguished from all other nations. In general,
the case is very different in India from what it is in Europe, where
people, when travelling, must not only expend large sums of money,
but are cheated, robbed and plundered by landlords, coachmen and
postilions, and meet with every possible kind of bad usage[46]. In
India a man can openly carry money with him on the public highway,
without having occasion to be in any dread of robbers; for it is
sufficient that the _Coolies_ be persons of good character. This
security prevails at least in the kingdom of _Travancor_, where I
have travelled more than twenty times by day as well as by night from
_Cochin_ to Cape _Comari_[47].
The excellent establishments and police regulations formed in India,
in regard to highways, are extolled by Strabo in the fifteenth book
of his geography. The modern Indians consider it as one of the
greatest crimes to destroy edifices or inns destined for the use of
strangers. These inns consist of a building somewhat raised from
the ground, and which contains three divisions or apartments. As
the roof, which projects, is supported by pillars, the outer space
forms a kind of hall or gallery, where the _Doolies_, or palanquins,
are deposited, that they may not be injured by the rain or the heat
of the sun. In the middle apartment stands a stone image, which
is generally a representation of _Gannesha_; and in the two side
apartments mats are spread out, which are wove either of palm leaves,
or the leaves of the _Caida_[48], (a wild plant of the species of
the Ananas,) and on which the travellers sleep. Some Brahman priest
generally resides in the neighbourhood to wait upon them, and who for
a few _Panam_ will provide a meal according to the Brahman manner.
It consists for the most part of rice boiled and afterwards dried,
together with some dishes of small preserved oranges, and soup made
of herbs, pepper, ginger, and mustard, and sometimes of boiled,
toasted, or raw cheese. Instead of this soup, sour milk, or fresh
cream-cheese, is frequently served up. _Cagni_, or boiled rice water,
which the Europeans name _Cangi_, is given free of all expence, in
order that the traveller may quench his thirst with a cooling and
wholesome beverage. Statues, which supply the place of mile-stones,
and serve to guide strangers, are found every where erected along
the high roads. As the Greeks and Romans employed for this purpose
the god Terminus, the Indians use their deity _Gannesha_, who by the
common people, not well acquainted with the Samscred language, is
called _Poleyar_. This god has the head and trunk of an elephant,
four hands, the body and legs of a man; and is represented sitting
cross-legged, according to the manner of the Chinese and Indians.
On some monuments he is represented with a semicircle or half-moon
around his head, holding in one hand an iron style, which the Indians
use for writing on palm leaves, and in the other a palm leaf, or
perhaps a bundle of such leaves, covered with writing. On other
monuments he has in one hand a pomegranate, or a key in the form
of a hook, like those used in the early ages, when doors had no
iron-work, and were shut only by a wooden bar on the inside. Instead
of the _Vahana_, or riding-animal, he has always under him a mouse,
which is held in the utmost abhorrence by the elephant. This mouse,
according to the Indians, represents the wicked demon, the enemy of
wisdom, or, in other words, the devil. Indian women, who are married,
wear an image of this deity, which they call _Taly_, suspended from
their neck by a string. It supplies the place of a love-pledge,
and serves as a token of their chastity and conjugal fidelity. The
literati honour this deity as their protector; and salute him always
at the beginning of their writings with the words _Namà Guru_,
Adoration to the Lord; or _Sal Gurve Namà_, Adoration to the true
Lord; or _Gannabadàye Namà_, Adoration to _Gannabadi_ the Lord. They
are accustomed also to paint the elephant’s trunk of _Gannesha_
before the first line of their letters, as a symbol of wisdom and
prudence.
From _Puduceri_ I continued my journey by _Calapada_, _Congimaram_,
and _Carpuncolam_, where I passed the night in one of the
before-mentioned _Balams_. Towards evening I was visited by some
female Indians, each of whom carried a basket filled with garlands
of white flowers, which they hung around the neck of _Gannesha_.
Next morning, at sun-rise, some Brahmans brought a copper vessel
with coco-nut oil; poured it over the statue of _Gannesha_, and at
the same time muttered a certain form of prayer in the Samscred
language. As one of them spoke a little Portuguese, I entered
into conversation with him. Near such a _Balam_, or inn, there is
generally a pond, called in the Tamulic language _Colam_, and in
corrupted Portuguese _Tanque_. To this _Colam_ all the Indians who
live in the neighbourhood hasten as soon as they get up in the
morning, and men and women, boys and girls, placing themselves close
to each other, wash the parts of nature with the utmost dexterity,
and repeat certain prayers. This ablution, which is renewed every
morning, has been introduced into India in the earliest periods, and
is a general practice among the inhabitants of the country, as they
are of opinion that purity of soul cannot exist without personal
cleanliness[49]. The excessive heat of the sun, and the continual
perspiration thereby occasioned, may have first given rise to this
custom, as also to the worshipping of the _Lingam_, which, among the
Indians, in the same manner as Priapus among the Romans, supplies
the place of a god. That the parts of generation might remain in a
sound state, the Indian philosophers commanded cleanliness by means
of water; and that this practice might never fall into disuse, they
ordered that divine honour even should be paid to these parts, which
represent the creative power of the sun, moon, and elements. An
Indian book, entitled _Lingapurànam_, a copy of which was preserved
in the king’s library at Paris, is a treatise on the worship of this
deity. The Indian philosophers, by whom it was first introduced, gave
as the inventor of it one of their gods named _Mahadeva_, or _Shiva_,
the symbol of the all-creating sun.
Next morning I continued my journey, and passing through _Vepur_,
_Tengacetti_, and other places of little importance, arrived in
the evening at _Sadras_. This beautiful town, at which there is a
castle, belongs to the Dutch, who manufacture here cotton goods
of a superior quality, which they send to Europe. Their so called
_Gingams_ are highly esteemed. This populous place is chiefly
inhabited by people employed in carding, preparing and dyeing
cotton. One part of it is occupied by Brahmans, whose sole business
is commerce. Among the latter seldom can there be found a man who
possesses knowledge, and who at the same time will be so candid as
to communicate it to strangers. It is of no use, therefore, to enter
into conversation with these people, or to request information from
them respecting the religion of the Indians. The English, however,
do so; for they always boast of having obtained their knowledge
immediately from Brahmans appointed to the service of some temple,
as if it were not well known that these priests seldom converse with
Europeans. At _Sadras_ there is a Christian congregation, which
consists of two thousand souls. Most of the members are natural
children of the Dutch and other Europeans. I baptised there some
new-born infants; and as I was inserting their names in the church
register, I everywhere found in the book _Filho de fulano, Filho
de fulano_. As I could not conceive it possible that a father
should have so many children, I asked the sexton the meaning of
the word _fulano_: he replied that it signified a person whose
name was unknown; and that when the father of a child could not
be with certainty discovered, they generally put in the register
_Filho de fulano_. I now knew who the supposed _Mr. Fulano_ was.
As the officiating clergyman, a priest from _Goa_, was at that
time absent, I read mass in the church, and pursued my journey. On
the third day after, having visited _Canatur_, _Tirupatur_, and
_Tirupalur_, I arrived about noon at _Covalam_, which is inhabited
by a few Christians, and for that reason by a much greater number
of Mahometans. The Imperial East India Company at Ostend had here
formerly a strong fortress, close to the sea-shore; but which, lying
too near the English, was on that account dismantled. Charles VI. who
established that company at Ostend, found himself obliged to abolish
it, in order to avoid a war with the English and French, who were
then contending for the possession of _Carnada_. _Covalam_ produces
nothing but millet and salt, the latter of which may be collected
by the Christians as well as the Pagans. A great number of the most
beautiful shells are cast on shore here by the sea. The ruins of the
fortress, which formerly belonged to the Imperial East India Company,
afford a retreat to a multitude of snakes. Here I saw, for the first
time, the operations of an Indian snake-conjuror, who by music and
various processes attracted one of these animals, a circumstance
which I had before considered as a fiction, and impossible. I shall
speak more at large of this art hereafter.
At the end of a few days I departed from this place, and proceeded
to _Maïlapuri_ and _Madraspatnam_. The former, by the Christians,
is called the city of St. Thomas, and is situated close to the
sea, which forms there a kind of bay or small haven. It stands on
a beautiful plain, abounding with coco-nut trees, which retain
their verdure throughout the whole year. The episcopal church,
the church of St. Rita, and the _Madre de Deos_, the bishop’s
palace, and that of the Portuguese governor, who at that time was
Dom Caravalho, attracted my attention by the regularity of their
architecture. This city, however, has lost a great deal of its
former magnificence. The authority of the Portuguese seems to be
transferred to the English and the nabob of _Arrucate_, who has
his stables here. The inhabitants consist of Pagans, Mahometans,
and Christians. The latter are a bastard race, descended from the
Indians and the Portuguese. They are of a black complexion, but a
little of the European whiteness still appears through it. They are
distinguished by the name of _Mestize_, by which is understood people
born of an European father and an Indian mother. They are called
also _Topazi_, that is _Duibhashi_, or interpreters, because they
speak two different languages, Indian and corrupted Portuguese. They
form the smaller part of the inhabitants of _Maïlapuri_, where the
Mahometans have the superiority. The last bishop of _Maïlapuri_ was
Dom Bernardo da San Gaetano, of the Augustin order, who in 1787 was
succeeded by Dom Emanuel di Gesu, an Augustin also, born at Goa. The
former, being an European by birth, conducted himself as a prudent,
liberal-minded man; but the latter has all the violent, restless, and
litigious character of a hot blooded Indian. He even proceeds so far
as to expel from his diocese all missionaries who are not Portuguese,
or who do not acknowledge his jurisdiction. At St. Rita I lodged
in the house of the vicar-general, Father Luiz, an Augustin, who
treated me with much hospitality, and from whom I received a great
deal of information, both respecting the history of the country,
and the state of Christianity in it. The bishop, Dom Bernardo, had
at that time undertaken a journey to Bengal, to visit the churches
of his diocese. In the evening I always wrote in my journal such
observations as occurred in the course of the day; and when the
inhabitants told me there was nothing farther to be seen, I proceeded
to _Madraspatnam_.
This city is distant only three miles from _Maïlapuri_. The road
which conducts to it is one of the most beautiful in all India. It
is level and broad, well beat, and on both sides of it are seen a
great number of houses, gardens, tents, taverns, horses, carriages,
palanquins, and doolies of all kinds; also elephants and draught
oxen, the last of which are yoked to carriages. About mid way lies a
garden, in which the nabob of _Arrucate_, _Mohamed Aly Khan_, has his
residence in a palace built after the European manner. The external
avenues to it are guarded by Indian militia; but in the interior part
that duty is performed by English soldiers, under the command of a
captain, who must keep an accurate journal of every thing which takes
place at the court of this prince. This is called a mark of honour,
but in reality it is nothing else than magnificent imprisonment. The
nabob enjoys personal security; but for this security he must do what
the English bid him.
At _Madraspatnam_ I paid a visit to the congregation of St. Andrew
the apostle; and found, at the convent of Capuchins, Father
Bonaventura from Fuligno, Father Medardus from Alsace, and Father
Marcellus from Aleppo. I took a turn through the city which is of
considerable extent, but the houses lie insulated and scattered.
Near the noblest palaces are seen the most wretched hovels; broad
streets and narrow crooked lanes occur in turns; and, instead of
cleanliness, filth and dirt are every where seen. Fort St. George,
in which none but English must reside, is called the white town; but
the outer district, inhabited by Europeans, Armenians, Bengalians,
Chinese, Peguans, Arabians, and black and white Indians of all
classes, castes, and religious sects, is called the black town. Fort
St. George, one of the strongest in India, lies close to the sea,
which is there exceedingly boisterous. The gate towards the sea,
as well as that of the black town, has a strong guard. The fort is
furnished with bastions, a double ditch with two bridges; and the
garrison consists of the finest European troops to be found in all
India. This fortress was taken from the French in 1746, and besieged
by Count Lally in 1758 for the second time. He was, however, forced
to raise the siege; and the treasure which had been conveyed from the
place was again brought back to it. This city lies under the latitude
of 13° 15′, exactly at the place where formerly stood the small
town of _Cinnapatnam_, which belonged to the king of _Bisnagari_ or
_Narsinha_, by whom it was given up to the English in 1645.
CHAPTER V.
_Indian Weights, Measures, Coins and Merchandise._
I. The _Aratel_, an Indian word, signifies a pound, merchants’
weight, of sixteen ounces. Twenty-four such _Aratel_ or pounds make a
_Manna_, which commercial people call _Mao_. Four _Manna_ and eight
_Aratel_ make, in some provinces, a hundred weight. Of this kind is
the hundred weight at Cochin. At Calcutta or Calicut the hundred
weight is heavier than at Cochin. At the latter place and Travancor
it contains, at present, only one hundred and twenty-eight _Aratel_.
The _Tulam_ or _Tulao_ is a weight equal to a hundred _Palam_.
The _Palam_ consists, in some places, of an hundred and fifty
Cochinese _Panam_ or _Fanam_; but in others, of two hundred and ten;
and in some, of three hundred.
The _Rupee_ at Madras and Puduceri weighs thirty-two Cochinese
_Panam_, as the silver _Panam_ current at Cochin makes the thirtieth
part of a silver rupee. Eighteen Cochinese _Panam_ weigh one ounce.
_Calangia_ is a weight equal to eleven Cochinese _Panam_ and one
quarter.
_Mangiadi_ is a weight equal to half a Cochinese _Panam_.
_Kaicia_ is a weight equal to four _Calangias_.
The great _Panam_ of Madras is the sixth part of a rupee.
The small _Panam_ is the twelfth part of a silver rupee.
The large _Panam_ of Madras makes almost five Cochinese _Panam_ and
a quarter; but the rupee, which weighs thirty-two Cochinese _Panam_,
is never worth more than twenty, or at most twenty-four, according
to the course of exchange and the value of money, the determination
of which depends merely on the government and bankers. It is said
in some books of Travels, that these weights and their names have
been conveyed from India to Ormus, Bassorah, and Mascate in Arabia,
as well as to Malacca and the island of Ceylon. It is, however,
worthy of remark, that the amount of these weights has been changed,
and their names corrupted. Thus some write _Rotoli_, _Ratoli_, and
_Rutoli_, instead of _Aratel_; _Tulao_, instead of _Tulam_; and
_Palao_, instead of _Palam_.
The heaviest weight in India is the _Candil_, which is equal to
five hundred _Aratel_, or pounds. There is also a kind of _Candil_
which weighs sixteen, and another which weighs twenty _Manna_. It is
highly necessary, therefore, that people should acquire an accurate
knowledge of the Indian weights, since they are as different as the
European pound, which consists sometimes of sixteen, sometimes of
ten, and sometimes of twelve ounces.
Articles of merchandise are weighed in India with two different kinds
of instruments. The oldest is the _Tulàsa_, or Roman steel-yard,
called by the French _Crochet_, or _Péson_. In the Malabar language
it is known by the name of _Vellicòl_ or _Niracòl_; and, when very
large, by that of _Taranacòl_. The other balance, which has two
shells, is called _Tulam_. The former is the most common, and the
figure of it may be seen on ancient monuments.
II. The measures for liquids are:
1. _Dangàgi_, which contains four _Nàgi_ or _Nali_.
2. _Nàgi_, or _Nali_, which is equal to one pint.
3. _Ciòdana_, which contains thirty-two _Nàgi_.
4. _Araciòdana_, equal to sixteen _Nàgi_ or pints.
5. _Codam_, which contains five _Ciòdanas_.
6. _Uszakada_, the quarter of a pint.
7. _Aszaca_, the eighth part of a pint.
8. _Uri_, half a pint.
9. _Muszaca_, three quarters of a pint.
III. The Indian measures of length, &c. are:
1. _Cora_, the eighth part of an inch.
2. _Virel_, an inch.
3. _Col_, a foot in length, containing twenty-four
_Virel_.
4. _Mulam_, an ell, the length of one’s arm; called
by the Portuguese, _Covodo_; and by the
French, _Coudée_.
5. _Ciana_, a palm.
6. _Tumà_, a square foot.
7. _Candi_, a cubic foot.
All these weights and measures have been introduced at Madraspatnam,
Puduceri, Paliacate, Nagapatnam, and on the coast of Malabar; at
Cochin and Calicut, as also at Collam and Angiutenga near Cape Comari.
A _Candil_ of Teka wood, which is the best in all the Asiatic
countries for being manufactured, cost at Cochin, in my time, eight
rupees; but as soon as it was carried to Madraspatnam, where none
of it grows, it could be sold for sixteen or eighteen rupees. White
cotton cloth is sold by the _Mulam_, or ell. Some pieces contain
thirty-two _Mulam_, and others sixty-four. A piece of the former kind
is worth from ten to fifteen rupees: one of the latter twice as much.
For ten rupees, therefore, you may purchase sometimes in India eight
or ten cotton shirts, which in Europe could scarcely be procured for
twenty Roman _Scudi_.
A _Dangàgi_ of raw white rice, called _Arri_, was worth at Cochin,
in my time, four _Panam_ or _Fanon_ of that place. If this sum be
reduced to Roman money, a _Nagi_ or pint would cost about two and
a half Roman _Bajocchi_. A _Ciòdana_ of coco-nut oil was sold,
at Cochin, for thirty-two and thirty-three or at most thirty-six
_Panam_; but at Madraspatnam, on the coast of Ciòlamandala, where
there are few coco-nut trees, this oil was much dearer.
A hundred weight of dry clean pepper is worth, at Allapushe,
Porrocàda and Collam, on the coast of Malabar, between 60 and 70
rupees; but on the coast of Ciòlamandala it costs from 90 to 100.
The _Vediuppu_, or saltpetre, which comes from Bengal, brings
only a low price at Madraspatnam; but if transported to Cochin on
the Malabar coast, it becomes exceedingly dear on account of the
carriage. If readers in general, therefore, do not pay particular
attention to the distances of places, they will be often at a loss
in regard to the price of merchandise; because the same article
valued at fifty rupees by one traveller, is estimated by another at
a hundred. The case here is the same as when one says: In the month
of July it is winter in India, while another asserts that at that
period it is summer. Both at bottom are right; for the one alludes
to the coast of Coromandel, and the other to the coast of Malabar,
where in July the rainy season commences, and consequently winter.
These apparent contradictions disappear when people reflect on time,
place and climate, and the particular circumstances under which the
traveller or writer lived.
In Pegu a weight called _Tical_ has been introduced. It weighs
fourteen Roman _Danari_, twenty-four of which are equal to an ounce.
In Siam the _Tical_ weighs also fourteen Roman _Danari_. The _Tical_
of Pegu contains four _Tomat_, or four _Magnon_, which is a piece of
silver equivalent to about four Roman _Julios_[50]. Half a _Tomat_
is called _Tebe_, and, to be standard, should be equal in weight to
eight grains of rice. Sixteen of these grains make, therefore, a
whole _Tomat_. A hundred _Tical_ are equal to one _Bisa_; and the
_Bisa_ contains thirty-four ounces Italian weight. Two rupees of
Madras weigh in Pegu seven _Tomat_. Such is the information given by
Father Joseph de Amato, in his notes to the manuscript of the Peguan
philosopher _Maha Tabassi Dharma Rajah Guru_, which is preserved
in the Borgian Museum at Velitri. In the same museum there is also
an original standard of the Peguan _Tical_, with all the weights
belonging to it. They are of brass, have a cylindric form, and bear
the impression of a four-footed dragon, with an elevated crest, and
its tail doubled over its back. The Peguan coins are ugly shapeless
pieces of pure silver, which have no mixture of alloy. They are
weighed like other articles of merchandise by the _Tical_, _Tomat_,
_Tebe_ and _Bisa_.
The chief articles with which trade is carried on in India are:
Paradise wood from Malacca; _Copra_, that is, the kernel of the
coco-nut, from which oil is made; excellent copper from Japan;
coco-nut oil; Palma Christi; calamine; storax; cassia bark from
Malabar; yellow wax from Malabar and Madura; assa fœtida; Armenian
bole; borax; sweet cosius root; myrrh from Mascate; sal-ammoniac from
Arabia and Persia; Arabian and Persian dates; cummin from Madura
and Bengal; cuncuma (not curcuma) or yellow saffron, called also
_Terra merita Malabarica_; white and yellow pulverised sugar-candy
from China, Batavia, and Bengal; Chinese rhubarb; turbith; Arabian
frankincense from Mascate; purging aloes; prunes from Malabar; ginger
from Malabar and Madura; gum lac from Bengal and Malabar; lac,
gold, and precious stones from Pegu; ivory from Ceylon and Pegu;
apes from Malabar and Ceylon; benzoin from the Maldivan islands;
black amber from the same; musk from Thibet and Bengal; opium from
Bengal; sweet flag, mirrors, porcelain, tortoise-shell and tea from
China; spikenard from Thibet and Bengal; gum sandarac; long pepper
from Bengal; black-grained pepper from the same; red and white
sandal wood, and dried fish from Malabar; Chinese varnish; China
ink; pearls from Cape Comari and the island of Ceylon; cinnamon from
Ceylon; nutmegs and cloves; canes from Malacca; purging cassia from
Malabar; tamarinds from Malabar and other parts of India; silk from
China and Bengal; saltpetre from Bengal; rice from the same and from
Mangalor; different kinds of wood from Malabar, such as _Teka_,
_Bitti_, _Ayani_, _Benga_, and coco-tree wood; male and female slaves
from the coast of Ciòlamandala and Malabar; Cafre slaves from the
coast of Africa; horses from Arabia; precious stones from Ceylon and
Pegu; white and coloured cotton stuffs, _Tapissendis_, and other
kinds of cloth, from Bengal, Paliacate, Madras, Sadras, Puduceri,
Naur, Nagapatnam, Tutucuri, Manapar, Coleci, and other places on the
coasts of Malabar and Ciòlamandala; coarse stuffs and woollen cloth
from Arabia; gold and silver from Bengal; horns of the rhinoceros,
from which are made rings wore on the fingers; Indian tyger skins;
crucifixes, small figures, and other toys of ivory from Goa;
rose-water from Persia, and wine from the Cape of Good Hope. Among
these articles I have not included those brought from Europe and
America to be sold in India. Were I to give the prices of all these
articles, and to relate in what manner they are bartered and sold,
I should be obliged to write a whole volume. The slaves are treated
exactly like cattle. A youth in full health and without blemish
costs, according to his age and make, twenty, thirty, or forty
rupees. The females are sold cheaper. An ass from Mascate costs two
or three scudi, and an Arabian horse from thirty to fifty.
A Persian mile, _Angatsch_, contains 16,878 Roman feet. The Indian
mile, _Casam_ or _Cas_ (not _Cosse_) is different in different
places: in general it consists of 2400 geometrical paces. The large
Malabar mile is equal to from two to three leagues; the smaller,
however, is equal only to one. The same difference is observed in the
miles in other provinces of India. The smaller Indian mile has three
divisions: viz. _Casara vagi_, three quarters of a mile; _Aracasam_,
half a mile; and _Cuvida_, or _Vilipada_, a distance at which one
can hear the voice of a man calling out as loud as he is able. This
distance is commonly reckoned to be equal to a quarter of a mile.
* * * * *
The coins current in India consist of the following:
I. The _Rupee_ of Bengal, Arrucate, Puduceri, Madras, Bombay, Tippoo
Sultan, or Hayder Aly Khan, and Surat. _Rupya_ is properly a Samscred
word, and signifies in general silver, without distinguishing any
particular denomination of silver coin. I am therefore inclined to
think, that the rupees current in India, which are worth five Roman
_Paoli_, were not originally Indian coins. This piece of silver has
inscribed on it, in Persian characters, the place where and the name
of the prince under whom coined; which confirms me in my opinion,
that it belongs properly to the inventions of the Persians. The
oldest Indian coins have no inscription, but only the representation
of a cow, an elephant, the _lingam_, or some Indian deity. Anquetil
du Perron, however, asserts that he saw some with writing on them,
which, as he pretends, were coined before the period of king
_Vitramàditya_[51]; but I never had an opportunity of seeing any of
this kind. A rupee is not worth more in Europe than two livres eight
sous, or, according to the Roman method of reckoning, four _Paoli_
and eight _Bajocchi_.
* * * * *
II. The silver _Fanon_, called by the Indians _Panam_, is a small
round coin like the rupee. The rupee of Arrucate is equal to six
large or twelve small _Panam_; that of Puduceri, to eight _Panam_.
When rupees of Surat, Puduceri, and Arrucate are exchanged at
Cochin, you receive for each, according to the course of exchange,
only twenty or at most twenty-four _Panam_, though they are worth
thirty-two Cochinese _Panam_. The rupee of Madras is worth in Bengal
3040 _Cauris_.
The _Dudu_ of Madras or Bombay, a small coin of copper, tin, or other
metal, according to the nature of the country, is equal in value to a
Roman _Bajocco_.
The Cochinese _Panam_, a very small round coin, made of tin or
lead, which has on one side a horn, is called _Ciangupanam_, the
horn-fanon. This horn represents the arms of the king of Cochin. Six
Cochinese _Cembu Casha_, a copper coin bearing the stamp of the Dutch
East India Company, are equal to one Cochinese _Panam_. There are
also small coins of tin called _Jyacàsha_. The silver _Ciacram_, a
small coin of the king of Travancor, is equal to the twenty-sixth
part of a rupee. The Spanish _Piastre_, or Roman _Scudi_, is worth in
India two rupees. The Dutch Rupee, current in the island of Ceylon,
consists of silver alloyed with tin.
A kind of small shells, brought from the Maldivan islands, and to
which the French give the name of _Pucellage_, are current in Bengal.
These shells are called by the Indians _Cori_ or _Cauri_, and 350
of them make a rupee. A _Cauri_ is the sixtieth part of a _Pesha_,
a Bengal coin equal in value to six French deniers. In Ethiopia
small laminæ of salt, about a foot in length, are used instead of
money. Ten of these laminæ are equal in value to a drachm of gold.
The king of Candy has introduced in the island of Ceylon a kind of
money, which consists of a piece of silver wire rolled up like a
wax taper. When a person wishes to make a purchase, he cuts off as
much of this silver wire as is equal in value to the price of the
article. The relative value of gold and silver in India is as ten
or eleven to one. The proportion, however, does not always continue
the same. When a great number of Venetian sequins are brought to
India from Egypt or Arabia, through the Red Sea, the value of them,
or rather the course of exchange, falls on the coast of Malabar, and
they are worth no more than three and three-fourths or at most four
rupees; but if there be a scarcity of them, their value rises, and
they become worth four rupees and a quarter. The case is the same
with Spanish piastres, which are sometimes worth two rupees, and
sometimes two and a quarter. This happens in order that there may be
an equilibrium between gold and silver in the different places of
trade; but at the same time it may arise from necessity, when there
is a scarcity of gold and silver coin. It is also not unfrequently
owing to the fraudulent arts of some governor, in conjunction with
the bankers, who devise that scheme to answer their own private
purposes. As the gold and silver exchanged by the Indians and the
Chinese is exceedingly pure, they gain considerably by the exchange,
as they can raise the course of it at pleasure, which cannot be done
in regard to coin of small value. There is no proportion, however,
in the influx and efflux of money among the Indians and foreigners.
The Indians sell a great deal and purchase little, consequently the
balance is always in their favour. Little luxury and few wants render
the inhabitants of a country opulent.
* * * * *
III. The _Bhagavadi_, a gold coin with the figure of the goddess
_Bhagavadi_, called by the Europeans very improperly _Pagodi_
or _Pagoda_, is round, and on one side a little convex. The so
called star pagoda of Madraspatnam, the reverse of which bears the
impression of an Indian idol, is worth, according to the Roman method
of reckoning, seventeen _Paoli_[52] and eight _Bajocchi_. The gold
pagoda of Hayder Aly Khan, called _Aydernaik_, and that of Mangalor,
are worth four silver rupees, or nine livres twelve sous. The latter
have on one side a half moon, and on the other two idols who hold a
trident. They represent _Shiva_, together with his wife _Parvadi_.
The gold pagoda of _Portonovo_ is worth three silver rupees.
The gold _Panam_ of Palicate is equal in value to nine French sous;
that of Calcutta and Tanjaur, to one quarter of a silver rupee, or
twelve and a half _Bajocchi_. The gold _Panam_ of Madura is worth
seven sous, or seven Roman _Bajocchi_ and six French deniers.
The gold rupee of Bengal, Surat and Bombay, is worth sixteen silver
rupees, or eight Roman scudi.
The _Golmor_ of Bengal, a gold coin ornamented on one side with
flowers and Hindostan characters, and on the other with a sword and
some characters, is equal in value to eight Roman _Scudi_. This coin
came originally from _Nepal_ in India; for it bears the arms of the
king of that place.
The _Kalien_ from Travancor is worth the fourth part of a silver
rupee.
The _Uilkàshya_, or Venetian sequin, is worth, in common, about
four silver rupees.--All these coins are struck with the hammer.
On those which are alloyed, that is, which have a mixture of other
metals, the government gains nearly a hundred per cent. Thus, if a
thousand rupees are melted down in order to be converted into other
alloyed coins, such for example as _Panams_, five hundred rupees
only, according to their intrinsic value, come into circulation:
the other five hundred go to government, to defray the expence of
coinage; and if any thing remains over, it is clear gain. This method
of adulterating gold and silver was first introduced into these
countries by the Europeans. The natives of India always suffered
their gold and silver to remain pure; never added to it the least
alloy; and to this day they observe the same practice. This is the
true method of increasing the opulence of a country, whatever short
sighted politicians may say to the contrary. Bills of exchange are
totally unknown in India. When money-changers conclude any bargain
with each other, it is ratified by an oath before the door of some
temple, and in view of the idol; and in such cases they seldom or
never deduct any thing from the payment[53].
* * * * *
Having finished my business at Madraspatnam, I continued my journey
with as much expedition as possible, for the whole colony was in
the utmost confusion. Mohamed Aly Khan had under various pretences,
as already mentioned, taken possession of the city and kingdom of
Tanjaur, on the 17th of September 1773. Lord Pigot, however, by
the express command of the court of London, restored to the throne
Tullasuragia, the lawful sovereign, in the month of April 1776,
amidst the thunder of cannon and the acclamations of an immense
concourse of people; but he and that prince became the sacrifices of
this measure, as wise as it was just, and Mohamed Aly Khan again made
himself master of the kingdom. The fortress of _Arrucate_, from which
he takes the title of Nabob, lies west from Madraspatnam on the river
_Paler_ or _Palarru_, in the latitude of 13° North.
On my return to Maïlapuri I resolved to visit the small mountain in
that district on which the apostle St. Thomas suffered martyrdom. I
placed myself, therefore, in my _Dooly_, and after two hours arrived
at the bottom of this steep hill. It consists of several rocks, which
altogether form only one group. Having clambered up to the top, not
without considerable difficulty, I came to a small church, formed
according to the modern plan, but, like many ancient Indian temples,
of which I shall speak hereafter, hewn out in the solid rock. In an
adjacent apartment I found an English Catholic, who resided there
from devotion. The surrounding district abounds with coco-nut trees,
and a number of beautiful houses belonging to the English, who retire
hither to enjoy the pleasures of a rural life. Below these trees
several cotton-weavers and spinners had erected their low hovels of
the leaves and branches of the palm-tree plaited through each other;
and I here had an opportunity of seeing every thing that belongs to
a cotton manufactory. All the Indians, Christians as well as Pagans,
unanimously assured me, that this was really the mountain on which
the apostle Thomas (not that Thomas who was a disciple of Manes, and
who is entirely unknown to them,) had been martyred. The Christians
who reside on the coast of Malabar, and even the Christians of St.
Thomas, though Nestorians, make many pilgrimages to the grave of this
apostle, and, through religious zeal, carry home with them small bits
of earth which they pick up near it, and which they afterwards use
for preparing their holy water. This has been done since the earliest
periods, not by a few, but by many thousands; so that the question
whether St. Thomas actually lost his life on this mountain, cannot
any longer be a subject of the smallest doubt. The event took place
under the government of the Indian king _Salivahan_ or _Salbahan_,
who, according to the Indian tradition, died in the sixty-eighth
year of the Christian æra. On _Mont Grand_, also, there is a church,
much frequented by pilgrims, and where the Catholics from Bengal,
Pegu, Siam, Ceylon, Malabar, and every part of Hindustan, as well
as the Nestorian and Armenian Jacobites, perform their devotions.
Even Pagans and Mahometans resort thither, and carry with them, as
offerings, butter, milk, cheese, candles, oil, goats, and cows. In a
word, every person in India is convinced that this was actually the
place where St. Thomas suffered martyrdom[54].
In the interior part of the provinces of Carnate and Madura,
where the Indians, under the protection of their kings, enjoy
more extensive religious liberty, the custom of widows burning
themselves, three days after the death of their husbands, still
prevails, though it is less common than formerly. This horrid scene
I never had an opportunity of witnessing myself; but I am able to
confirm the accounts given of it by other travellers, and to add
a few particulars which may serve to throw more light upon them.
Immediately after the death of the husband, the widow rubs her whole
body over, as far as the girdle, with a kind of Indian saffron called
_Magnel_. This saffron is a symbol of fire, which the Indians honour
as a deity. The widow then goes about through the streets, and with
the greatest politeness takes leave of all those whom she meets.
Three days after, a round or a square hole is dug in the open fields,
which is filled with a large quantity of dry wood and cow-dung placed
above each other. The latter is dedicated to the goddess _Lakshmi_,
who represents the earth under the symbol of a cow. Some also pour
coco-nut oil over the funeral pile, in order that it may be sooner
consumed by the flames. When every thing is completely ready, the
widow proceeds from her habitation, clothed in white, crowned with
flowers, and ornamented with all her trinkets and jewels. She is
accompanied by a numerous train of women and her nearest relations,
who, as I have been assured, give her opium, and certain kinds of
acids, by which she is stupified and prepared for contempt of death.
As soon as she approaches the burning pile, before which a carpet is
suspended, she throws some butter and _Magnel_, or Indian saffron,
into the fire; but over the carpet, which it is unlawful for her
to touch. This is a libation or offering which she brings to the
fire as a divinity. She then retires to the distance of about forty
steps from the pile, and divides her trinkets among her relations
and acquaintances. A confused noise is heard of drums, fifes, and
basons beat upon with sticks; the hanging is removed; the widow
advances with courage and coolness towards the burning pile, throws
herself into the flames, and in a few minutes is converted into
ashes. According to the doctrine of the Brahmans, her soul passes
immediately into the glory of _Vishnu_ and _Shiva_, and her name is
preserved, to the latest ages, in the annals of her country[55].
We are told by Diodorus Siculus, in the nineteenth book of his
history, that there was once a time when the Indian women were
accustomed to desert their husbands in the most capricious manner,
and when they would not hesitate to dispatch them by poison. It is
not improbable that, to put a stop to these practices, a law was
introduced that widows should burn themselves along with the bodies
of their husbands. Plutarch, however, is of opinion, that they did
so as a proof of their purity of conduct and conjugal fidelity. But,
be that as it may, it is certain that the origin of this singular
custom is to be sought for in principles of religion and policy.
When a woman is fully convinced that the death of her husband must
occasion her own at the same time, she will be more anxious for his
preservation. A woman who has children, or who is under certain
other circumstances, is not permitted to burn herself; and this is
a sign that she loved her husband, and that she may still enjoy the
society of the male sex. Widows who refuse to die with their husbands
are considered afterwards as disgraced, and must devote themselves,
as public prostitutes, to the service of some deity who favours
prostitution. Such for example is the goddess _Bhavani_, or the Venus
of the Indians. All Indian widows, however, do not burn themselves
with the bodies of their husbands, but those only who belong to the
cast of _Kshetria_ and _Rajahputra_. These are the casts of royal
personages and warriors, who have most to fear from the infidelity of
their wives. When a king, therefore, dies in India, all his wives and
concubines must mount the funeral pile, in order to shew that they
had no hand in his death. There are, nevertheless, widows belonging
to the cast of the _Vaishya_ or farmers, who also burn themselves in
the like manner.
From Pondamala, that is, _Mont Grand_, I proceeded to Covalàm, where
I had the pleasure of conversing with Father John Maria a Santo
Thoma, upon different philological subjects. To this learned man,
who had resided twenty-five years in India, I am indebted for various
corrections in different parts of my journal, which I employed as my
guide in the present work. Gladly would I have remained some time
longer with this worthy man; but, to my great regret, I was obliged
to leave him after a stay of fourteen days. I now pursued my way back
to Puduceri, but by a different route, in order that I might see the
seven pagodas which are situated on the seacoast between Covalàm
and Sadras. But how shall I describe this master-piece of ancient
Indian architecture? It consists of seven temples, cut out by art
in a rock of the hardest stone, in a mountain covered with trees.
Never in my life did I behold a work of the like kind. The entrance
fronts the sea, from which it is not far distant, and consists of
a passage cut out in the solid rock, forming part of the summit of
the mountain. The sides of this passage, which is about twenty Roman
palms in breadth, and fifteen in height, is covered with the figures
of different sacred animals cut out, of their natural size. Here I
saw the elephant of _Rama_ and _Gannesha_; the tortoise of _Vishnu_;
the ape of _Rama_; the wild sow, into which _Vishnu_ metamorphosed
himself; the cow of the goddess _Parvadi_ and _Lakshmi_; the fish, as
a symbol of water; the snake, as the symbol of life and death; and
other animals, the names of which I do not at present remember[56].
The external appearance of the walls of this temple, which were
totally black, clearly shews that it is no modern work, and that
several centuries must have been necessary, in such a pure, serene,
dry and mild climate as that of India, to cover the surface of them,
as well as the sculptured figures, with a black crust. Having got
to the end of the above-mentioned passage, you arrive at a final
round place in the same rock, where you observe on the left a few
stone steps, and on the right two passages hewn out also in the rock,
each of which appeared to me to be seven palms in breadth and twelve
in height. These steps and passages conduct to the temple itself,
which consists of large vaulted apartments or grottos, separated
from each other by walls cut out of the solid rock, but in such a
manner that you can go from the one into the other. The largest are
below, and the smaller above. They are all cut out in the rock, and
are supported by pillars of the same. Around the walls stand a great
number of very large statues, representing heathen deities, formed
of stone masses, which have been also cut from the rock. Among these
I observed, of Colossal size, the gods _Brahma_, _Vishnu_, _Shiva_,
_Rama_, _Krishna_, _Devendra_, _Kartiguna_, and _Gannesha_; also the
goddesses _Parvadi_, _Sarasvadi_, and _Lakshmi_; and the various
figures into which _Vishnu_ transformed himself while he remained on
earth. When I visited this place, I was attended by five Brahmans,
who all spoke Portuguese, and gave me an explanation of every thing I
saw. The information I received from them I immediately wrote down,
and paid them five rupees for their trouble. In the seventh and tenth
chapter of the second book I shall give a farther account of this
temple[57].
At the bottom of the mountain, not far from the above-mentioned
temple, is a sacred pond, in which, since the earliest ages, all
those who visit the temple have been accustomed to wash themselves.
Near it stands a tree, with a thick shady top, which is surrounded
by a low stone wall. The internal space is filled with earth, which
is well watered; and by these means the tree is supplied with
nourishment. In the Tamulic language it is called _Arasu_; in that
of Malabar, _Arayal_ or _Arashu_; and in corrupted Portuguese,
_Pimpolu_. If the bark of this tree be bruised, it yields a juice
which is an excellent remedy for schirrous tumours in the liver and
diseases of the spleen. This juice taken inwardly, to the quantity
of two ounces, stops spitting of blood; and, used as an ointment, it
cures the itch. The dried fruit of the tree pulverised, and taken
in water for fourteen days, removes asthmatic complaints; and it
is said also that it promotes fruitfulness in women. This _Arashu_
tree is held in great veneration by the Indians, chiefly because
it represents the deities _Brahma_, _Vishnu_, and _Shiva_, who are
supposed to reside in it. On this account a white cloth, intended
as a representation of the robe or covering of these deities, is
suspended round its trunk on certain days of solemnity.
On the 16th of October 1776 I proceeded from Maïlapuri to Sadras,
where I passed the night. The weather at that time was more
tempestuous than I had ever seen it on the coast of Coromandel;
because, as I have already observed, the winter commences there about
the 20th of October. The rain then pours down in torrents; the rivers
and streams precipitate themselves from the Gauts with prodigious
noise, inundate the highways, and swell up to such a degree that they
overflow their banks, sweep away houses, trees, men and animals, and
carry them along with them into the sea. This was exactly the case
on the 17th of October, in the morning, when I arrived at the river
_Paler_ or _Palarru_, which discharges itself into the sea on the
south of Madras. It was nearly half a mile in breadth, and flowed
along with the utmost violence and impetuosity. All the travellers
from Sadras were obliged to stop here, because there were no boats to
carry them over; and even if there had been any, it was much to be
apprehended that they would be driven out to sea by the force of the
stream. Besides others, there was an English gentleman from Madras
who intended to go to Gudelur; but when he saw the great number of
people stopped by the river, and how dangerous it would be to attempt
to pass it, he caused himself to be immediately carried back in his
palanquin to Sadras. I was extremely curious to see how the Indians
would proceed in order to get over. There were about a hundred of
us who all wished to cross the river; and I thought that if others
effected a passage I might do the same. The Indians pulled off all
their clothes, kneeled down on the sand, and raised their eyes and
hands towards heaven. Under such circumstances mankind are taught to
reverence the supreme Being; for, in cases of life or death, even an
atheist or materialist can hardly remain indifferent. After offering
up a prayer, some of the best swimmers threw themselves into the
stream, while the remaining part of the company stood gazing with
anxious expectation to see whether they would succeed in getting
over. In less than half an hour these intrepid swimmers had reached
the opposite shore. When my _Coolies_ saw this, they stripped in the
like manner, and having sought out two pieces of wood, bound them
fast together, and putting my _Dooly_ upon them, pushed it into the
water. They then desired me to place myself in the _Dooly_; to draw
up my feet, and to hold fast with both my hands. I was so terrified
at this proposal, that my heart began to palpitate. They, however,
repeated it; and as I clearly saw that it would be impossible to get
over in any other manner, I promised my _Coolies_ a rupee; contracted
myself in my _Dooly_ as much as I could; held fast by the pole, and,
rather dead than alive, sat as it were in the water, which every now
and then forced itself in around me. The _Coolies_ began to swim, and
from time to time gave the _Dooly_ a smart push, in order that it
might advance also: Four of them swam on the right side, and four on
the left; all taking care that it should not deviate from its proper
direction. When we reached the middle of the river, where the force
and velocity of the stream were greatest, they began all together
to push and exert themselves, bawling out as loud as they could. My
_Dooly_ now seemed to dance with me on the waves, which tossed us up
and down; but by incessant labour and exertion I was pushed to the
shore without any misfortune. I then gave my _Coolies_ the rupee I
had promised them; changed my clothes, and continued my journey to
Puduceri[58].
I found there Father Medardus, a Capuchin missionary from
Madraspatnam, who intended to proceed to Surat in the Portuguese
vessel the captain of which had promised to give me a passage. I
was extremely happy to have such a worthy man for the companion of
my voyage; but unfortunately my joy was soon embittered by a very
melancholy accident. The ship _Nossa Senhora de Luz_ was to sail
on the 22d of October; for this is the fixed time when all vessels
leave Puduceri, because if they remain they must be exposed to the
attack of most tremendous storms, as the winter then sets in on
the coast of Coromandel. In order that our departure might not be
delayed, we got every thing ready to go on board on the 21st, at a
time when there was a very hollow sea. In that neighbourhood the
waves are sometimes so furious that they tear up trees on the shore,
and hurry them along with them into the harbour of Puduceri: we
employed therefore a _shilinga_ to convey us to the ship. Besides
such articles as were necessary for my voyage, I carried with me a
small packet containing two thousand scudi sent from Rome for the
missionary establishment on the coast of Malabar, and which was
entrusted to my care. When Father Medardus, who was fond of a joke,
saw this packet, he observed that I had done a very imprudent thing
in taking it with me, as the Capuchins generally experienced some
misfortune when they carried money with them. “And as that is the
case,” said he, “I would rather dispense with your company and pursue
my voyage alone.” We rallied each other on this subject, and got on
board about five in the afternoon. The crew, who seemed to be expert
seamen, avoided with great dexterity the first wave that dashed
itself against the mast: but the sea raged with the utmost fury;
and as these people were obliged to row in an opposite direction,
their strength was soon exhausted. We, however, got over the second
billow, after great labour and exertion; but the third and most
dangerous beat with such impetuosity against our _shilinga_, that it
was thrown on its end, and stood almost in a perpendicular direction.
Just as this happened we were all in the forepart of the vessel.
Every thing in the _shilinga_, therefore, rolled over us; the waves
forced themselves into it, and we were surrounded by chests, casks,
and bales all in confusion, so that we could not stir. As if struck
by lightning we stood pale and motionless, staring at each other,
without being able to utter a single word. Our rowers, who had been
thrown into the sea, clung to their oars, or endeavoured by swimming
to overcome the waves, while we almost gave ourselves up as lost. The
third wave at length disappeared; our _shilinga_ again recovered its
proper position; our rowers got back to their places; and being all
gradually freed from our terror, we returned thanks to God for having
rescued us from the jaws of death. This dreadful accident, however,
had made such an impression upon me, that I was seized with a violent
fever, which lasted ten days; and for some time after I could never
hear people relate any danger of the like kind without being ready
to faint. This weakness continued almost three years; and I was
not able to get rid of it but by using bark and the cold bath. The
worthy Father Medardus died some months after this event at Surat.
So dear did my missionary expedition cost me! I had wandered all
over Italy, Portugal, England and France, and travelled more than a
thousand leagues by water before I arrived on the coast of Malabar.
On the 23d of October, early in the morning, we left the road of
Puduceri; and after passing the island of Ceylon, and doubling Cape
Comari, came to anchor on the 14th of November at Cochin, on the
Malabar coast, which Providence had assigned me as the theatre of my
missionary labours.
CHAPTER VI.
_Topographical Description of Malabar._
In describing Malabar I can speak from experience and without
trusting to the information of others, as in the course of my
travels I had an opportunity of being better acquainted with that
country than with my own. The business of my mission; temporal as
well as spiritual concerns; visits of state, which, on account of
the affairs of Christianity, I was obliged to pay to kings and their
ministers; the visitation of churches; continual intercourse with
Pagans and Christians; journeys into the interior districts; the
settling of disputes which it was my duty to terminate; epistolatory
correspondence with the inhabitants, and many unlucky accidents
which occurred to me, have all contributed to enable me to give an
accurate, clear, and full account of this part of India.
The original and proper Indian name of Malabar is _Malayalam_. _Mala_
signifies a mountain, _Alam_ a habitation, district or country.
_Malayalam_, therefore, signifies the mountainous land, which
indeed Malabar really is; for, except towards the west, where it is
bounded by the sea, it is every where surrounded by high mountains:
_Malanàda_ and _Malangàra_ have the same signification; and from the
latter has been formed, by various contortions, the word Malabar.
The opinion of Father Raulin, who contends that Malabar is of Arabic
extraction, being compounded of _Mala_ and _Barr_, has no foundation
whatever. The old Samscred name of this country is _Kerulara_, the
kingdom of _Kerula_. I shall have occasion hereafter to offer some
conjectures respecting this appellation. The inhabitants of Malabar
call themselves _Malayalese_, and not _Maleatese_; as Sonnerat says,
the inhabitants of the Gauts, a kind of people who have little
intercourse with those who reside in the towns, are called Malays,
that is, inhabitants of the mountains.
This kingdom commences in the south at _Tovàla_, a castle situated
on Cape Comari, towards the east, in latitude 8° 6′, and borders
on the kingdom of Madura, as well as the coast of Pescaria. On the
west it is bounded by the sea, and on the east by the Gauts, the
latter of which separate it from Madura and Maïssur. Towards the
north it borders on Canara and the mountain _Illi_, which, according
to J. Hamilton Moore, lies in 12° 5′ north latitude, and 75° east
longitude. According to the same author, Cochin lies in the latitude
of 10° and the longitude of 75° 52′; Calicut in the latitude of 11°
21′; and Cape Comari in the latitude of 7° 55′, and the longitude of
77° 20′. From the Gauts to the sea, that is from east to west, this
country is sometimes thirty, forty, thirty-five, or twenty leagues
in breadth, according as these mountains extend themselves more
or less into the interior parts. Its whole length amounts to more
than 120 leagues. It is intersected by a great many rivers, which,
falling down from these mountains, pursue their winding courses in
different directions, and at last proceed westwards towards the
sea. The most remarkable of these rivers are: the _Cariapatnam_,
the _Coleci_, the _Valavaley_, and the _Modelaposha_, which run
past _Attinga_, _Ceringa_, and _Angenga_; also the _Paru_, which
flows past _Chidàcolam_, _Paru_ and _Mainàda_, and, uniting itself
with several other rivers, forms, from _Cochin_ to _Codungalur_,
towards the north, a kind of stagnant lake; so that people can travel
through the greater part of Malabar by water. The rivers of less
note are: the _Vaypur_ and _Porotta_; the _Feira d’Alva_, which
in its course washes _Maleatur_, _Cognur_, _Ciovare_, _Varapole_,
_Angicaimal_ and _Cochin_; the _Alangata_, which after running past
_Alangata_, _Cenotta_ and _Codungalur_, discharges itself into the
sea at _Aycotta_; also the _Cettuva_, the _Paniani_, the _Calicut_,
the _Mahe_, the _Baliapatnam_, and several others, which extend a
great way into the country, and form an innumerable multitude of
small islands. As this country, besides being intersected by so many
rivers, is surrounded also by the sea and by mountains, not only
is its interior trade much promoted, because merchandise can be
transported in boats and other vessels from the most remote districts
to all the towns and places of trade on the sea coast, but it is
almost impregnable, because the marching of troops would be rendered
extremely difficult, and be much retarded by having so many streams
to cross; because cavalry could scarcely any where act in a land so
intersected; and because a hostile army, if its commander were not
perfectly acquainted with the nature of the interior parts, would
every moment have to apprehend an attack from the inhabitants. These
are the true reasons why this country has never yet been subjected to
a foreign power. The Greeks, Tatars, Moguls and Arabs, who penetrated
hither, were merely merchants; and the original Malabar sovereigns
still retain peaceful possession of this kingdom, which they have
enjoyed for three thousand years. Tippoo Sultan once attempted to
subdue it; but his troops were beat, and again driven from the
country[59]. It is here, therefore, that the original manners,
customs, laws, arts and sciences of the Indians must be studied; for
if not quite free from mixture, they have at any rate been preserved
much purer than in any other of the provinces or countries of India.
Besides, it is highly worthy of notice on account of the trade
which it formerly carried on with the Egyptians, the Greeks, the
Romans, the Persians and the Armenians, and of its giving birth to
the Christians of St. Thomas, who existed here in the earliest ages
of the Church. In the last place, it deserves to be better known,
because the Portuguese carried on war for a long time with one of the
kings of Calicut, named _Samuri_, who makes a shining figure in the
history of Persia, and because Several Christian congregations were
founded here by St. Francis Xavier.
The climate of Malabar is healthful, warm, and somewhat moist,
except during the hot months of April and May, a little before
the commencement of the rainy season, which begins on the 15th of
June, and ends about the 20th of August. In the two former months
the atmosphere is so much rarified by the violent heat, that the
inhabitants would be in danger of perishing, were there not such a
number of rivers in the country, and if, at the periods when the heat
has attained to its highest degree, a fresh breeze did not blow from
the ocean, by which the air is purified and cooled--A daily proof
that Providence has dispensed to all countries and all nations of the
earth a certain measure of inconveniences and enjoyments.
Malabar is inhabited not only by Pagan Indians, who are aborigines
there, but also by Mahometans, Christians and Jews. The Mahometans
and Jews both came from other countries; but the Christians are in
part the original inhabitants of India.
The different tribes of people still existing in India are:
1. The _original Pagan Indians_. They live in a state of oppression
from foreigners, and form the greater part of the inhabitants.
2. The _Mahometan Arabs_. These came to India under the Caliph
_Valid_, in the ninetieth year of the Hegira, or the year 710 of the
Christian æra: their descendants are called _Afguans_ or _Aghuans_;
in the Indian language _Patans_: they are a brave warlike people, and
once made themselves masters of the city of Delhi[60].
3. The _Mappulians_. These are the descendants of Arabian merchants,
who, in the eighth century established themselves on the coasts of
Malabar and Coromandel, and married native Indians.
4. The _Tatars_, or _Tartars_, who came to this country in 1398, with
the conqueror Timur Bec. From these are descended the Mogul emperors,
and in general all the Moguls who have existed to the present time in
India.
5. The _Christians_. These are partly the descendants of those
original inhabitants of the land who were converted to the Christian
faith by the apostle Thomas, and partly other Christians who went
from Mesopotamia and Chaldea to India, and with whom the whole coast
of Malabar is at present filled.
6. The _Ghaurs_, _Gebers_, or worshippers of Fire, who, being
expelled from Persia, emigrated to India about the year 630 of the
Christian æra, and settled at Surat, Tatta, Bombay, and other parts
of Malabar.
7. The _Seiks_. These worship the only true God, and acknowledge as
their chief a Patriarch of their own nation, who has made himself
master of the city of _Lahur_ or _Laor_.
8. The _Jews_. These people came to India from Persia, after they
had been freed from their servitude by Cyrus, about 540 years before
the birth of Christ. So at least we are told by a tradition of the
Jews who reside at Cochin on the coast of Malabar. It is, however,
more probable that they belong to the remainder of those Jewish
people who continued in Persia; who were consequently separated from
the rest of the tribes, and who, after the downfall of the Persian
empire, about 500 years before Christ, fled to India[61].
9. The _Portuguese_. They went to India in the year 1498, under the
reign of the Mogul emperor Akbar, and are still in possession of Goa,
and some small places belonging to it.
10. The _Dutch_. In 1603 they established themselves in the island of
Ceylon, and about the year 1658 began gradually to make themselves
masters of the Portuguese settlements.
11. The _English_. They were at first merchants; but became warriors,
and subdued the kingdom of Bengal[62].
Idolatry is the oldest and most prevailing religion in India; but
toleration is granted to the Jews, Christians and Mahometans, who are
all allowed to perform public worship without being in the least
interrupted, provided they do not interfere with the established
religion or the government of the country; the former of which
is Paganism, and the latter unlimited monarchy. The Christians
of St. Thomas, who are considered as noble, make a part of the
states; attain to public offices and dignified rank, and form among
themselves a kind of Christian republic. The king now on the throne
is a Pagan by birth, and named _Rama Varmer_. The king of Cochin
is descended from the family of _Perumpadapil_, which is one of
the oldest in Malabar. The English are in possession of the town
of _Angenga_, together with the city and fortress of _Talicera_.
_Cochin_ and the fortress of _Collam_ belong to the Dutch; and the
Danes have a factory at _Coleci_. King _Samuri_ reigns at Calicut;
and the city of _Cananur_, with the district around it, is under the
dominion of queen _Còlatiri_.
* * * * *
After this general view I shall proceed to a description of
particular places on the Malabar coast, and begin with Cape Comari;
which, according to John Hamilton Moore, lies in lat. 7° 55′, and
according to astronomical observations made on board the Calypso
frigate, in which I returned to Europe, in the longitude of 80°.
On the western side of Cape Comari lies _Covàlam_, the _Colis_
or _Colias_ of the ancients, at present a town of very little
importance. Advancing farther into the country, you arrive at
_Arampalli_, the _Arguropolis_ of the Greeks, who from the name of
this city called the bay of Manar _Sinus Argaricus_. It was formerly
in high repute on account of its cotton stuffs, which were partly
manufactured on the spot, and partly brought thither for sale.
The next place is _Tovàla_, a fortress belonging to the king of
Travancor. It protects the frontiers of the country, and the king
maintains in it a strong garrison to prevent any hostile incursion
on the side of Madura, which begins there, and extends towards the
north-east. Malabar ladies of rank dare not go to Tovàla, for the
natives of Malabar believe themselves to be descended of the noblest
families, and are unwilling that their wives and daughters should
have any intercourse with the female inhabitants of Madura, or of any
of the other cities on the coast of Coromandel. Malefactors, who have
been banished by government, are carried beyond the boundaries of
_Tovàla_; and such cases frequently occur on the coast of Malabar.
We next come to Cape _Canymuri_, or _Comari_, lying towards the west,
where there is a small harbour, and a Christian church founded by
St. Francis Xavier, which stands upon a hill. On another hill, a
few miles farther up the country, is a monastery inhabited by Pagan
philosophers, known under the name of Gymnosophists, or _Yoqui_[63].
Following the sea-coast we then find the cities of _Mannacudi_ and
_Rajahcollamangalam_, where there are still to be seen the ruins
of the celebrated palace of the family of the present king of
Travancor, who was born in the latter. Higher up the country lies
the town of _Sushindram_, together with a celebrated temple of the
god _Kàmadèva_. Farther towards the west stands the celebrated
city of _Còttate_, or _Cottàram_; the _Cottona_, or _Cottiara_,
of the ancient Greeks and Romans. This city, a considerable place
of trade, is upwards of 2000 years old; and is much frequented
by merchants from the island of Ceylon, the provinces of Madura,
Marava, Tanjaur, and the coast of Coromandel. A river, which flows
through the middle of it, divides it into two parts. It contains
abundance of merchandise, and is inhabited by a great number of
weavers, money-changers, silver-smiths, jugglers, comedians, quacks,
dancing-girls, conjurers, and black artists.
Farther towards the north, on the sea-coast, in the longitude of 8°,
lie _Pullatopo_, _Cariapatnam_, _Coleci_, _Curumpana_, _Patnam_ and
_Valavaley_. The city of _Coleci_ has a small harbour, where the
largest ships are secured from the stormy winds under the protection
of some large rocks. This harbour is the general place of shelter
resorted to by all the small vessels on the coast of Malabar; and was
known to the Egyptians, Romans, Greeks and Persians. Beyond these
lie _Tiruvancòda_, or _Tiruvancor_, from which the king of Travancor
takes his title. As this place was the residence of the court, the
Portuguese, who gave themselves very little trouble respecting
the proper orthography of Indian titles, called the sovereign king
of Travancor, His real title properly is _Tripapu_, or _Bennàti
Sorùbam_, that is, king of the white earth; for, around this city,
the soil to a considerable distance is white, sandy, and dry.
_Padmanàburam_ is a considerable castle not far from _Tiruvancoda_,
where the king resides and keeps his treasure. _Odeaquiri_ is also
a place of strength, and the king’s principal magazine of arms and
warlike stores. There is a garrison in it of European soldiers; and
it contains an arsenal, and a cannon foundery.
On the sea-coast, and under the latitude of 8° N. lies also
_Pulluvalley Bingiam_, a town, cape, and small harbour which has the
form of a half moon; _Valiatora_, a town; _Puntora_, a town, with an
entirely new harbour, which the reigning king of Travancor caused
to be constructed, and where the European and Chinese ships lie at
anchor in order to take in pepper; and _Veli_ and _Canantora_, two
towns inhabited by Christian and Mahometan fishermen. Then follows
_Tiruvandaram_ or _Tiruvandaburam_, the summer residence of the king
of Travancor. The garrison of this place consists of four hundred
Patan cavalry; about a thousand _Nayris_, or noble Malabar warriors;
and nearly ten thousand seapoys, a corps composed of all kinds of
people, but instructed in military discipline according to the
English manner. The remainder of the troops are distributed here and
there in the country. The castle of _Tiruvandaram_ is exceedingly
ill-built. The royal palace is ornamented with a great number of
paintings, clocks, and other European pieces of furniture. It is
large, exceedingly beautiful, and built in the European taste; but
is not inhabited by the king, who prefers residing in a mean edifice
which stands in a palm-garden, where he is surrounded by Brahman
priests, in whose company he performs his daily ablutions, prayers,
and other religious duties. In the year 1787, M. Donaudi, a native of
Turin, and a captain in the king’s service, was preparing to supply
the castle with gates and cannon. This city is populous, and contains
a great number of palm-gardens, each of which is surrounded by a wall
eight feet in height. These walls are constructed either of bricks
dried in the sun, or of red and yellow clay beat together.
The next places on the sea-coast are: _Puttentopo_, _Caniarata_,
_Puducurici_, _Perimatorà_, _Angiutenga_--an English colony called
by the Europeans _Angenga_, and the town of _Mampulli_. Farther on
lies _Attinga_, the residence of the queen, a title always given to
the king’s oldest sister, as his spouse cannot nor dare not become
queen; also _Ciranga_, or _Cirangapatnam_, which is likewise a
populous city. All merchandise exported from the country must be
here deposited and weighed, after which it is sent to the English
at _Angenga_, who transport it to Bombay and thence to Europe. The
interior districts of the country are entirely inhabited by Pagans,
whereas on the sea-coast the greater part of the inhabitants are
Christians and Mahometans. The reason is, that the Pagan Indians,
like the ancient Egyptians and Persians, have a certain aversion
to the sea, and approach it only at particular times, when it is
absolutely necessary on account of their purifications, which must
be performed in it. The Christian congregation at Mampulli was
founded by St. Francis Xavier; but at present it has assumed a quite
different form.
The next place on the sea coast is _Barcale_, a town, mountain, and
highly celebrated Brahman temple; in the neighbourhood of which is
an uncommonly beautiful _Colam_, or sacred pond, where the king
is accustomed to bathe once every year. A spring of very pure,
healthful, purgative water has its source in the adjacent mountain.
I could not learn why it possessed these qualities till I happened
to be in company with Mr. Hutchinson, who informed me, that both the
mountain of _Barcale_ and that of _Kidàcolam_ contain abundance of
iron. After passing the _Barcale_ you immediately arrive at a river
which flows down from the district of _Cottàracare_, lying towards
the west. On this river, which runs past the town of _Paru_, where it
discharges itself into the sea, _Vira Martanda_, king of Travancor,
a predecessor of the present king _Rama Varmer_, encamped ten years,
because the king of Ciangacèri or Collam disputed with him the
passage. In 1746 Vira Martanda at length found means to force his way
over, and to take prisoner the king of _Ciangacèri_, as well as that
of _Ceràva_ or _Porrocàda_, together with several petty princes whose
dominions extended as far as Cochin. Besides _Mainàda_ there is no
other place to be mentioned on this coast, as the eighth degree of
northern latitude here ends.
_Collam_, called by the Europeans, very improperly, _Coelan_,
_Coilon_, or _Coulan_, lies under the 9th degree of north latitude.
It was built in the year 825 after the birth of Christ and formerly
was a city of considerable note. The Christian as well as Pagan
natives of Malabar begin their æra at the period of its foundation;
for they say, _Collam tollairata arravata a manda_; that is, 965
years after the founding of Collam; which, according to our mode of
computation, corresponds with the year 1789. I must not, however,
forget to mention, that the months of the people on the Malabar
coast end ten days later than ours; so that the tenth day of their
month corresponds with the twentieth of ours. This they call _Palè
Cänuaca_, or the old style. In this city there were formerly a
great many weaving looms, as well as manufactories of cotton and
stone-ware. Various articles of household furniture were also made
here, of _Ayani_, _Benga_, _Teka_, and _Biti_ wood, the last of which
is perfectly black, and as highly esteemed as ebony. Even at present
the most ingenious artists on the Malabar coast reside at Collam.
Cotton, pepper, ginger, cardamoms, and other kinds of merchandise,
are carried hither by water, and deposited in warehouses. The
Christian congregation here have St. Thomas for their patron, and,
though adjacent to the coast, belong to the diocese of the archbishop
of _Angamali_, the true pastor of the Christians of St. Thomas.
Alexius Menezes, the first archbishop of Goa, opened here his first
conference with the Christians of St. Thomas, when he made them
renounce the principles of Nestorius, and embrace the doctrines of
the Romish church, to which they are in part united. The same prelate
caused an excellent fortress to be built at Collam on the sea-coast;
which, however, afterwards fell to ruin, because the Dutch neglected
to keep it in repair. The Brahmans possess, in this city, a very
ancient temple, which is dedicated to _Shiva_ or _Mahadèva_; and
the Catholics have three congregations. The latter were formerly
under the care of the Jesuits, by whom they were founded; but since
the destruction of that order, they have been entrusted to the
Franciscans at Goa, who have the management there of every thing that
relates to ecclesiastical establishments. Between Collam and Cape
Comari there are reckoned to be altogether seventy-five Catholic
congregations, some of which are large and some small, some poor and
some rich, and of which some are on the sea-coast, and others higher
up in the country. The climate at Collam is exceedingly mild and
healthful. There is here abundance of excellent fish, tortoises,
very good rice, bananas, pine-apples and other fruit, pulse, milk,
butter, and in short every thing necessary for those who wish to live
according to the manner of the Pythagoreans, which is indeed the case
with all the Pagan inhabitants on the coast of Malabar.
On the east of Collam, and towards the interior part of the country,
lie _Perumnàda_ and _Cirumuttu_, two beautiful and uncommonly fertile
districts, which belong to the ancient kingdom of _Kòttaràcare_,
and which produce great quantities of pepper, ginger, cardamoms,
gum-lack, cotton, and various kinds of valuable wood. The river on
which these articles are transported takes its rise in the Gauts,
and, proceeding past _Callare_, _Tuyam_, and on the north side of
_Collam_, discharges itself into the sea, towards the south, not far
from the town of _Aybica_. At the last-mentioned place the king of
Travancor causes small ships to be built from time to time, and in
general gives employment to a great number of seamen. Lime is burnt
here also from oyster and muscle shells, immense quantities of which
are found in the neighbouring lakes and between the small islands.
Farther towards the north, on the sea-coast, lies _Coyttòta_,
together with the church of _Madre de Deos_; and towards the
east, _Krishnapuram_, _Puttencarà_, _Tumhanur_, _Carimbanàda_,
and _Tevelacare_. All these, which are of considerable size, and
inhabited by Pagans and Christians, contain a great deal of riches,
and carry on an extensive trade with pepper, cardamoms, and _pacca_,
or areca nuts. The _areca_ is an Indian fruit, which the natives wrap
up in an aromatic leaf (_betel_) and chew in their mouths, after
they have sprinkled over it fine chalk, which they call _Ciunamba_.
Excellent sugar-canes grow also in this district, and in such
abundance that a sugar manufactory might easily be established, were
not the king afraid of entrusting the management of it to Europeans.
There are found here, likewise in great plenty, all kinds of wood,
pepper, cassia root, tamarinds, tyger and buffalo skins, officinal
herbs, apes, papajays, virgin wax cotton, and other productions of
the like kind. All these articles are conveyed to the two populous
cities of _Mabalicarè_ and _Cayamcollam_, where they are weighed, and
preserved till they are transported to _Porrocàda_ or _Pòrca_, and
shipped on board Indian as well as foreign vessels. At _Mabalicarè_,
or _Mavelicarè_, the king always keeps a civil officer, to settle
such disputes as arise between the inhabitants, and to take care of
the royal revenue.
Still following the sea-coast we find also _Porrocàda_ or _Pòrca_,
a very populous city, inhabited by a great number of Mahometan,
Pagan, and Christian merchants. The Dutch East India Company has a
factory here, for the purpose of receiving the pepper, and putting
it on board the Dutch ships. Then follows _Callurcàda_, a district
abounding in water, which produces large quantities of rice. It may
be called the granary of Malabar.
Farther on, towards the east, lies _Callupare_, an ancient town
of considerable note, inhabited by Schismatics, who were formerly
Nestorians, but at present are Jacobites: also _Vaypur_, where there
is a Catholic congregation; and _Cagnarapalli_, a town celebrated on
account of its trade with the kingdom of Madura, and which transports
its merchandise thither over the Gauts. In these mountains there are
found diamonds, sapphires, opals, and rock crystal. We are informed
by Ptolemy, that in his time beryls also were found near _Pugnatil_:
but they must now be exceedingly scarce; for I was acquainted at
_Barcale_ with several Brahman families who had expended their whole
fortunes in searching for such precious stones, and by these means
had reduced themselves to poverty.
We next come to the celebrated temple of _Ambalapusha_, which lies
also on the sea-coast, and is dedicated to _Shiva_ or _Mahadèva_.
This temple, which is exceedingly rich, has belonging to it
particular districts and villages, and is under the direction of
chiefs who are totally independent of the government of the country.
The latter, however, keeps here a _Cariacarer_, whose business is
to watch the conduct of these chiefs. The infamous festival, called
_Padèni_, during which the statue of the god _Shiva_ is carried
round in the night time, and before him a _lingam_, or phallus, is
celebrated at this temple. These diabolical nocturnal orgies are
attended, not only by the Pagan Indians, but it is required that
all the Christians residing in the territories dedicated to the god
should be present also. On this occasion the Pagan Indians perform a
dance, to which the Christian women are invited; and if they refuse
to come voluntarily, they are dragged thither by force. I applied,
therefore, at different times, both to _Cumàren Cembaga Ràmapulla_,
a magistrate of distinction, and to his successor _Padmanàbha
Cembaga Ràmapulla_, earnestly intreating that they would prevent
the overseers of the temple from thus abusing their power, and no
longer suffer them to compel the Christians to be partakers in so
detestable a festival. The overseers, however, found means to make a
thousand excuses, and always referred to ancient usage. But this did
not discourage me from pursuing the accomplishment of my object; and
as I was invested with full power by the above magistrate, I caused
some Christian fishermen from _Cattur_ and _Tumbòli_, who had taken a
share in the celebration of this festival, to get a severe beating
before the church-door, as a warning to other Christians not to
participate in such abominations in future[64].
Still following the coast, we arrive at _Alapushe_, a town of
considerable size, inhabited by a great number of Pagans, Mahometans,
and Christians of St. Thomas. The king of Travancor caused a large
canal to be dug here, in order that the inhabitants might send their
merchandise by water, to be put on board foreign ships lying on
the coast. In this town one of my friends, Manuel Fernandes, was
established as factor for the king, and inspector of the warehouses.
We have here a striking instance of the manner in which circumstances
change in regard to harbours and places of trade. In the first
century after the birth of Christ, the greatest trade was carried on
at _Covàlam_, _Arampalli_, and _Coleci_. In the ninth century, when
the Arabs settled on the sea coast, _Collam_ was the most celebrated
place of trade. After that period the cities of _Cochin_, _Calicut_,
_Porrocàda_, and _Cubungalur_, held the next rank; and at present,
by the wise regulations of the king of Travancor, _Puntora_ and
_Alapushe_ enjoy the same advantages.
Towards the east, _Cianganaceri_, _Pulingunne_, and _Nerenam_,
considerable towns surrounded by abundance of rice-fields, deserve
also to be mentioned. _Nerenam_, which lies on a river, is the
residence of Mar Thoma, the schismatic bishop of the Jacobites. He
has under his direction thirty-two Jacobite congregations, which
however adhere in part to the practices of the Nestorians, and, like
the Pagans, admit various superstitious ceremonies. The new bishop,
who lodged with me on the 22d of December 1785, called Mar Dionysio,
was descended from the family of _Palamattam_ at _Corolongatta_. I
have still in my possession some of his letters, written in answer to
a proposal which I made to him, of uniting himself with the Romish
church.
_Ettumanur_ is a celebrated temple of _Vishnu_, and the residence
of a Pagan magistrate. The Brahmans here have a very considerable
revenue.
_Iratushe_, a town inhabited by Christians and Pagans, lies at the
bottom of the Gauts, and carries on trade with Madura.
Still proceeding along the coast, we arrive at the following places:
_Tumbòli_, _Cattur_, _Artunkel_, _Tanghi_, _Mannacodam_, _Mannacèri_,
_Saude_, and _Cochin_ a city and fortress belonging to the Dutch.
Higher up the country lies _Muttam_, a town of great trade, and
inhabited by Christians, black Jews descended from the white Jews of
Cochin, Mahometans, and a great number of Pagan Canarians, called
also _Banyans_ or _Cettis_. The last mentioned have a great knowledge
of trade, and are active, industrious, moderate, and opulent people.
At _Certele_, a town of considerable note, inhabited only by Pagans,
is a celebrated temple dedicated to _Bhagavadi_, that is, the
fortunate woman, the spouse of the god _Shiva_. In the month of March
1777 I had an opportunity of seeing the image of this deity during
the celebration of her festival. It was exhibited to the populace,
amidst the sound of various musical instruments, by a Brahman, who
sat upon an elephant, and held an umbrella over it. Some Indian
dancing girls preceded the statue; and the procession was closed by
an immense multitude of people, who seemed frantic with joy, and who
sung all kinds of indecent songs on the subject of generation, which
they say is effected by the influence of this female deity, combined
with that of her husband _Shiva_, or the sun. The statue was at last
carried to a sacred pond, where it was washed and purified by the
Brahmans; who, during the ceremony, repeated a great many prayers.
The Pagans worship this deity as the ruler of all fluids, from which
every earthly thing was produced by means of heat. Women in labour
are under her protection; and the small-pox are the consequence
of her pernicious influence. For these and such like reasons the
above solemnity was instituted to her honour. A cock is sacrificed
before the gate of her temple, and the door-posts are besprinkled
with the blood. In the second book of this work, I shall give a more
particular account of this divinity. She has several names, such as
_Parvàdi_, _Kàli_, _Umà_, and _Ishvari_. An image of her, made of
bronze, is preserved in the Borgian Museum at Velitri.
_Vaikam_, or _Vaikatta_, is also a _Gràmam_, or district belonging to
the Brahmans, who are generally accustomed to establish themselves at
a distance from the other casts. There is here likewise a celebrated
temple of _Shiva_, together with a Brahman school or academy. The
revenue of this temple is very considerable, and arises from rice
fields, which are let, without any distinction, to Mahometans and
Christians. One of the king’s civil officers resides here. In the
years 1788 and 1789, when the cruel Tippoo Sultan Bahader, son of
Hayder Aly Khan, persecuted the Brahmans, and caused them either to
be unmercifully beat, or circumcised according to the Mahometan
manner, a great many of them fled to _Vaikatta_, where they received
every kind of protection possible from the king of Travancor.
_Udiamper_ is the place where the celebrated synod was held, on the
26th of June 1599, at the conclusion of which the Christians of St.
Thomas, who had before been Nestorians, returned to the bosom of the
Romish Church[65]. The inhabitants of this town, which lies on a
river, are at present exceedingly poor.
Farther towards the east lie _Cadaturuti_, a town with two churches;
_Badeati_, formerly the residence of the court of the king of
Travancor; and _Muttiera_ and _Corolongatta_, where there are two
considerable congregations of the Christians of St. Thomas. At the
latter place they have a very beautiful church dedicated to St. Mary,
in which service is performed by priests who are natives of the
country. The Nestorians had formerly a monastery here, inhabited by
people of their order from Persia and Chaldea, who were the spiritual
guides of the Christians of St. Thomas. There were monasteries also
of the like kind at _Edapalli_, _Angamali_, and at _Maïlapuri_ on
the coast of Coromandel; but they all fell into decline after the
Portuguese had established themselves on the coast of Malabar[66].
This district produces a great deal of pepper; and a peculiar kind of
potatoes, black on the outside, but exceedingly white internally, and
which have a remarkably fine taste. They are called _Kàtschil_. There
is also great abundance of round potatoes, such as ours; but they are
of a much superior quality, and have really an aromatic taste[67].
In the forests at the bottom of the Gauts, near _Corolongatta_,
_Clagnil_, _Badagare_, _Aragoshe_, _Mailacomba_, and _Modelacodata_,
forming districts which I have twice travelled through, there are
a great many elephants, buffaloes, parrots of all kinds, deer, and
black and white apes. The last-mentioned animals go about in whole
flocks of from two to three thousand, and climb up the trees in order
to carry away the wild fruits. In these forests there are found also
abundance of tygers, and particularly of the so called Royal Tyger,
which is almost as large as a small cow[68]. _Ràmapurata_, _Cuincam_,
and _Mohatushe_, are connected in commerce with _Maïssur_, which
lies on the other side of the mountains, and send their merchandise
to Cochin by water.
Cochin is situated on the sea-coast, and, according to J. Hamilton
Moore, in the latitude of 10° N. but according to observations made
on board the Calypso in 9° 57′. In the Malabar language it is called
_Cocci_, and obtained that name from a small river which formerly
discharged itself there into the sea. In the year 1341, however, when
the sea threw up the small island of _Vaypi_ on the north side of
Cochin, the waters, which during the rainy season pour down from the
Gauts, broke through the banks of the river _Cocci_, and overwhelmed
the village of the same name with such violence that it swept it
away, and formed in that district a very large river, a lake, and a
harbour so spacious that the largest ships can now lie at anchor in
safety on the north-east side of Cochin, where the river runs into
the sea. In the months of August and September this river commonly
washes away the sand hills, which the sea in the months of June and
July, when it is most boisterous, throws up at its mouth. At that
period nature always exhibits here a most magnificent spectacle, as
a violent contest then arises between the sea and the rain water
which falls down in torrents from the mountains. If the latter is
sufficiently powerful, it forces its way through every thing that
opposes it; cleanses its bed, and drives the sand before it into
the sea; but if the sea proves victorious, the mouths of the river,
the canal, and even the harbour, are choaked up with sand. The sea
then overflows its banks, inundates the adjacent country, and,
forming in one place an island, and in another a lake obliges the
inhabitants to abandon their dwellings, and gives to many districts a
totally different appearance. In this manner new towns and harbours
gradually arise; and the old ones are so destroyed, that, at the
end of four or five centuries, their former site can scarcely be
discovered[69].
The before-mentioned island of _Vaypi_ is thirteen miles long and
one in breadth. The inhabitants, who have immured themselves there,
begin their æra at the period of its origin, as the other natives
of Malabar begin theirs at the building of the city of _Collam_.
This æra is called _Puduvepa_; from _Pudu_, new; and _Vepa_, the
foundation or introduction of any thing. I was assured by Mr. John
Truyns, the sworn interpreter of the Dutch East India Company at
Cochin, that the origin of this new period, and the epoch when
it began, are registered in the chancery of the company. I saw
also several Malabar letters, written by members of the Christian
congregation at _Nharakel_, which were dated according to this new
æra. The soil both in the island of _Vaypi_, and in most of the flat
districts of Malayala, consists of sea sand and calcareous matter
combined with various kinds of earth and clay, which, during the
rainy season, are washed down from the Gauts. The Indians assert,
that the sea formerly extended even to the bottom of these mountains.
This tradition, as evidently appears, has, however, no foundation;
but it is certain that some of the plains found in this country have
been produced by conflicts between the waves of the sea and torrents
of rain. The devastation occasioned by such inundations can hardly
be described. Grandchildren sometimes can scarcely point out, with
any certainty, the spot where their grandfather resided, because it
has assumed a form totally different[70]. When I arrived in Malabar,
a stream flowed so near our convent at _Verapole_, that the water
touched the steps of the door of our garden; and in the course of
eight years it washed up so much earth that we acquired an entirely
new garden. As I saw that this spot always increased, and was already
300 paces in length, I waited on the king of Travancor, who at that
time resided at _Perur_, and requested he would make a present of it
to our church of St. Joseph at _Verapole_. The worthy prince complied
with my request, and the letter of donation is still preserved
among the archives of the place. Our sub-prior made it his business
afterwards to get this spot planted with young coco-nut and banana
trees. In like manner I saw an island, a mile long, produced, in
the course of ten years, before our church at _Cettiyatti_, by the
opposite effects of the rain and sea-water. Those changes, which are
observed in all parts of the world on the sea-coasts and in the low
lands, have been produced by the force of water; whereas those in the
mountains have resulted from subterranean fires. The former is the
case in India, in particular, where the ebbing and flowing of the sea
succeed each other every six hours, and where the latter is so strong
that in many of the streams and rivers it extends to the distance of
six leagues up the country. The terrible and awfully grand scenes of
nature which take place on such occasions are beyond description:
those who have not seen them can hardly form any idea of them.
Navigation on these coasts is attended with great danger, on account
of the currents. The ancients, therefore, were accustomed always
to drop their anchors towards evening, and to remain in that state
during the night, that they might not have the misfortune of being
driven out by the violence of these currents into the open sea. This
practice is still observed by the Portuguese seamen, when they sail
along the coast of Malabar. It, however, sometimes happens, that an
unexperienced captain, after doubling Cape Comari with great toil
and labour, and just at the moment when he flatters himself with
the hopes of reaching the Malabar coast, is driven to the Maldivia
islands, which lie at the distance of nearly 300 sea miles. Such
was the case with Father Louis Maria à Jesu, of the order of the
barefooted Carmelites, apostolical vicar and bishop of _Usula_. He
had taken his passage from Puduceri to Malabar in a small vessel
commanded by an unexperienced navigator; and the vessel having got
into one of these currents, was carried by it to the Maldivia
islands, and thence to Mosambique on the eastern coast of Africa[71].
Cochin is a beautiful city, built by the Portuguese, in the tenth
year after the arrival of Vasco de Gama at Calicut. In 1663 it was
besieged by a Dutch fleet under the command of Peter Van Bitter and
C. Valkenberg, who made themselves masters of it, and who carried
off from it a great deal of riches. After that period the beautiful
cathedral was converted into a warehouse for the Dutch East India
Company. This edifice is now employed for preserving the sugar which
the Company obtains from Batavia, and the cinnamon they receive from
Ceylon, together with nutmegs, cloves, iron, copper, cordage, rice,
pepper, and various other articles of merchandise, which they bring
hither from foreign countries, and sell partly to the Indian princes,
and partly to the Arabian as well as other native and foreign
merchants. Cochin is intersected by beautiful streets: the arsenal is
well provided with all kinds of military stores, and the citadel is
strongly fortified. The latter, in the year 1778, was supplied with
new ditches, bridges, batteries and bastions, under the direction
of the governor Adrian Moens. It lies on the southern bank of the
_Coci_, and commands the harbour, which is open to merchant vessels,
but into which no ship of war is suffered to enter[72]. _Mattanceri_,
a very populous town, lying a quarter of a league higher up on the
same river, or rather lake, is a kind of magazine where merchandise
of all kinds, both the production of India and of other countries, is
deposited for sale.
The Jews, the Banians or Cettis, and the Mahometans, have here very
considerable warehouses filled with goods. More than an hundred
Arabian ships from Mascate and Mocha, which, besides Egyptian and
Arabian merchandise, bring with them very large sums of money, come
to anchor here every year. Venetian sequins brought from Grand Cairo
are much more current at this place than in Europe. Many of the
Arabian ships make two voyages hither in the course of the year.
The first time, they arrive in September, and depart in October
and November; the second time, they arrive in February, and return
in April or May. The Arabs, who conduct these vessels, have a most
horrid appearance. They are strongly built; wear their beards long;
have nothing on their bodies but a shirt and a pair of wide trowsers
made of white cotton cloth; are of a dark-brown complexion, and pay
very little attention to cleanliness. They are active; never go
but in companies, and well armed; sleep under tents, or a piece of
cloth extended on poles; cook their victuals in the open streets;
work at night by the light of the moon; have a great fondness for
areca, or palm wine; are extremely faithful to each other while they
are getting their goods on board, and unite to avenge themselves
in common when any of them is injured. What a difference there is
among nations! The Indians, for example, are agile, nimble and weak,
but civil and polite; they act only after mature deliberation; are
fond of temperance, and lead an honest and harmless life. The Arabs,
on the other hand, are forward, rustic, robust and faithful; but
pay very little attention to decency, or the dictates of reason.
The latter devour without any scruple their _Pillow_, a dish which
consists of boiled rice, with a fowl or piece of kid’s flesh; but
the former eat only rice, herbs or roots; and consider it as a great
crime to kill an animal. If an Indian is attacked by the small-pox,
a disease which in that country occasions great devastation, all the
neighbours employ every possible precaution to prevent themselves
from being infected. In like cases, however, the Arabs spread out
mats in the open streets; place on them the infected persons; give
them palm-wine, which, as they pretend, will expel the poison; and
before the pustules are ripe, or begin to dry, strew them over with
ashes, under a firm conviction that the poison will by these means be
dried up and dispersed. The Indians are always accustomed to perform
their ablutions before and after meals, and to repair to their
temples when they pray to their gods, or present offerings to them.
The Arabs always kneel down in the evening in the open street; keep
their eyes fixed on the moon; incline their bodies before it times
without number; and repeat their prayers publicly and aloud. A like
contrast is observed in the manners and customs of the other tribes
who inhabit the coast of Malabar; and for that reason they are all
tolerated by the government, which punishes only those who attempt
to interrupt their neighbours in their public worship or private
devotions.
Besides the Creoles, Mestise, and real Indian females, there are at
Cochin a great many European women. These, as soon as they set a
foot in India, are converted into ladies of the first rank, though
at Paris, London or Amsterdam they had been only fruit-sellers or
washer-women. The English, in consequence of an express law, dare
not marry Indian women, in order that the race in their colonies
may remain pure and unmixed. They indemnify themselves, however,
by keeping several mistresses, without caring whether they are
Mahometans or Christians. The Dutch are acquainted with no such law,
and therefore can choose wives just as they please; but the state
of celibacy is so much the mode in this country, that marriages
are seldom heard of. Could any one believe that people who act
according to such principles, should take the liberty to reprobate
the celibacy of the Roman Catholic clergy[73]? Instances of this kind
have occurred to myself; for I remember an unmarried tobacconist at
Cochin, who kept a whole dozen of females, and yet asserted that it
was improper in the Roman Catholic clergy not to marry. In Cochin
there are every where houses inhabited by great numbers of male and
female slaves, who are guilty of the most scandalous transactions.
This kind of dissipation was tolerated as soon as the city fell into
the hands of the Portuguese; and a very intelligent author thinks
he can here discover the real cause why the Portuguese were driven
from the city of Cochin, as well as their other possessions in
India[74]. Avarice, insolence, dishonesty, infidelity and injustice
will always bring kingdoms and states to destruction; and if there be
any truth in this observation, some other colonies, perhaps, will not
remain long in the hands of the Europeans. Monopolies, discord, and
peculation have already greatly increased; and the Indians cannot be
too much astonished at the villanies which they daily see committed
by the Europeans.
The Dutch East India Company has often been in a state of variance
with the king of Cochin, who, according to his surname, is called
_Perumpadapil_, and resides at _Terpunatre_[75], a place lying
east of Cochin, on the other side of the lake which separates the
possessions of this prince from those of the Dutch. On the 18th
of April, 1792, I received a letter from Father Francis a Sancto
Elisæo, in which he gave me a circumstantial account of the last
disputes between the Dutch and _Viròlam Tamburàn_, the present king
of Cochin. King _Mutta Tamburàn_, of the family of _Perumpadapil_, a
quiet peaceable man, with whom I had an interview at _Ciovare_, in
the year 1787, died of the small-pox. He was succeeded by his younger
brother _Viròlam Tamburàn_, of whom I had several times an audience
at _Mattincera_, where he frequently sent for me to the palace, as he
wished to be made acquainted with different particulars respecting
the affairs of Europe. He spoke Dutch exceedingly well, and was
desirous of learning English also. As he was a brave, enterprising
man, possessed of considerable talents, and no little share of
pride, he could not bear the idea of being satisfied with the income
enjoyed by his predecessors. He, therefore, exercised every kind of
oppression against the merchants; caused three of the overseers of
the temple _Tirumala Devossam_ to be put to death, because they would
not resign to him any part of the treasure belonging to it; plundered
the shops; carried away the merchants’ property, and asserted that
he alone had a right to rule the Pagan Indians, as since the earliest
periods they had always been under the dominion of his forefathers.
This last claim was, without all doubt, agreeable to the principles
of justice. The sovereigns of the country had by no means sold the
district around Cochin to the Portuguese; they merely gave permission
to Vasco de Gama and his followers to establish themselves there as
merchants: and the Dutch, by whom the Portuguese were expelled, had
made themselves masters by force of that city and neighbourhood. But
what avails such rights against the power of cannon? In a word, the
Dutch broke into the palace of _Viròlam Tamburàn_ at _Mattincera_;
took from him all the merchandise he had seized; and compelled him
to retire to _Terpunatre_, where he is now so hemmed in that it is
impossible for him to stir. The following places, and some other
towns, belong to this prince: _Nhàrica_, _Candenàda_, _Perimanùr_,
_Angicaimal_, _Udiamper_, _Mullaventurutti_, _Pallicarè_, _Cenòtta_,
_Ciovàre_, _Pucòtta_, _Arshtamiciare_, and _Puttencera_.
King _Perumpadapil_, whom the Europeans call king of Cochin, is
descended from the celebrated Malabar monarchs, _Ceramperumal_, who
were formerly distinguished by the title of _Maharàgia_, that is,
emperor, or great emperor; for all the petty Malabar kings were
obliged to be obedient to his orders, when he had to defend the
country against king _Samuri_, or any other enemy. But when these
petty kings were gradually subdued, and deprived of their territories
by the commander in chief of the king of Travancor, the celebrated
_Màrtandapulla_, and his successor general Eustachius de Lanoy, by
birth a Fleming, a treaty was concluded with king _Perumpadapil_,
in consequence of which he was left in possession of the few places
above mentioned, as the last remains of royal dignity. This happened
in the year 1761.
Since the king of Travancor laid open the trade at _Alapushe_ and
_Puntora_ to foreigners, the revenues of the Dutch East India Company
have been considerably lessened[76]. The duties at Cochin brought
them formerly every year 30,000 rupees; and they received a like sum
from the rents of their palm-groves, gardens, and other lands which
they let on lease. In the time of peace they generally maintain a
body of 4000 men; but when a war breaks out, they must increase these
troops to 10,000. It is, therefore, evident, that the expences of
the Company far exceed their income. Formerly they had possession of
the excellent fortress of _Cudungalur_, or _Cranganor_, five leagues
towards the north of Cochin; but as they clearly foresaw that it
would be difficult for them to defend it against the repeated attacks
of Tippoo Sultan Bahader, they sold it to the king of Travancor. The
latter would gladly have retained it as a valuable acquisition; but
in the year 1790 it was taken from him, and dismantled by M. Lally,
Tippoo Sultan’s general. The troops of Tippoo were, however, again
driven from the country in 1791 and 1792; but I do not with certainty
know whether the works were ever rebuilt[77].
On the sea-coast, beyond Cochin, farther to the north are:
_Badagare_, or _Vaypin_, a populous town belonging to the district
of Cochin; _Nharica_, a town together with a church belonging to the
Christians of St. Thomas[78]; _Palipuram_, where there is a Christian
congregation; and _Aycotta_, a fortified town, with a very ancient
harbour, where, according to tradition, St. Thomas once landed.
Higher up the country, towards the east, lie _Paravur_, formerly a
very large and considerable town, which was, however, reduced to
ashes by the troops of Tippoo Sultan[79]; _Curiapalli_, the military
magazine and arsenal of the king of Travancor; and _Verapole_, the
residence of the apostolic vicar, where there is a seminary, a
catechumen house, and a convent of barefooted Carmelites, who have
the care of the missionary establishments on the coast of Malabar.
This monastery was founded in the year 860 after the building of
Collam, or, according to the usual mode of reckoning, in 1673. The
palm-grove in which it is situated, is called _Tattàracèrri Paramba_,
and was given to the Carmelites by the king of Cochin.
A league farther towards the east lies _Edapalli_, called by the
Europeans _Rapolim_. In this town there is a church, a mosque,
and the palace of the king of the Brahmans, who is likewise their
high-priest or pope. The district belonging to this sovereign may be
about three leagues in circumference. This town, together with a few
others, were given to him by the king of Travancor, out of respect
for his high descent and sacerdotal dignity.
Towards the north-west lies the old city of _Alangatta_, called by
the Portuguese, very improperly, _Mangate_. It is subject to a
king of its own, and contains the largest church belonging to the
Christians on the coast of Malabar.
On the north-east stands _Angamàli_, a very ancient city also,
where there are three Christian congregations. It was formerly the
residence of the bishop of the Christians of St. Thomas; but great
part of it has been burnt or destroyed by the troops of Tippoo Sultan.
_Ambalacòtta_, was formerly a populous town, where the Jesuits had a
convent and seminary; but at present it is falling to ruin.
_Maleatur_, is a celebrated church of the St. Thomas Christians, to
which an immense multitude of people resort on Whitsunday.
The following places also lie on the sea-coast: _Palur_, _Cettuva_,
_Paniani_ or _Ponàni_, _Ciavacàda_, and _Tannur_.
Higher up, towards the east, lie _Puttencera_, and _Vettiacòtta_, a
fortress belonging to the king of Travancor, and erected to prevent
an enemy from entering the country over the Gauts, on the side of
_Maïssur_, a kingdom which at present is under the dominion of Tippoo
Sultan.
Farther towards the north, and at the distance of about ten leagues
from _Cranganor_, lies _Triciur_, a town and district belonging to
the Brahmans. They have here a celebrated academy, public and private
schools; also an university, where young persons are instructed in
their sciences, and the principles of their religion. This place was
also destroyed by Tippoo Sultan; but rebuilt by the Brahmans, after
Tippoo’s defeat. All these cities, towns and churches, are situated
under the latitude of 10° north.
On the sea-coast, in the latitude of 11° north, lies _Tannur_,
formerly a city of considerable note, but at present a miserable
village; and _Vaypur_, _Baypur_, or _Sultanpatnam_, a noble harbour,
which Tippoo Sultan Bahader spared as much as possible, because
he intended to establish here a considerable foreign trade. Large
quantities of pepper, cardamoms, and sandal wood, began indeed to be
carried hither from the eastern parts of the country; but, in the
year 1773, when war broke out, and the roads by these means were
rendered unsafe, the above plan was abandoned.
On the east, towards the Gauts, lies the celebrated city and fortress
of _Pàlacaticeri_. It is entirely built of hewn stone; has strong
works, and in general is capable of making an obstinate defence. The
garrison always consists of the flower of Tippoo Sultan’s troops.
This fortress is situated on the borders of _Conoam_, and covers the
passage to the coast of Malabar towards the mountains which separate
Malayala and Maissur.
The well-known city of _Calicut_, which has experienced such a
variegated fate, lies also on the sea-coast, and in the latitude
of 11° 15′ north. It consists partly of houses constructed of teka
wood, and partly of huts composed of palm branches interwoven through
each other, and covered with palm leaves. Of stone buildings there
are very few. The fortress of Calicut is of much greater antiquity
than the city to which it has given its name. The natives of Malabar
believe that it was built by king _Ceramperumàl_, from whom all the
petty Malabar princes are descended. This city was rased almost to
the ground by Tippoo Sultan, who destroyed its flourishing trade;
expelled from the country the merchants and factors of the foreign
commercial houses; caused all the coco-nut and sandal trees to be cut
down; and ordered the pepper plants in the whole surrounding district
to be torn up by the roots, and even to be hacked to pieces, because
these plants, as he said, brought riches to the Europeans, and
enabled them to carry on war against the Indians.
King _Samuri_, a very powerful prince, who is distinguished also
by the name of _Nediriparàgia_ or _Tamulpada_, took from king
_Ceramperumal_, not only this city and district, but the whole
kingdom of which it forms a part. In remembrance of this heroic
exploit, he made the sword and the lamp of his conquered enemy to be
always carried before him when he appeared in public. He was able
to bring into the field 100,000 men, and was a sworn foe to the
Portuguese, and _Perumpadapil_, or king of Cochin, who was descended
from _Ceramperumal_, and who could also bring into the field an army
equally numerous. These kings, _Samuri_ and _Perumpadapil_, were the
only two of all the Indian princes who had a right, as a token of
their unlimited power, to have carried before them the branch of a
coco-nut tree, bound round with a bandage at the lower end, and quite
free at the top. The petty Malabar kings used indeed a branch of the
same kind; but it was necessary that it should be bound round at
the upper as well as the lower end, in order to shew that they were
subject to both these emperors.
_Samuri_, whom the Mahometan merchants at Calicut support as the
most powerful among all the petty princes, had given battle several
times to _Perumpadapil_, and always came off victorious; but in the
year 1760, his troops, being divided at _Cranganor_, _Paravur_,
and _Verapole_, were attacked unexpectedly by _Martandapulla_, the
commander in chief of the king of Travancor, and totally routed.
In 1773, thirteen years after, Hayder Aly Khan, who had already
made himself master of the kingdom of Maïssur, marched down
from _Palacataceri_, fell upon the city of Calicut, and reduced
to subjection the whole of Malayala, including the fortress of
_Cranganor_ or _Cudungalur_. King _Samuri_, who called himself
_Krishna Tamburàn_, with five thousand of his Nayris, or armed
nobles, fled to the mountain _Koledimala_, in the neighbourhood of
the Gauts, from which they often descended to attack Hayder Aly’s
out-posts, and harass his army. Hayder Aly’s son, Tippoo Sultan
Bahader, was at length so incensed against the inhabitants of Calicut
and the neighbouring district, because they assisted, by every
possible means, their former sovereign, that he resolved to punish
them; and for that purpose took the field in person. He was preceded
by 30,000 barbarians, who butchered every person who came in their
way; and by his heavy cannon under the command of general Lally, at
the head of a regiment of artillery. Then followed Tippoo Sultan
himself, riding on an elephant; and behind him marched another corps,
consisting of 30,000 men also. The manner in which he behaved to
the inhabitants of Calicut was horrid. A great part of them, both
male and female, were hung. He first tied up the mothers, and then
suspended the children from their necks. The cruel tyrant caused
several Christians and Heathens to be brought out naked, and made
fast to the feet of his elephants, which were then obliged to drag
them about till their limbs fell in pieces from their bodies. At
the same time he ordered all the churches and temples to be burned
and pulled down or destroyed in some other manner. Christian and
Pagan women were compelled to marry Mahometans; and Mahometan women
were compelled to marry Heathens and Christians. The Pagans were
deprived of the token of their nobility, which is a lock of hair
called _Cudumi_; and every Christian who appeared in the streets,
must either submit to be circumcised, or be hanged on the spot. This
happened in the year 1789, at which time I resided at _Verapole_. I
had then an opportunity of conversing with several Christians and
Pagans, who had escaped from the fury of this merciless tyrant; and
I assisted these fugitives to procure a boat to enable them to cross
the river which runs past that city.
This persecution continued till the 15th of April 1790. I had then
quitted the coast of Malabar; but I was informed by the bishop
and apostolic vicar there, that, on the above day, Tippoo Sultan,
having forced the king of Travancor’s lines, penetrated as far as
_Verapole_, and had renewed the bloody scenes begun the year before.
“The troops,” said the bishop in a letter dated May 23, 1791,
“advanced to Verapole, and set some houses on fire, but did not enter
the island. We were visited only by a few marauders, who converted
our church, our seminary, and our convent into real dens of thieves.
They plundered and destroyed whatever they could lay their hands
on; for it had been almost impossible for us to remove any thing
out of the way. By the peculiar providence of God, however, and of
St. Joseph (the patron of the congregation), neither our church nor
our convent fell a prey to the rapacity of the soldiery, or to the
flames.” Soon after, the army of Tippoo Sultan was defeated by the
English under the command of Lord Cornwallis, and totally routed.
He himself was driven into the fortress of _Ciringapatnam_, in the
kingdom of Maïssur, where he was obliged to enter into an engagement,
to pay the expences of the war, to give back his conquests to their
former possessors, and to deliver both his sons into the hands of the
English as hostages[80].
The harbour of Calicut is at present far from being so capacious as
formerly: a great part of it has been filled up with sand by the sea,
and for that reason the trade at Calicut is now in a very languishing
condition. As the Mahometan Arabs, however, have the superiority
here, and are connected in business with other merchants at _Mascate_
and _Mocha_, it is to be hoped that measures will be taken to remedy
this evil.
Still farther, on the sea coast, lies _Mahè_ or _Mahi_, a town and
colony belonging to the French. When the European inhabitants of this
place heard of the French revolution, they ran into the streets,
bawling out in full jubilee, “Liberty and Equality!” The Pagans and
the Mahometans did the same, calling out “Liberty and Equality for
us also! As we are now all free and equal,” added they, “it is very
evident that we can no longer acknowledge you for our masters.”
This idea they indeed actually carried into execution, and expelled
all the French from the town. The Carmelites had here a church, a
catechumen house, and a missionary establishment.
A mile farther, towards the north, lies _Talicèri_, a city belonging
to the English, where they have a considerable settlement, a council,
and an arsenal. They employ this city as a military post, where they
collect troops brought from Bombay, in order to keep in subjection
the inhabitants of Malayala. King Samuri and the king of Travancor
are at present in alliance with the English. A brisk trade is carried
on at _Taliceri_, and foreign ships take on board here pepper,
various cotton articles, biti and teka wood, cardamoms, rice, sandal
wood, and other Malabar productions, which they transport to Bombay
and thence to England. The palace in which the council sits, is one
of the most beautiful buildings in India.
The next place, worthy of notice, is _Baliapatnam_, or _Valiapatnam_,
formerly a large and considerable mart of trade, but at present a
very obscure town. The harbour here is more than half filled up with
sand.
Proceeding along the sea-coast you then arrive at _Cannanur_, a town
with a castle, and subject to the government of queen _Còllatiri_, by
the Europeans called _Collastri_. This city is of great antiquity,
and the kings of _Còllatiri_ belong to the first class of the Indian
princes. The mother of the present king of Travancor, _Rama Varmer_,
was descended from this family. She died in the year 1780, exactly
at the time when I was at _Angenga_. I was shewn a letter written by
the king to the commander of the English troops there, in which he
requested that he would cause every mark of respect to be paid at
_Angenga_ to the memory of his deceased mother. In consequence of
this request, all the shops were kept shut for three days; and no one
during that time durst fish in the sea, because the Indians believe
in the transmigration of souls, and are therefore afraid that the
soul of a deceased person may be prevented from going into some fish
or other. Niebuhr and Anquetil du Perron are, therefore, in an error
when they assert that the king of Travancor is of mean extraction.
The capital of the kingdom of _Cannanur_, called also _Còlanàda_,
lies in the latitude of 11° 50′, and is distinguished by the same
name. The whole surrounding district, which towards the north extends
as far as the mountain _Illi_, is inhabited by the _Molandis_, who
live merely by piracy. These sea-robbers are mentioned by Pliny,
Arrian, Ptolemy, and other ancient authors. They unite themselves to
other pirates, who reside on the _Angedib_ islands, near Goa, and
capture all the small vessels which sail from Goa to Cochin. The huts
in which their wives and children live stand on the eastern side of
Mount Illi[81]. This mountain, which forms a cape or head-land, lies
in the latitude of 12° 5′; and here Malabar, or Malayala properly so
called, ends.
* * * * *
We now come to the kingdom of _Canara_, which is partly under the
dominion of Tippoo Sultan, and partly divided under that of the
Marattas and different petty princes, the latter of whom have
maintained themselves here and there in the mountains. On the
other side of mount Illi, the language, manner of life, and in a
certain measure the legislation of the inhabitants of Malabar, begin
gradually to cease, and to be succeeded by those of the natives of
_Canarà_. Both nations, however, acknowledge one system of religion;
worship the same deities; and in their liturgy employ the Samscred
language. Anquetil du Perron is under a mistake, when he says, that
the Tamulic language is generally used on the coast of Malabar. It
may be easily perceived, that he never visited but a few maritime
towns, where the merchants indeed speak both the Malabar language and
the Tamulic. In the interior parts of the country, the inhabitants
use only the former, which is totally different from the Tamulic,
though both these dialects have been originally derived from the
Samscred. In the second book I shall explain this subject farther[82].
* * * * *
Having now finished the topographical description of the most
remarkable cities, towns and places in Malayala, I shall add the
distances of some of them from Cochin; which, as I have already said,
lies in the latitude of 10° north, and in the longitude of 75° 52′.
PLACES.
Leagues
_Calicut_ is distant from Cochin, towards the north, by sea 30
_Cudungalur_, or _Cranganor_, towards the north, by water 5
_Palacaticeri_, by land 30
_Vettiacotta_, towards the north-east 12
_Maleatur_, towards the north-east, by water 10
_Verapole_, towards the north-east, by water 3
_Codomangalam_, towards the east, by land and by water 15
_Aragoshe_, towards the east, by land 20
_Modelacodam_, towards the east, by land 30
_Ciuncam_ and _Nediala_, towards the east, by land 32
_Mòhatushè_, towards the east, by water 19
_Cagnarapalli_, towards the south-west, by land and by water 32
_Vaypur_, towards the south-west, by water 28
_Corolongatta_, towards the south-west, by water 14
_Cadalarutti_, towards the south-west, by water 12
_Caturcàda_, towards the south, by water 14
_Alapushe_, towards the south, by sea and by water 12
_Muttam_, towards the south, by water 6
_Porrocàda_, or _Porca_, towards the south, by water 14
_Cayamcollam_, or _Calicoulon_, towards the south, by sea and
by water 18
_Collam_, by sea and by water 24
_Tiruvandaburam_, towards the south, by sea and by water 40
_Angutenga_, or _Angenga_, towards the south, by land, by sea,
and by water 34
_Coleci_, towards the south, by sea 52
_Padmanaburam_, towards the south, by the interior high road 52
_Cottaram_, or _Cottate_, towards the south, by the interior
high road 64
_Cape Camari_, by sea 72
_Tovala_, towards the south, by land 74
In this calculation the windings and turnings of the roads have been
taken into account; for none of them proceed in a straight line. The
post, called in the Malabar language _Angela_[83], travels indeed
along the high road, in the interior part of the country, which is
the shortest and straightest; but the Europeans dare not use it,
lest the Brahmans should be polluted by them. For this reason the
Europeans must pass along the sea-coast, which is inhabited only by
fishermen, and people of the lowest casts. Hence it happens, that
few Europeans have the least knowledge respecting the interior part
of the country, though they talk a great deal of their travels in
India. The European missionaries, however, besides other privileges
and advantages, have a right to employ umbrellas of as large a size
as those used by the Indian princes; and by means of this privilege
they may go over the whole interior part of the country; only they
must take care not to approach too near to a temple where a festival
is celebrated in honour of any deity.
CHAPTER VII.
_Population of Malayala--Manners, Customs and Industry of the
Inhabitants--Political State of the Country._
The inhabitants of _Malayala_, which, comprehending all its provinces
from Cape _Illi_ to _Tovala_, is 120 Indian miles in length; and from
the Gauts to the sea, between twenty-five and thirty in breadth,
consist, besides the native Indians, who are partly Pagans and partly
Christians, of Arabs, black and white Jews, Canarians, and Europeans
of different nations, who have there formed establishments. In the
year 1771, the Christians of St. Thomas, according to M. Florentius
à Jesu, the bishop and apostolic vicar on the coast of Malabar,
amounted to 94,600. In the year 1787, when a poll-tax was about to be
imposed on them by the king of Travancor, they estimated their number
themselves at 100,000 persons. Ten thousand of them, I confess, lost
their lives during the war against Tippoo Sultan; but still there
will remain 90,000 Catholic Christians, who follow the Syrio-Chaldaic
ritual. They have in their possession sixty four churches, some of
which however were destroyed by Tippoo. The Jacobites have thirty-two
churches, to which belong 50,000 Schismatics. These, therefore, form
all together 140,000 Christians, who adhere to the Syrio-Chaldaic
rites. There are likewise seventy-five churches of the _Mucoas_ and
_Paravas_ on the coast of Travancor; and twenty churches belonging
to the Latin ritual, which lie in the district between _Porrocada_
and Cape _Illi_. All these churches can muster more than 100,000
Christians, newly converted to the Romish faith. The number of the
Jews who reside at _Mattincera_, _Muttam_, and _Cayamcolla_, may
be about from 15 to 20,000. To these must be added 100,000 Arabs,
established there since the ninth century; also the _Canarians_,
_Banians_, _Cettis_, and _Cumuttis_, who together amount to 30,000
souls; and, lastly, 15,000 Europeans, Creoles, Mestises, and
_Topazis_, who are partly Catholics, partly Lutherans and Calvinists.
But far greater than the sum-total of all these foreigners, is the
number of the original inhabitants of the country. The former may
be estimated at 400,000, the latter at 1,600,000, so that Malayala
contains above two millions of inhabitants. This calculation was
made too at a time when the population of the country had greatly
suffered by the wars with Hayder Ali Khan and Tippoo Sultan. If we
reflect, therefore, that this district is not very large, that it is
intersected by a great number of streams, and that on the east it is
bounded by high mountains and impenetrable forests, it is evident
that, in proportion to its cultivated surface, it is extremely
well peopled[84]. This is to be ascribed chiefly to the simple and
temperate manner in which the Indians live, as they eat nothing but
rice, milk, fruit, herbs, butter, coco-nut oil, fish, and other
kinds of food which are easy of digestion, and promote the generative
powers[85]. Monogamy, which prevails among the Christians and Pagans,
though among the latter it is not general, contributes also to
increase the population; for, by these means, the affection between
parents and children is preserved, and that also between husband
and wife. Another circumstance which tends to promote population
is, that all young women, without exception, must marry. One of the
chief objects of every father, whether Christian or Pagan, is to
procure husbands for his daughters; and when he is not able to give
them portions, he is assisted either by the cast to which he belongs,
or by the Christian congregation of which he is a member. There are
here neither convents, nor any other establishments, in which young
women can be immured; but they are obliged, as already said, to
enter into the state of matrimony, and to gain their livelihood by
the labour of their hands. The Indians are not fond of celibacy, and
the state of widowhood is held in the utmost contempt. The women in
Malabar, indeed, bring forth few children; but the loss occasioned to
population by this natural deficiency is fully supplied by the great
number of marriages. The expence of rearing children is also rendered
extremely easy, as they require very little for their nourishment
and clothing[86]. In the second book I shall give a fuller account of
these and other causes which contribute to increase the population of
India. I must, however, not omit here to observe, that it is impeded
also by very great obstacles. Among these are:
1. The small-pox, which, in India, are extremely malignant, and which
every year sweep off many thousands[87].
2. Polygamy, and the celibacy of a great number of persons who cannot
resolve to confine their affections to one object[88].
3. The continual wars and revolutions in India, by which a great
number of men are destroyed.
4. The oppression of sovereign princes, who impose on their subjects
excessive labour, and by these means ruin many persons both married
and unmarried.
5. The slave trade, by which several thousands of men are sold
annually, like cattle, and sent out of the country.
The complexion of the natives of Malabar is brown, but much brighter
than that of the _Tamulians_, who inhabit the coast of Ciòlamandala.
The _Mucoas_ or fishermen, the _Paravas_ or people who manufacture
and dye the cotton articles with which they carry on trade, and all
those who reside on the sea-coast, are totally black; because, by
the nature of their employments, they are always exposed to the heat
of the sun, and to the sea air. The nobler casts, and other families
who live in palm-gardens and enclosures[89], are much fairer; because
they spend the greater part of their time under the shade of trees,
and are surrounded by a milder atmosphere, which moderates the heat
of the sun. I have seen Brahman women, both married and unmarried,
who were uncommonly beautiful. The most of the female Indians have
fine long hair, black eyes, extended ears which are pierced, and
straight delicate persons. They are accustomed to wash themselves
twice a day; to anoint their bodies every week with coco-nut oil,
or the white of an egg; and to rub their skin with a plant called
_Incia_, the rind of which has the property of removing all filth.
This ablution and friction strengthen the body, and at the same time
prevent too violent perspiration. Till their thirtieth year they are
stout and vigorous; but after that period they alter much faster
than the women in any of the nations of Europe[90]. Early marriage,
labour and diseases exhaust their constitutions before the regular
time of decay. They are lively, active and tractable; possess great
acuteness; are fond of conversation; employ florid expressions,
and a phraseology abundant in images; never carry any thing into
effect till after mature deliberation; are inquisitive and prying,
yet modest in discourse; have a fickle inconstant disposition;
make promises with great readiness, yet seldom perform them; are
importunate in their requests, but ungrateful when they have obtained
their end; behave in a cringing obsequious manner when they fear any
one, but are haughty and insolent when they gain the superiority;
and assume an air of calmness and composure when they can acquire no
satisfaction for an injury, but are malicious and irreconcileable
when they find an opportunity of being revenged. I was acquainted
with many families who had ruined themselves with law-suits, because
they preferred the gratification of revenge to every consideration
of prudence. The men, both of the higher and lower classes, bind a
piece of cotton cloth round their loins, and for the most part leave
the remainder of the body uncovered. The women of the inferior casts
go about almost in the same manner. The wives and daughters of the
Brahmans, on the other hand, conceal the upper part of the body with
a piece of fine cotton cloth, the extremity of which is thrown over
the shoulder. They go bare-footed; but wear a great many ornaments,
which generally consist of three or four bracelets of brass, a
necklace of gold or precious stones, and ear-rings of gold or of
diamonds. They bind their hair together in a roll on the top of the
head, and paint on the forehead some sacred mark. They bear in their
hand an umbrella of palm-leaves, which they always hold before their
face when they meet any of the male sex. They, however, turn speedily
round, in general, when a man has passed them, and seem to cast a
wistful look towards him. This is a plain proof that in every country
of the globe the daughters of Eve are subject to the like weaknesses.
The houses of the nobility and opulent persons consist of two
storeys. Before the lowest there is generally a small hall, supported
by thin pillars of _Teka_ wood, which is of a yellow colour, and
exceedingly hard. This hall is called _Varanda_, and supplies the
place of a parlour. The upper storey is called _Malaga_; and in this
the Indians are accustomed to sleep, to study, or to perform any
business in which they do not wish to be interrupted. A building,
which consists of seven storeys, is called _Elàmmaliga_, that is,
a tower; and is considered as a habitation which none but a king
or reigning prince dare inhabit. The huts of the poor people are
constructed of the branches of the coco-nut tree interwoven through
each other; and are covered with its leaves, or with rushes or straw.
The entrance into these huts is low, and the interior part of them is
dark. Their whole furniture consists of a _Kattila_, or bed-frame,
on which a mat is placed; a few flat dishes of copper or brass; a
_Kindi_, or brass drinking vessel with a spout; a pot or kettle,
in which they boil their rice; a _Vilacca_, or round lamp of iron
or brass, fastened to a chain, by which it can be suspended in the
middle of the hut; and a large wooden mortar, in which they pound
their _Nella_, or unshelled rice. Though the Indians see daily before
them the furniture and cooking utensils of the Europeans, they have
never yet thought proper to make use of them. The customs prevalent
among them above three thousand years ago still remain unchanged[91].
We must, however, do the Indians the justice to confess, that they
are very well acquainted with agriculture, botany, gardening,
hunting, fishing, and architecture[92]. Their style and taste are
indeed extremely wretched; but they possess a wonderful aptitude for
imitating the arts and inventions of the Europeans, as soon as the
method has been pointed out to them. The greater part of the houses
in Malabar are built of _Teka_ wood, which is much harder and heavier
than oak, and which withstands corruption for a very great length
of time. I have seen several houses more than 400 years old, which
during that period had suffered little or no decay. The palm-leaves
with which they are covered, and the above wood, have the property
of attracting the moisture, and of suffering it again to escape, as
soon as a breath of air begins to stir, of the sun to shine. Hence
it happens, that these houses are much healthier than those of stone
and lime; which, if not allowed to dry properly, evaporate, for a
long time after they are built, a great many calcareous and highly
pernicious particles[93].
The Indians, after the manner of all the oriental nations, never
eat at noon. In the morning, before they go out to labour, they
generally take their _Cagni_, or beverage consisting of water in
which a certain quantity of rice has been boiled till all its mealy,
nourishing, and cooling particles are dissolved. After this breakfast
they proceed to their labour, and continue it without interruption
till about four o’clock. An hour after, or sometimes later, they take
their evening meal; go to sleep at sun-set, and rise next morning at
break of day. This mode of life is perfectly agreeable to the nature
of man, for whom the elements and heavenly bodies were created. It
not only saves the Indians a great deal of oil, but secures to them
agreeable repose, and preserves their bodies healthful. The day and
the night are almost always of the same length near the equator, and
therefore they seldom or never depart from the above regular course.
The women are obliged to cook, and to place the dishes on the table.
The husband and wife never eat together; for the Indians consider
it as indecent, and contrary to that respect which is due to the
former. The consequence is, that their meals are very short; and
that nothing takes place, in the presence of the rest of the family,
which can offend against decency or good manners. At table they use
merely the right hand; for the left, with which they wash the lower
part of the body, &c. they look upon as unclean. The rice is served
up on a broad banana leaf, which supplies the place of a dish; and
near it is placed the _Karil_, that is, soup which consists of herbs,
fruit, pepper and cardamoms. It is exceedingly well prepared; has
a delicious smell, and a pungent taste. This soup they pour, at
different times, over the rice, which in very small morsels they
put into their mouth with the right hand. If they have no _Kail_,
or spoon, they employ in its stead a _Mava_ leaf rolled together.
When their meal is finished, they throw away their dish and spoon,
because leaves of the like kind may be every where found. Persons
of condition, however, employ at their meals vessels of copper and
brass, which they keep remarkably clean, and which are always washed
after they have been used. They eat, along with their rice, sour milk
and butter, or herbs which have been baked in butter or oil. The
king of Travancor has generally at his table fifteen different kinds
of soup, which are varied from time to time. He eats also preserved
nutmegs with his rice, which of itself has an excellent and aromatic
taste.
During their meals the Indians sit down on a mat spread out on the
floor, and, according to the oriental custom, place their legs
across each other under them. They drink nothing but water; and when
they wish to quench their thirst, they pour it from their _Kindi_,
or drinking vessel, directly into their throat, without letting it
touch their lips. When the men have ended their meal, it is then
the women’s turn; and as soon as these have finished, they repair
altogether to a river or pond, where they wash themselves, and
mutter over various forms of prayer[94]. This ablution is called
_Sandhivanana_, that is, the evening’s devotion; and is directed
either to _Shiva_ or _Vishnu_, _Bhagavadi_ or _Bhavani_, to the
goddess of nature and her children, the stars and the elements.
They are convinced that the whole world, with every thing in it,
had a beginning; that it will endure for a certain period, and at
last have an end: and this belief conducts them to exalted ideas
respecting their present and future destination. Never are they heard
to pronounce an indecent word, except on the festival of _Shiva_,
or _Bhagavadi_, in honour of which deities they always sing obscene
songs. As for love letters, they are totally unknown to them. No
young man dare venture to visit the object of his affection at
her home; for the parents, on whose will the marrying of the girl
depends, would consider this as an infringement on their right. This
observation, however, is applicable only to the nobility and families
of distinction; for people of the lower casts have manners and
customs peculiar to themselves. Thus, for example, when they address
themselves to a prince, brahman, magistrate or superior, they salute
him by folding the hands together, raising them above their head,
letting them then fall down, turning the fingers of both hands three
times outwards, and raising up their folded hands again. They then
place the left hand on their breast, the right on the mouth, and in
that posture wait for permission to speak. This ceremony is called
_Tolunu_. When a scholar wishes to address his preceptor, he must
first prostrate himself at full length before him. This method of
shewing respect is called _Shashtanga_. A scholar never dares to sit
down in the presence of his _Guru_ or teacher[95].
The industry of the Indians does not arise so much from their
ingenuity, as from the fertility of the soil which they cultivate.
They plant rice, pepper, the areca tree, millet, ginger, sugar-canes,
_magnel_ or saffron, beans, pease, and _mudira_, a kind of corn which
they use for feeding horses. From the sesamum, of which they raise
also great quantities, they procure an oil, employed either for
burning in their lamps, or for anointing their bodies during their
lustrations. Prunes, tamarinds, cardamoms, wild cinnamon or _Cassia
lignea_, _Cassia fistula_, long pepper, _Ciaca_, _Teka_, _Biti_,
_Ayani_, _Mava_, and _Sandal_ wood, grow here without any nursing
or care. Of the so called _Nella_, or rice in the shell, there are
three kinds, viz. _Virippa_, _Mundaven_, and _Puncia_. The first
kind is reaped in September, the second in December or January, and
the third in March or April. These three crops, however, are not
procured from the same field; and the last, during the summer, is
brought forward by strong and often repeated watering. The water is
drawn from the rivers in buckets, and conducted to the rice-fields
by channels between them. The _Nella_ is reaped in such a manner
that the straw is left standing on the ground: it is then threshed;
scalded in hot water; spread out on mats, where it is left to dry
in the sun; and afterwards preserved in _Patajas_, or granaries,
built of _Teka_ wood. Those people who in the course of the year use
only a small quantity of _Nella_, hoard it up without scalding it,
and subject it to that operation as they consume it. The scalding
and pounding, as well as every other preparation of the _Nella_,
are left entirely to the women. When it is dried, pounded, and
perfectly white, though still raw, it is called _Ciorra_, and in
the Samscred language _Annam_ or _Odanam_. The straw, as already
mentioned, is left standing on the ground in order that it may rot
and serve as manure. If it be not sufficient for that purpose, they
make small pits here and there in the ground, fill them with leaves
and tender twigs, which they cover with earth; and in this manner
prepare whatever quantity of manure may be necessary. As the Indians
consider cow-dung to be sacred, and daub it over their houses, it may
be readily conceived that they never carry it out to their fields.
All the lands, without exception, belong to the king, who sells them
at pleasure, or lets them on lease. The _Olà_, or deed, in virtue
of which the sovereign disposes of any piece of ground, and puts a
person in full and free possession of it, is called _Attipèra_ or
_Attiperòla Caranam_. If the _Olà_ relates only to the lease of such
a piece of ground, it is named _Pàttòla_. The case is the same in
regard to the sale or lease of a palm-garden.
That fruit, called in the Malabar language _Tenga_, and in the
Samscred _Sasyaga_, is a large nut produced by the real palm-tree,
or _Tengamaram_. When the young trees are carefully watered, they
bear a number of such nuts at the end of five years. This tree and
its fruit supply almost every thing necessary for the wants of man.
Small ships, houses and roofs are formed of the trunk. Of the husk
of the nut ropes are made; and the shell is employed for dishes and
spoons. If the fruit be not quite ripe, the milk in it affords an
excellent, cooling, and very wholesome beverage. When the milk is
converted into a kernel, an oil is expressed from it. The sap which
flows from the branches, gives the agreeable well-tasted _Sura_; and,
when distilled, becomes a kind of brandy. If it be placed in the sun,
with the addition of a little _Nella_, it is converted into strong
vinegar. Of the tender bark of the tree, a sort of coarse linen is
prepared. If the kernel be bruised while young, a kind of sweet cream
will be obtained; and the pith extracted from the upper young shoots
of the tree is employed for preparing the so called _Aciara_, a kind
of confection which is eaten with rice. The substance which remains
after the oil has been expressed from the kernel, and which is known
by the name of _Pinàca_, supplies food for swine, ducks and poultry.
In a word, I have reckoned up forty different properties which this
tree possesses, and which are all useful to man.
Ginger grows at _Cadaturutti_, _Adirampushe_, _Codamalur_, and, in
general, in districts to which the seawater cannot penetrate. The
small black pepper is a kind of ivy, planted for the most part at
the bottom of trees, the trunks of which are tall. Large forests of
it may be found at _Aragoshe_, _Poròtta_, _Valaya_, _Vaypur_, and
every where at the foot of the Gauts, where the soil is black, rich,
argillaceous, and hot. The wild cinnamon grows in gardens as well
as in the woods; and it is not improbable that it would equal in
goodness that produced in the island of Ceylon, were it treated with
proper care. The coffee plant propagates readily in the gardens and
groves, and is not easily extirpated where it has once taken root;
but it is not cultivated by the natives of Malabar, who bestow their
attention on other productions of more utility.
The different kinds of wood known under the names of _Teka_, _Viti_,
_Ayani_, and _Ciaca_ or _Plava_, all grow on the mountains. The
_Teka_ wood is employed chiefly for building houses and ships. Of
the _Viti_ commodes, small tables, side-boards and bureaus are made.
The forests are let upon lease by the king. The principal lessee of
these kinds of wood, during my stay in India, was _Mattu Taraguen_, a
Christian native, possessed of great property.
The cardamom is an aromatic production of a triangular form, and a
hot fiery taste. This plant is about three or four feet in height,
and has at the top a few broad, green, prickly leaves. Its stem,
which is smooth, has neither leaves nor branches. From its root,
concealed by the earth, there arise a few fibres, which bend
backwards in a parabolic direction, and bear some small pods, that
contain the seeds inclosed in four different small capsulæ. This
production is stronger than pepper, and of more value. It is found
at the bottom of the Gauts, at _Maleatur_, _Codomangalam_, _Vaypur_,
and various other places. It is fond of growing under the shade of
large thick-leaved trees, through which the sun cannot penetrate, and
where the soil is manured by the fallen leaves that have rotted in
the moisture. Pepper and cardamoms belong to the _Bhandàraga_, that
is, the royal revenues; and no private person is permitted to trade
with either of these articles. The king makes a real monopoly of
them. Formerly those who smuggled them out of the country had their
nose and ears cut off; but at present they are punished only with
imprisonment. In regard to all the other productions of India trade
is free; because the kings, in ancient times, were of opinion that
it was contrary to their dignity to cause them to be sold on their
own account. The modern kings, however, are not ashamed to act the
part of merchants; but from this conduct their dominions derive very
little benefit.
It appears, from what has been here said, that the inhabitants of
Malayala are supplied with every necessary which their climate or
manner of life can require; that the country produces much more
than is annually consumed; and consequently that the inhabitants
sell a great deal to foreigners, and receive in return every year
considerable sums of money. Besides what they use themselves, they
annually sell 10,000 bags of rice, and 1000 _candil_ of pepper,
to the English alone; who, in my time, paid for each _candil_, of
500 pounds, ninety rupees. The English also gave to the king of
Travancor, for each _candil_ of Malabar cinnamon (called of the old
_Cassia lignea_), eighty rupees; and Malabar supplied at least 500
_candil_[96]. To this may be added 1000 _candil_ of pepper sold every
year to the Dutch; and 1000 _candil_ more which the king delivered to
the Chinese, Arabs, and other merchants, who sold it again on their
own account.
I shall say nothing of the sale of _Teka_ wood, which the Arabs and
Persians employ for building their ships; nor of the trade carried
on with cardamoms, as well as _Copra_, large quantities of which are
every year sent to Persia, Arabia, and other eastern countries.
_Anandacetti_, a merchant at _Mattincera_, always kept by him,
for sale, _Teka_ wood to the value of five lacks of rupees[97].
The stuffs and different articles of cotton which he had in his
warehouses, without reckoning other merchandise, were worth four
lacks more. This man purchased and sold, sometimes in a quarter of
an hour, a whole ship’s cargo valued at five millions of rupees.
Such instances are not uncommon in India. The merchants show to
each other catalogues of their goods; select the principal articles
by which they think they can acquire profit; mark and erase, sell,
exchange and purchase, according as they find it for their advantage;
and in this manner gain often in a single hour incredible sums. The
king of Travancor purchases every year, from the Europeans, iron,
cannon, and cloth for the use of his soldiers; but as the merchandise
which he gives in return amounts to much more than the value of
these articles, the English and Dutch are always in his debt. This
in general is the result in regard to the balance of the Malabar
trade; and we here see where the French crowns, the Dutch ducats,
the Venetian sequins, the Spanish piastres, and the Portuguese
lisabonines at last remain.
* * * * *
The king lets the lands on lease, four different ways:
1. Instead of money which he has to pay for military service
performed; so that in time of peace a portion of land is assigned to
each soldier. This land he must cultivate, and is obliged to live on
its produce.
2. As _Canam_, or in lieu of a certain capital equivalent in value to
such a piece of ground, and which is lent to the king as proprietor
for a certain period mentioned in the lease or deed. The capital lent
in this manner yields six per cent. annually in _Nella_ or rice.
3. As _Panam_, that is, on mortgage, in virtue of which the person
put in possession can use and cultivate such a piece of land.
4. As _Pattam_, that is, for a certain rent which must be paid to the
lessee or possessor of the land, in case he lets it again.
In the contract, a copy of which, written on an _ola_, or palm leaf,
is kept by each person, it is said: “I let a _Parra_ of _Candam_,
lying in such a place, under such conditions, and for such a length
of time.” A _Parra_ contains eight _Dangaszi_; one _Dangaszi_ makes
four _Nali_, and a _Nali_ is equal to a bushel of rice. _Candam_ is
a field: a _Parra_ of _Candam_ is, therefore, a piece of land of
such an extent that a _Parra_ of rice can be sown in it. All lands,
whether let on lease or not, must bring to the king the _Muppara_,
that is, three _Parra_ per cent. They are subject also to another tax
called _Nilavari_, which must be paid every ten years for the first
evaluation and measuring of them. The ground and soil, cultivated
by the people, belong every where to the king. But the pagodas or
temples have around them certain districts, their peculiar property,
which belonged to them before this feudal system was introduced. The
nobility alone can possess rice-fields or palm gardens; but this is
applicable only to the Pagans. The rents must be paid _in natura_;
and amount to a fourth part of the income which remains after all the
taxes and imposts have been deducted.
It is unfortunately too true, that there are ministers who
exercise the severest and most cruel oppression; by which means
sovereigns are rendered odious or contemptible to their subjects,
and whole countries and kingdoms brought to ruin. That this is
sometimes the case on the coast of Malabar will appear from what
follows:--_Ceramperumal_, who reigned in the tenth century, had a
great many sons and grandsons, among whom he divided his dominions at
his death. Each of them acquired a particular portion of land, or at
least fief[98]. This was a great violation of the maxims of political
prudence. It is well known how soon the conquests of Alexander the
Great were lost after they had been divided among his generals. It
was impossible for so many princes to unite in one common object,
because each had his own private interest, and none of them placed
confidence in another. The consequence of their weakness was, that
they became contemptible to their subjects, and seldom or never
were able to carry any measure into execution. _Samuri_, who by the
Europeans is very improperly called _Samorin_, endeavoured to acquire
a superiority over the neighbouring princes, by entering into an
alliance with the Arabs of Calicut, who had established themselves
in his dominions. He might, however, have foreseen, that these Arabs
would one day become his most implacable enemies. He was so fortunate
as to defeat the king of Cochin in several battles; and the latter
found himself at length obliged to solicit the assistance, first
of the Portuguese, and then of the Dutch: but neither of these
nations could be sincere in their engagements to this prince; for,
being foreigners, their views were directed merely to their own
interest. By their help he was able to reduce his opponent _Samuri_
to subjection; but, on the other hand, he was under the necessity of
giving up a part of his revenues to the Portuguese.
For some time before, the Christians of St. Thomas had observed, to
their great sorrow, that their mortal enemies the Arabs were always
acquiring more influence, and that they were gradually endeavouring
to get the chief power into their hands. On that account they retired
from Canara and various other provinces belonging to _Samuri_, and
established themselves in the territories of the king of Cochin. This
event took place several years before the arrival of the Portuguese
at Calicut. They chose from among their own number a king, who was
called _Beliarte_, and who was obliged to engage that he would
defend them from the Mahometans as well as the Pagans. He resided
at _Udiampera_, a city belonging to the king of Cochin. The joy of
the Christians of St. Thomas, when the Portuguese first arrived at
Calicut, on the 18th of May 1498, may be readily conceived. They now
expected not only to receive support in regard to the affairs of
their religion, but also to recover those rights and privileges which
they had enjoyed in the times of the _Perumpadapil_. They likewise
flattered themselves that the Portuguese would assist their king, who
was in a state of ruin.
Such a variety of circumstances, directly contrary to each
other, were, according to their nature, inconsistent with public
tranquillity. The war between _Samuri_ and the king of Cochin
continued. The faction of the former, distinguished by the name of
_Panircurra_, was supported by all the princes and tribes in the
northern parts of Malayala. The other party, at the head of which
stood the king of Cochin, was called _Ciovarecurra_, and to it
belonged all the petty princes in the south. _Samuri_ was supplied
by the Arabs with arms, money, and in short every necessary; and
his safety depended entirely on the continuance of the war. If he
made peace, he had to fear that the Arabs would revolt against him,
as they only waited for a favourable opportunity to drive him from
the throne; and this indeed actually took place in the year 1773,
when he was stripped of his territories by Hayder Aly Khan, the king
of Maïssur. The Mahometans now publicly called Hayder Aly their
protector; and believed, as he professed the same religion, that he
would treat them much better than _Samuri_, who was very much hated,
not only on account of his acknowledging a different faith, but on
account of his avarice, the oppression which he exercised against
various merchants, and the luxury and licentiousness which prevailed
at his court. In the above year Hayder Aly took Calicut, and deprived
_Samuri_ of the greater part of his territories. Thus ended the
arbitrary government of one of the mightiest kings in all India; who
was able to bring into the field more than 100,000 men, and who had
in his hands almost the whole of the Malabar trade.
The king of Cochin was able to withstand his enemies till the year
1760; and perhaps would have gained the superiority, had he been in
a condition to overawe the petty princes who were dependent on his
government. These princes, who were not unanimous among themselves,
attacked each other’s territories; carried away their subjects as
captives; excited the chief men against one another; deprived several
families of their property; and, as they were too weak to subdue an
opulent and high-spirited people, gave to some private individuals
full freedom to revenge the injuries which they had suffered.
Scarcely a week now passed in which some murder was not committed.
Children massacred their parents; and even the sovereign was no
longer safe in his palace. Such crimes could not remain unpunished;
and the inhabitants soon experienced that chastisement which their
cruelty deserved.
The kings of Travancor had hitherto been insignificant princes,
whose territories extended only about fifteen or twenty miles up the
country from Cape Comari; and were, besides, not very fruitful. The
sovereign of this district, at that time _Vira Martanda Pala_, was
uncle to the present king _Rama Varmer_. He was a man of great pride,
courage and talents; capable of undertaking grand enterprises, and
from his youth had been accustomed to warlike operations. As he had
concluded an alliance with the king of _Madura_, it needs excite no
wonder, that, agreeably to his character, he should conceive the idea
of making conquests, and of enlarging his unproductive dominions
by the acquisition of new provinces. For this purpose he crossed
the river _Palur_ in the year 1764; fought a decisive battle with
king _Ciangaceri_, and, having entirely subdued him, laid waste his
territories with fire and sword; caused all the palaces, and even
some of the Pagan temples, to be demolished; and took prisoners
the neighbouring petty princes. The latter had been called in by
_Ciangaceri_ to his assistance; but they were at open variance with
each other, and too much occupied with their own feuds to unite
in one common cause against _Vira Martanda Pala_, who advanced to
_Airucutti_, which is only three leagues distant towards the south
from Cochin. His commander in chief, _Martandapulla_, laid siege
to the place, and continued his conquests, which were completed
by M. Eustatius de Lanoy, with whom I formed an acquaintance at
_Curriapalli_ in the year 1777. He drove _Samuri_ on the other side
of the river from _Alangatta_ and _Codungalur_; assigned a small
spot to the king of Cochin for his support; made himself master of
all the fortresses; put the king’s troops on the same footing as
the European; divided among them the conquered lands; caused them
frequently to march through the country with full military parade,
in order to keep the people in subjection to their rulers; and
after _Vira Martanda_’s death, gave the kingdom, in which perfect
tranquillity was now restored, to the present sovereign _Rama
Varmer_, who had just entered the twenty-fourth year of his age. Thus
ended the dominion of the petty Malabar sovereigns and princes: thus
was humanity avenged; and thus were the crimes punished, and the
licentiousness suppressed, by which this country had been distracted
ever since the tenth century.
Before _Vira Martanda_ undertook this expedition, he celebrated,
at _Tiruwandaburam_, a horrid festival, which I have described in
my _Systema Brahmanicum_. He caused several of the Pagan temples
to be burnt; and this crime, one of the most heinous according to
the principles of the Indians, could no otherwise be atoned for
than by a very peculiar kind of purification. He was obliged by
the Brahmans to get a cow made of gold, under which he was forced
to creep in order to be freed from his sins. Niebuhr and Anquetil
du Perron are therefore in a great error when they assert, that
the object of this ceremony was to raise the king to the degree of
nobility. Both these authors ought to have reflected, that this tale
was invented by the conquered people, to whom the king behaved with
great severity, merely for the purpose of ridiculing him. The above
golden cow was preserved, in the year 1787, in the royal treasury at
_Padmanaburam_. I was at least told so by M. Donaudi, a captain in
the king’s service, who had seen it.
Of a great part of the above events I was myself an eye-witness: the
account given of the rest is taken from the information of persons
worthy of credit, and in particular from the valuable manuscripts
of Father Cruz Fernandez, a Malabar priest, which contain a minute
relation of the war carried on by _Vira Martanda Pala_. I had an
opportunity also of consulting a great many original documents,
quoted in this work, which were preserved among the archives of the
missionary establishment at _Verapole_. I conversed likewise on this
subject with the present king and his generals _Martandapulla_ and M.
de Lanoy, who all three often came to _Verapole_, and to whom we were
indebted, besides other marks of kindness, for freeing our convent,
church, and surrounding district, from the payment of all taxes.
The military forces of the present king of Travancor consist of
50,000 men, disciplined according to the European manner; and 100,000
Malabar _Nayris_ and _Cegos_, armed with bows and arrows, spears,
swords, and battle-axes. He keeps two _Valia Sarvadicàriacàrer_, the
_Vadakemugham_ and the _Tekmugham_, one of whom is established in
the north and the other in the south. Each of these has under him
four other officers, called only _Sarvadicàriacàrer_. These have
inspection over four subalterns or _Cariacàrer_; and these subalterns
have under them _Pravarticàrer_, _Ciandracarer_, and _Torracarer_;
or collectors of the taxes, overseers and judges. The troops are
always marching up and down through the country, to change their
cantonments, to enforce the collection of the taxes, and to preserve
peace and tranquillity. Public security is again restored throughout
the whole country; robbery and murder are no longer heard of; no one
has occasion to be afraid on the highways; religious worship is never
interrupted; and people may rest assured, that on every occasion
justice will be speedily administered. The present king has caused
several canals to be constructed, in order to unite different rivers
with each other and with the sea. By his desire also a very beautiful
road has been completed between Cape Comari and _Cudungalur_; so
that in the course of twenty-four hours he can be informed of every
thing that takes place throughout his whole kingdom. After deducting
the expences of government, his yearly income may amount to half a
million of rupees, arising from trade, duties, and various kinds of
fines. One half of this revenue is deposited in the royal treasury,
and never touched but in cases of the utmost necessity. The king, as
well as all the other Pagan Indians, the chief men even not excepted,
live according to the manner of the Pythagoreans, and use no other
food than rice, milk, fruit and herbs. He generally wears a turban
of dark blue silk; a long white robe, fastened at the breast with a
string of diamonds; long wide drawers, of red silk; and shoes, the
points of which are bent backwards like those of the Chinese. A sabre
is suspended from his shoulders; and in the blue girdle bound round
his loins is stuck a poniard or Persian dagger, which can be used
either for attack or defence. When he shews himself to the people in
full state, he is attended by 5000 or 6000 men, together with a great
number of palanquins and elephants. At the head of the procession is
a band of musicians, and two court-poets, who celebrate in songs his
great achievements. He is borne in a palanquin; and the principal
gentlemen of his court must walk on each side of it. In my time he
was very much attached to the Catholic missionaries. As often as
he passed by the parsonage house at _Angenga_, where I resided two
years, he always sent two of the gentlemen of his bed-chamber to
enquire after my health.
This sovereign had two powerful enemies: one in the north, Tippoo
Sultan, now prince of _Maïssur_ and _Concam_; and another in the
south-east, the prince of _Arrucate_, Mohamed Aly Khan, of whom I
have already spoken in the preceding chapter. The latter has it in
his power to make an attack, by _Tovala_, one of the fortresses
which lie near Cape Comari, towards the east; and the former can
attempt the same thing in the district of _Palacaticeri_, the last
city in the kingdom of _Concam_, towards the west. Through a dread
of these two dangerous neighbours, the king of Travancor found
himself obliged to conclude a treaty of alliance with the English,
and to make a common cause with them both in peace and war. As long
as he enjoys the friendship of these allies, from whom he purchases
freedom and security at a sufficiently dear rate, and as long as he
pays regularly what is due on that account, his dominions will be
protected and defended; but if ever a quarrel should arise between
him and the governor of Madras, he is one of the first Indian princes
that will fall a sacrifice. The annual tribute which he is obliged
to pay to the English, amounts to half a lack of rupees, or 25,000
Roman scudi. In the time of war he must supply them, over and above,
with horses, cannon, soldiers, and rice. He is an affable, polite,
contented, prudent, and friendly man. On account of the integrity of
his character, and his many good moral qualities, it is the more to
be lamented that he is so zealously attached to idolatry, and is so
much blinded as not to perceive the value of the Christian religion.
It cannot, however, be denied, that nothing tends so much to rivet
the affection of subjects, as when the sovereign adheres to the
established religion, and worships the deity in the same manner as
his people. _Rama Varmer_ never omits being present at the ceremonies
and devotional exercises of the Pagans, as will be seen in the
following chapter[99].
CHAPTER VIII.
_Missionary Affairs--Audience of the King of Travancor._
Pope Clement XIV. by an apostolical letter had recommended, in a
particular manner, the Christians of Malabar to the protection of
the king of Travancor. This letter, dated July 2d. 1774, arrived at
_Verapole_ just at the time when the _Pravaticarer_ of that place
took possession of our rice-fields and gardens, under a pretence
that the missionaries, as well as the bishop, ought to pay the usual
imposts and taxes, which all other subjects were obliged to pay for
their lands. We insisted, however, on our immunity, and represented
to him, that _Martandapulla_, the commander in chief and prime
minister of the former king _Vira Martanda Pala_, had declared us
free from all public burdens whatever: but the _Pravaticarer_ paid
no regard to our remonstrances; endeavoured to enforce payment by
violent means, and for that purpose caused our convent and church to
be beset by fifty Mahometans, who suffered no person to go out or
to enter. These people, who at all times are sworn enemies of the
Christians, behaved in so indecent a manner, and made so much noise,
that our bishop and apostolic vicar, Carolus à Sancto Conrado, was
half dead with fear. I tried to compose his mind as much as possible;
and as I knew that the deed by which immunity from all imposts was
secured to us, as well as the pope’s letter, were to be found among
our papers, I sent for the _Pravaticarer_, and, in the presence
of more than thirty Christians, protested against his conduct, and
summoned him to appear before the king. At the same time I wrote to
Father Clemens à Jesu, requesting that he would repair to _Verapole_
as soon as he could. When he arrived, we submitted the whole affair
to mature discussion, and at length resolved to appeal immediately to
the king.
We therefore purchased without delay two European paintings, a large
mirror, fifteen pounds of red sandal wood, and twelve bottles of
Persian rose water; articles which, according to the established
etiquette, must be presented to the king by those who wish to
obtain an audience. On the 20th of June 1780, we proceeded to
_Tiruvandaburam_, and immediately made the prime minister acquainted
with our intention. As M. Adrian Moens governor of Cochin, and M.
John Torless governor of _Angenga_, had both written letters to the
king in our favour, the minister embraced the earliest opportunity of
gratifying our wishes; and the more so as we had taken the precaution
to announce ourselves as delegates from the pope, and procurators of
the missionary establishment.
As soon as we made our appearance before the gate of the castle, the
guard presented his arms, and the minister sent a guide to conduct
the persons who bore our palanquin to the door of the palm-garden
in which the king resided. Here our coolies, or palanquin-bearers,
were obliged to remain behind us, lest, being people of the lowest
cast, they might contaminate the royal palace. At this door we were
received by the king’s commander in chief, who conducted us through
the palm-garden to a second door, where the king was waiting for
us. He received us standing, and surrounded by a great number of
princes and officers. Near him stood his son, with a drawn sabre in
his hand; and, in a shady place were three chairs, one of which was
destined for the king, and the other two for me and my colleague.
When we had all three taken our seats, the attendants formed a circle
around us. I then produced the pope’s letter, which I had hitherto
carried in a pocket-book richly embroidered according to the eastern
manner; raised it aloft; applied it to my forehead in order to shew
my respect for the personage in whose name I presented it; and then
delivered it to _Sampradi Keshavapulla_, the secretary of state. The
latter handed it to the king, who also raised it up, and held it to
his forehead as a token of respect for his holiness. At the moment
when the pope’s letter was delivered there was a general discharge
of the cannon of the castle. After the king had asked us some common
questions respecting the naval war between the English and the French
he enquired of me, in particular, how long I had been in Malabar;
and how I had learned to speak the language of the country with
so much fluency. “I have often observed,” added he, “that other
Europeans are either unacquainted with it, or, for want of the proper
pronunciation, express themselves so badly that they can scarcely
be understood.” I immediately replied, that I had carefully studied
the Brahman book _Amarasinha_. The king, on this answer, seemed
highly pleased. “What!” said he, “do you read our books?”--This is
the real and principal cause why the king, during the whole time of
my residence in Malabar, behaved to me with so much kindness. He
entertained the utmost reverence for the writings and religion of
his people; and as he saw that they were studied by the Europeans,
this paved the way for my obtaining from him afterwards many favours,
which were of the greatest benefit to the Christian religion.
When the king had conversed for some time on various topics, he
ordered his minister and secretary to give such an answer to our
petition, and such relief to our grievances, which we had specified
on an _Ola_, that we might return home perfectly satisfied and
easy. For my part, I could not help admiring the goodness of heart,
affability, and humanity of this prince, as well as the simplicity of
his household establishment and way of life. At that time he and all
the persons of his court, according to the Malabar mode, had nothing
on their bodies but a small piece of cloth fastened round the loins;
and the only mark of distinction by which his royal dignity could be
discovered, was a red velvet cap with gold fringes. At our departure
he accompanied us as far as the door. Next morning the prime
minister, _Cumàren Cembaga Ramapulla_, sent for us to his apartments,
and enquired very minutely respecting the behaviour of the
_Pravaticarer_ at _Verapole_. Being informed that this officer, with
the assistance of the Mahometans, had prevented the Christians from
frequenting our church, he was highly displeased; and immediately
wrote to the _Cariacarer_ at _Parur_ to remove him from his office
as an inconsiderate man, who was little acquainted with the king’s
interest. A new instrument was expedited in our presence, by which
immunity from all imposts whatever was secured to our convent in
future. The king then sent to us by a Brahman, who acted the part
of household steward, and who was accompanied by another officer, a
service of dishes prepared after the Malabar manner, and which were
paid for out of the royal treasury. These particular marks of favour
are shewn only to such persons as give the king distinguished proofs
of their respect.
The king had learned English for several months, and spoke it
exceedingly well. As he observed that the English was as familiar
to me as the Malabar, he sent to me in the evening his chamberlain,
_Payampalli Curipu_, to request that I would explain to him, in the
Malabar language, the parts of speech of the English grammar, because
he was always at a loss respecting them. He had indeed an English
master; but he was not able to give him a proper explanation, in
the Malabar language, of the precise meaning of these technological
terms. I immediately wrote them down on a piece of paper, and
arranged them in two opposite columns, the one in English and
the other in the Malabar language. The king found my explanation
perfectly clear, and ever after called me always his _Guru_ or
preceptor. He was extremely desirous to retain me at his court; but
the crafty Brahmans found means to dissuade him from his design.
My companion and I therefore returned home; the _Pravaticarer_ was
displaced; and our convent, as well as the missionary establishment,
was suffered to remain in peace and tranquillity. The Christians of
_Alapushe_ and _Muttam_ were so rejoiced at the deposition of the
_Pravaticarer_, that they came to meet us, as we returned, with drums
and other musical instruments.
Some time before I sailed for Europe, being desirous to obtain an
answer from the king to the letter which had been written to him
by Clement XIV. I at length received one by means of _Payampalli
Curipu_, before mentioned. It was addressed to the present pope
Pius VI. and contained, besides other things, an assurance from
the king that he would take under his protection the missionaries
and Christians in general, who had been recommended to him by his
holiness. M. Pietro de Vegas, who instructed the king in English,
and who had the care of the correspondence with foreign courts,
translated it into Portuguese. The king subscribed it with his
own hand, and, according to the oriental custom, caused it to be
inclosed in a bag, in which I transmitted it to M. Antonelli, the
director of the _Propaganda_. The present pope returned an answer in
an apostolic letter dated February 24th 1790, and at the same time
sent him his portrait, which arrived safely on the coast of Malabar,
and was delivered to his majesty in the month of March 1793, by
my agent Franciscus à Sancto Elisæo, a barefooted Carmelite. This
ecclesiastic, in a letter dated _Verapole_ May 13th 1793, informed
me that the king had received him in the politest manner, and had
testified the utmost satisfaction on account of the letter, as well
as the pope’s portrait; so that he expected the best consequences
from them. The king, indeed, soon after, took such measures that
all the grievances of the Malabar Christians were redressed in the
kindest manner; and he presented Father Franciscus with a gold
bracelet worth 100 rupees. There is reason, therefore, to hope that
Christianity on the Malabar coast will acquire new strength, and be
again raised to its former state of respectability.
In the year 1783 some of the clergy on the coast of Travancor thought
proper to impose certain fines on the Christian fishermen belonging
to their congregations. The fishermen complained to the king, who
was then at _Padmanaburam_, and requested he would expel these
ecclesiastics from the kingdom. The king, in consequence of this
application, sent a letter to the bishop and apostolic vicar, Carolus
à Sancto Conrado, in which he informed him that he had resolved to
separate totally seventy-five congregations from the diocese of
Cochin, and to place them under the inspection of the apostolic
vicar, that he might commit the charge of them to his missionaries
belonging to the _Propaganda_. He therefore desired that the bishop
would immediately repair to _Patnam_, to examine into the conduct of
the above Portuguese clergy; and that he would dismiss those found
culpable, and take possession of the before-mentioned churches.
The bishop being at that time sick, I was obliged to supply his
place, and to proceed to _Padmanaburam_. At _Tiruvandaburam_ my
coolies or palanquin-bearers ran away; so that I was obliged
to travel twelve miles on foot on the king’s high road, named
_Madacava_, which none but the Brahmans and nobility dare to tread.
As soon as I approached _Padmanaburam_, I repaired to a very small
church on the south side of the castle; for the gates were shut, and
no person belonging to the inferior casts, in which the Europeans are
commonly included, was suffered to enter the city. This took place
on the 23d of September 1783. Scarcely, however, had the king heard
of my arrival, when he resolved to make an exception in my favour
from the severity of this law. He therefore sent to me, next morning,
four of the nobility of his court to conduct me into the city. They
accompanied me to the habitation of the king’s secretary, where his
majesty was waiting to receive me; for on that day he could not give
me audience in his own palace, lest it should be defiled.
When I approached the place, the king’s guard of honour, consisting
of 500 men, came under arms to meet me; and formed themselves into
two lines, between which I was obliged to pass. The king, who was
sitting in an European arm-chair, received me with great friendship,
and addressed me as follows: “I have sent for you, Father, that
you may settle the disputes between my Christian subjects and your
clergy. It is my will that the clergy have a sufficient maintenance,
and a proper income for their support; but I will not suffer them
to oppress my subjects by the imposition of fines. Look,” added
he, “here stands my minister (the _Sarvadicariacàrer Nagampulla_),
and there my secretary (_Sampradi Keshavapulla_), devise with them
what is best to be done, and then let me know the result.” We did
as the king desired; and as I had no great inclination to undertake
the very difficult and burthensome administration of seventy-five
congregations, I endeavoured to prevail on the ministers to write
to the archbishop of Goa, and accommodate the matter in an amicable
manner. Some of the clergy complained of were obliged to pay a
certain sum of money, by way of punishment; and a new _Padiòla_,
or tarif, was established, to settle once more the fees which the
Christians should pay to the clergy for discharging their sacred
functions, and which the latter should be authorised to exact.
As the king would not suffer me to depart till this business
was completely settled, I was obliged to remain sixteen days at
_Padmanaburam_. During that period his majesty sent to me every day
the _Kopu_, which is a certain dish prepared in the Malabar manner.
As the festival of the goddess _Sarasvadi_ was then celebrating,
(on which account, as I have already said, the gates of the city
were shut,) I employed a part of my time in observing the religious
practices of the Brahmans.
_Sarasvadi_ is the wife of Brahma, the creator of the universe; and
the harmony, proportion, and order observed in it, are, according
to the doctrine of the Brahmans, to be ascribed to her influence
alone. Her opponent is the goddess of disorder and contention, named
_Mudevi_. A tabernacle had been constructed for Sarasvadi under a
large tent, and a great number of Brahmans were busily employed in
waiting upon her. After many libations, the statue of the goddess was
at length carried round in procession, strewed over with flowers, and
then placed upon an altar. After this the king approached in great
magnificence, and with the most devout respect presented to her his
dagger as an offering. During this time all the gates of the city
were beset with soldiers, and no one was suffered to go out or to
enter. The festival continued eight days; and when it was finished,
the king distributed presents to the Brahmans. Each received a rupee,
though more than 4000 were sometimes assembled. The high-priest
presented to the king a _Vastram_, that is, a piece of silk or cotton
stuff; a _Viraghen_, or piece of gold, worth about three scudi; and a
cow, as the support of life, because these people live chiefly upon
milk and butter. Such a present is called _Godànam_. It has been
usual in India since the earliest ages; and no greater favour can be
shewn to a Brahman by the king than to give him a cow.
At the end of sixteen days I at length obtained leave to depart;
but before I set out, I wrote to the bishop and apostolic vicar,
to inform him in what manner I had settled the business. This
letter has been printed at full length in my _India Christiana_.
As the _Cassanar_ or clergyman of the Christians of St. Thomas at
Callurcada, whose name was _Ciandi_, had applied to me to get some
abuses reformed which had crept into his congregation, I conversed on
that subject with the prime minister _Cumàren Cembaga Ràmapulla_, and
procured from him a letter to the officer at _Ambalapùshe_, to whose
jurisdiction _Callurcada_ was subject. I shall here subjoin a copy of
it, translated word for word from the Malabar language:
“The business respecting which I write is this: Father Paolino
appeared before his majesty at _Padmanaburam_, and informed him
that some _Mappulians_ (so the Christian women are commonly called)
in the parish of _Callurcàda_, which is subject to the jurisdiction
of the governor of _Cembacolam_, indulge in criminal intercourse
with various _Shuddras_ (Pagan nobility of the fourth cast), and
condescend to live with them as concubines. Now, as this is the
case, continued the Father in name of the bishop of _Verapole_,
the distinction between the casts will be destroyed, and nothing
but confusion will prevail among the different classes of the
inhabitants; which gives him great uneasiness.
“Some person in the neighbourhood, and particularly the governor,
ought certainly to have communicated by letter an account of these
irregularities, of so much importance to be known. When the Father
transmits to you a list of those who keep concubines, you will
immediately cause them to be arrested and imprisoned. If they are
convicted of the crime, send them hither under a military guard,
that they may be banished from the country, and transported beyond
the boundaries of _Tovàla_. The effects of the _Mappulians_, who
condescend to be kept as concubines, shall be seized and confiscated;
and an account of their immoveable goods shall be delivered in to his
majesty’s exchequer[100]. Such is the will of his majesty.
“The Father states farther, that when the _Mappulians_ (Christians
of St. Thomas) assemble to attend divine service, the _Pravaticarer_
(receiver of the king’s revenue) seizes the boat in which they
arrive, drags the people by force from the church doors, and compels
them to serve his majesty. In the last place, the Father has
complained to his majesty, that some magistrates at _Ambalapushe_
borrowed money, a long time ago, from the church, and have paid
neither principal nor interest; and also that a large copper kettle
borrowed from them had received considerable damage, and that no
compensation had been made for it.
“In consequence of these complaints, his majesty has ordered, and
commands by the present letter, that all money borrowed from the
church shall be repaid as speedily as possible, with the usual legal
interest; and it is at the same time expressly forbidden to borrow
any thing from it in future. Those who took possession of the boat
shall be condemned to pay a fine, and to give the proprietors of the
boat a proper compensation for the use of it. Those who employed the
kettle shall make good the damage, and be over and above punished.
The kettle shall be immediately returned, and never again taken from
the church for any profane purpose.
“That all these commands of his majesty may be strictly attended
to, and immediately put in execution, his majesty transmits to you,
at _Ambalapushe_, the present letter, by a _Velkaren_ (one of his
guards of honour, armed with a pike and staff), who has orders not
to suffer you to quit your house till every thing be punctually done
as here desired. Should you, however, be indisposed, his majesty
will not enforce his orders with severity; but requests that you
immediately write to the _Cariacarer_ (inferior magistrate), and
charge him with the execution of these commands. The _Velkaren_ will
confine him in his own house under a proper guard till every thing
is done to your satisfaction. His majesty also requests, that he may
be informed by the _Velkaren_ when this business is brought to the
wished-for conclusion. This rescript shall be transmitted by the
clerk and secretary of the criminal court to the _Sarvadicariacarer_
at _Alampushe_, and be registered among the royal rescripts. This was
written, in consequence of his majesty’s orders, by _Cumaren Cembaga
Ramàpulla Ramen_.”--On the back of it were the following words;
“_Ambalapusha mughatta Sarvàdicàriacarerka varuna Sadhànam_;” that
is, Letter to be transmitted to the chief magistrate at Ambalapushe.
This letter of a Pagan minister may serve as a proof how much power
the light of sound reason has among a people whom the Europeans call
barbarous. It affords a specimen also of the policy and attention
to the executive part of government which prevail at the court of
this Malabar monarch. He has only to command, and his orders are
immediately executed with the utmost punctuality. His ministers
neither can nor dare have recourse to such subterfuges as those of
the European courts. An oath from the king, a small twig suspended
at the door in his name, or mere confinement at one’s own house, is
a check upon the conduct of the minister, as well as upon that of
the other subjects. When such mild measures, however, do not produce
the intended effect, the offenders are subjected to a fine, or to
corporal punishment; to imprisonment, banishment from the country, or
perpetual slavery in chains.
As soon as I had received the two letters before-mentioned, I
departed from _Padmanaburam_. The minister paid me 100 _Kalis_, to
defray the expences of my journey; and gave orders that the coolies
who carried my palanquin along the sea-coast, from one place to
another, should be paid from the royal treasury. When I arrived at
_Parur_, the Mahometans there protested against the king’s order,
and would not carry me farther, under the pretence that, being a
_Tanguel_, or Christian priest, I was an enemy to their religion.
I was obliged, therefore, to stop five whole hours till the king’s
_Pravaticarer_ appeared, who caused the refractory coolies to be
soundly beaten, and commanded them to again take up my palanquin.
At _Callurcada_ the Christians came to meet me in procession
with musical instruments; and as soon as they learned that I was
bearer of the above-mentioned letter from the minister, and had
brought the _Valkaren_ with me merely on their account, they made
the intelligence every where known; so that many of the dissolute
females, who were to have been called to an account, immediately
absconded. Some of them, however, were punished; but the order for
confiscating their property was not carried into execution. In every
other respect the injunctions contained in the minister’s letter were
strictly obeyed. In the course of this journey one of those worthy
priests, against whom complaints had been made to the king, attempted
to destroy me at _Tiruvancada_, by putting poison in my drink. As
soon as I observed it, I took three doses of a medicine known under
the name of the Antidote of Madura, and in great tribulation and
distress sought shelter in the Danish factory at _Coleci_. Here I was
confined to bed; but, being well nursed and attended, I was able in a
few days to continue my journey.
In the month of April 1784 the overseers of the temple of _Shiva_
at _Mattincera_ would not permit the missionaries to sow the
rice-fields which they had on lease from them. As no other piece of
land could be procured at that time, the missionaries complained to
M. Van Angelbec, governor of Cochin. This gentleman, finding that
the fields lay in the dominions of the king of Travancor, and that
he could do nothing in the business, advised me to take a second
journey to _Padmanaburam_, in order to procure another rescript from
the king; and he at the same time furnished me with some letters of
recommendation. On the 21st of April I reached _Padmanaburam_ in
safety. I carried along with me the Malabar, English, and Portuguese
grammar, which I had composed at _Ciattiyàti_, and which the king
had required from me, that the ministers of his court might learn
English and Portuguese by the assistance of the Malabar language.
Scarcely had the king heard of my arrival when he sent two young
noblemen, _Padmanàbhenpulla_ and _Payampalli Curipu_, to welcome
me in his name, and to attend me to an audience. I found the king
in the _Varanda_, that is, the portico of his palace, sitting on a
Persian carpet, and leaning with one arm on a large velvet cushion
ornamented with gold fringes. When I delivered to him the grammar,
his joy seemed to be beyond all description. In my presence he sent
for the two lords of his bed chamber, before mentioned; shewed them
the grammar; advised them to study it diligently; and represented
to them how necessary it was that princes as well as statesmen, on
account of their continual intercourse with the Europeans, should
make themselves acquainted with these languages. On this occasion
the king presented me with a gold bracelet, a gold style for writing
on palm-leaves, and a small knife for cutting these leaves to the
proper size. I received from him also a letter to the civil officer
at _Parur_, in consequence of which he was to announce publicly that
the king had done me the honour to appoint me one of the gentlemen
of his court. The intrinsic value of the above presents was indeed
not very considerable, for it was equal only to about twelve sequins;
but in other respects they were of the highest importance, as the
king gives such articles to those only who have merited his favour.
No person in Malabar dare use any of them without the king’s express
permission. They are marks of honour, which he distributes in the
same manner as our European princes do ribbons of different orders.
Those also who receive them enjoy certain privileges and advantages;
such, for example, as that they cannot be carried before any
magistrate till the king is previously informed; that they can travel
every where along the highways; that they are not obliged to wait in
the minister’s antichamber, and that they are not required to give
place to any person whatever; with other things of the like kind.
The king made no hesitation to cause a rescript to be prepared, in
virtue of which we were authorised to sow our fields with rice.
Having thus accomplished the object of my journey, I set out to
return; and, proceeding along the sea-coast, arrived in five days at
_Verapole_. Here I was obliged to supply the place of vicar-general;
for our bishop, Carolus à Sancto Conrado, had gone to Bombay, where
he fell ill, and died on the 6th of January 1785.
On the 8th of September 1786 I again had an audience of the king
_Rama Varmer_ at _Parur_, where I obtained another rescript, by which
he granted to the congregation at _Verapole_ a small piece of land,
that had been gradually thrown up, and formed by the river before our
convent.
In the year 1787 I remained at his court at _Tiruvandaram_ during
the whole month of April, and defended there the privileges of the
missionaries against the rebellious Christians, who refused any
longer obedience to the European bishop of that district.
In the year 1788 I paid a visit to the king of _Travancor_ near
_Canigia_, at the country seat of the before-mentioned governor
of Cochin, M. Van Angelbec, a man of great talents and integrity.
Though a Lutheran, he rendered us essential service upon many
important occasions, and particularly during the disputes which the
Pagan governors began with the missionaries and bishops. The prime
minister _Cumàren Cembaga Ràmapulla_ had died, and was succeeded by
the king’s secretary _Sampràdi Kèshavapulla_. This ambitious young
man assumed the name of the Indian Bacchus, _Devanishi_, and exacted
from the subjects exorbitant taxes, in order to increase the public
revenue, and ingratiate himself with the king. During the contest,
in which we were involved with the rebellious Christians of St.
Thomas, in the year 1787, he imposed on the missionary establishment
at _Verapole_ a tribute of 500 crowns. The king, however, had long
before remitted this tax; but we had no written document to adduce
as a proof. _Devanishi_, just at this time, took it into his head to
send to _Verapole_ six soldiers, under a petty officer, with orders
to confine the apostolic vicar, Louis Maria à Jesu, to his apartment,
and to guard him there till the 500 crowns were paid. The bishop
having informed me, by a note, of his arrest, I immediately repaired
to the king, who at that time was at _Perimannùr_, not far from
_Angicaimal_. As _Devanishi_ knew too well that I was in great favour
with the king, he refused me the letter of introduction necessary to
obtain an audience, lest his majesty should be made acquainted with
his bad conduct. The bishop had been already two days in arrest, with
two muskets placed across each other before the door of his chamber.
In this state of distress I applied to M. Van Angelbec, and informed
him of every thing that had happened. He sent for me to his house;
and the king, as soon as I appeared, saluted me with great civility,
and we immediately entered into conversation. All the magistrates and
members of the council at Cochin, who were there assembled to pay
their respects to the king, and to settle some business respecting
the Dutch East India Company, were struck with astonishment. When
I told him that our bishop was in confinement, he seemed quite
surprised; turned instantly round to the minister, and asked who had
given such orders. The minister endeavoured to exculpate himself; but
M. Van Angelbec, interrupting him, said, that bishops ought not to be
treated in that manner. The king then caused a letter to be written
to the petty officer commanding the party by whom the bishop was
guarded, which contained an order for him to withdraw his men; and
the minister, who heard all this, seemed greatly ashamed.
Of such disagreeable disputes, in which I was involved with the
subaltern magistrates, I could relate various instances. The cause
of them was the oppression and extortion which these people were
always exercising against some of the Christian congregations. I
was constantly employed, by day as well as by night, either in
accommodating quarrels between congregations, or putting a stop
to the irregularities of the Christians, and the rapacity of the
officers of government, who endeavoured to procure money, both from
individuals and congregations, sometimes by cunning and sometimes by
open force. It may with truth be asserted, that nothing is the cause
of the eternal disputes between the Indian Christians and the Pagans,
but hatred on the part of the inhabitants, and avarice on the part of
the sovereign and his ministers, I must, however, render homage to
truth, by acknowledging that the latter do not go unpunished, when
their knavery is made known, and communicated to the king.
It is probable that a great part of the Christians of St. Thomas in
India came from Persia or Chaldea. I conclude so from the following
circumstances: 1st, because the Arabs established in India are also
foreigners; 2d, because the Jews there were originally from Persia;
3d, because the Christians of St. Thomas, as well as those of the
same sect in Persia, follow the Syrio-Chaldaic ritual; 4th, because
their bishops formerly were ordained in Persia; and, 5th, because the
Christians of St. Thomas in India, like those of Persia, were in the
earliest periods Nestorians; and because, on accurate examination,
a great similarity is observed in the worship and religious
practices of both. The rites, liturgy, ceremonies and books of these
Christians, bear evident marks of a Chaldaic or Persian extraction.
Though the Malabar dialect is at present the mother tongue of the
Christians of St. Thomas in India, they, however, employ Chaldaic
phrases when they speak of sacred and religious objects. Thus, for
example, they call God _Alaha_; the Holy Ghost, _Ruha_; the grace
of God, _Taibusa_; baptism, _Mamodisa_; the cross, _Shliva_; and
mass, _Curubana_. Had they been originally Indians, why should they
make use of such Chaldaic expressions, and not much rather of words
peculiar to the Malabar or Samscred languages? It is, therefore, not
improbable, that a considerable number of Christians went from Persia
and Chaldea to India, and united themselves to the small body of the
original Indian Christians, whose ancestors were formerly converted
to the Christian faith by the apostle Thomas at _Mailapuri_, which
they unanimously consider as the place that first gave birth to
Christianity in India. This much is certain, that all these
Christians, in the year 1502, at which period Vasco de Gama came a
second time to Malabar, were Nestorians. Some of them denied the
divinity of Christ, and could not endure images; but, on the other
hand, they shewed a greater reverence for the holy cross. They had no
other sacraments than Baptism, the Last Supper, and the Consecration
of Priests. They believed that the souls of the just were not
admitted into the presence of God before the final judgement, and
that till that period they were to remain in Eden. They employed a
kind of baptism quite different from ours; and their priests all
practised simony, as they dispensed the sacrament merely for money.
Many of the poor people were not baptised, because they were not able
to pay the fees. The sacrifice of the Mass was established according
to the manner of the Nestorians. The wine which they consecrated was
palm-wine, called by the Indians _Tàgaram_ or _Aracca_. The Host
consisted of some wheaten flour mixed with salt and oil; and it was
always let down from a hole above the altar, when the priest was
to bless it. Mass was read every Sunday, but no person was obliged
to attend it. On Sunday evening every one might eat flesh; on
Wednesdays and Fridays they ate fish or herbs; and on Shrove-Sunday
there was a general fast. Their holy water, the preparation of
which was left to the sacristan, consisted of common river water,
in which a few particles of earth, brought from the grave of St.
Thomas at _Mailapuri_, were dissolved. Their festivals always began
the preceding evening, and ended towards evening the day following.
During that time the shops were shut, and all labour ceased. Their
priests were accustomed to employ excommunication, known under the
name of _Maharon_, and which is very severe against offenders[101].
In the year 1599, these Christians, by the exertions of Alexis
Menesez, archbishop of Goa, were united to the Catholic church. As
some customs of the oriental churches were, however, introduced
among them in the council at _Udiamper_, and as they by degrees
found the arbitrary conduct of the Portuguese insupportable, they
raised a violent outcry against them; and in a tumultuary congress,
held on the 22d of May 1653, at _Alangatta_, at length formally
separated from the Catholic church[102]. A re-union was, however,
effected by the barefooted Carmelites; and at present there are, on
the coast of Malabar, as I have already observed, eighty-four Roman
Catholic, and thirty-five Schismatic congregations, the latter of
which adhere to the errors of the Jacobites. These congregations
support each other, and form a kind of Christian republic. If any
one of them is injured, they all make a common cause of it. The
clergy and elders settle all quarrels and disputes which arise among
the members of their different congregations; excommunicate the
contumacious, but with the consent of the bishop or missionary, and
exclude them from the society of the faithful. Confession and the
holy sacrament are denied to such persons; no priest dare enter their
habitations; they can be married neither publicly nor privately;
and are not allowed to be present at the _Ciata_, or festival of
commemoration, which is celebrated every year in their houses in
remembrance of deceased relations. This sentence of excommunication
is never recalled till those who lie under it have made sufficient
atonement for their sins, which must always be done before the
judgement-seat of the congregation. If the offender wishes to be
again received into the bosom of the Church, he must crave mercy on
his knees at the church-door, on a Sunday or Festival, when all the
people are assembled to public worship. The _Cassanaris_ or priests,
the _Cariacarer_ or overseers, and the _Muppenmar_ or elders, then
assemble and examine the conduct of the penitent, together with every
concomitant circumstance, and likewise the state of his property
and goods. If he is rich, he is with one voice required to pay a
_Pràcittam_, that is, a public fine; so that he must present to the
church a _Ciodana_ of lamp-oil, a large umbrella covered with red
cloth, a covering for the altar, or some other thing of the like kind
which can be used in divine service. If he has no property, a large
wooden cross is placed on his shoulders while he is kneeling at the
church-door; a human skull is put into his hand, and in that manner
he is made to creep round the church; or he is sent to _Maleatur_,
where he must do penance at the foot of the holy cross, which is said
to have been erected there by the apostle Thomas himself. Women must
bear a death’s head, or a wax-candle. When the penance is over, the
bishop, missionary, or priest gives the offender absolution in the
presence of the whole congregation by means of a whip or rod, that
the scandal which he brought on his Christian brethren may thereby be
removed[103].
The Christians of St. Thomas still celebrate their _Agapæ_, or
love-feasts, as was usual in former times. They give them the name of
_Nercia_, public vows. On such occasions they collect and store up a
great quantity of sugar-canes, rice, bananas, honey, and rice-flour,
of which they bake a certain kind of small cakes called _Appam_.
These _Appam_, or rice-cakes, are prepared publicly in an apartment
adjoining to the church. On the day of the solemnity all the people
assemble in the church-yard; and the priest, placing himself in the
door, distributes to them his blessing. They then arrange themselves
in rows, and each spreads before him a banana leaf, to supply the
place of a trencher. When this is done, the priest commands silence;
and the overseers of the church, walking through between the rows,
give to each his portion of _Appam_ and a few slices of banana. No
Christian departs without having had a share. What is left is given
to the Pagans, that they also may participate in this love-feast, and
be incited to embrace the doctrines of the Christian religion. It is
certainly an affecting scene, and capable of elevating the heart,
to behold six or seven thousand persons of both sexes and all ages
assembled, and receiving together, with the utmost reverence and
devotion, their _Appam_, the pledge of mutual union and love[104].
Christian young women, who have no property, always receive a dowery,
either from the congregation or the treasury of the church, or the
fines imposed on the rich. In general, it amounts to a thousand
_Panam_, or twenty-five scudi; but according to their circumstances
they receive sometimes no more than ten or twelve scudi, because
they are never destitute of work. Such of the clergy as do their
duty, must always keep a list of the female orphans who belong to
their parish; and they and the overseers of the church are bound
to provide them with husbands. This is never done by lot, but
according to their age; and in choosing the husbands no regard is
paid to property, but whether they lead regular lives, and are in a
condition to maintain a wife by their industry. Vanity, sensuality,
and indolence are too often characteristic properties of the European
women; but those of Malabar distinguish themselves by simplicity
of manners, diligence, and contentment[105]. I should never have
done were I here to delineate a picture of the harmless inoffensive
manners of the Christians and Pagans who live retired among the
distant mountains and forests, where they seldom have an opportunity
of becoming acquainted with the vices and shameful practices of the
Europeans. With these, however, the inhabitants of the maritime
towns are unfortunately too much infected. Many centuries ago Plato
expressed a wish, that people of virtuous morals might never settle
on the sea-coast, because it was always to be apprehended that their
good morals would be corrupted by the vices of the strangers who
arrived there. In this he was right; for we are taught by experience
that the inhabitants of a country are no where so worthless and
debauched as in places lying near the sea. In Malabar it is much
easier to keep in order fifty congregations in the interior part of
the country, than two on the sea-coast, where the inhabitants have
intercourse with the Europeans. Disturbances prevail there without
end, and break out anew at least every three years. They are to be
ascribed chiefly to their _Cassanaris_ or priests; for these men, who
are both ignorant and proud, incite the people and encourage them to
rebel against the bishop and missionaries. Had these native priests
sufficient learning; were they in any degree acquainted with their
duty; and did they know how to procure from the Pagans the least
respect, they might certainly be fit to be entrusted with the care
of Christian congregations: but unfortunately they are strangers to
these qualities, live like the irrational animals, and by these means
are the cause that their parishes are converted into dens of thieves.
The following instance will serve as a specimen of the way of
thinking of these people. The Christians of St. Thomas are accustomed
to abstain from their wives during Lent. A certain female Christian
having asked her _Cassanar_ why this custom had been introduced, the
priest replied, “That it was established by the Church, in order that
the wives of the Christians, during the above period, might sleep
with the _Cassanaris_!”
These _Cassanaris_ were the cause also of the schism which took place
in 1653. In the year 1709 they had an intention of uniting themselves
with the schismatic bishop. In 1773 they declared themselves under
the jurisdiction of the bishops of the Latin or western church; but
in 1777 they sent a request to Rome, that they might be allowed
to have bishops of their own nation. In the year 1787 they made
themselves independent of the apostolic vicar; but as I went to the
court of the king of Travancor, as well as to Cochin, in favour of
the bishops and missionaries, the rebels were punished, and again
brought under subjection[106].
Pope Clement XIV. transmitted to me by the often before-mentioned
bishop and apostolic vicar, Carolus à Sancto Conrado, full power to
confirm newly-converted Christians, and caused it to be sanctioned
by his successor M. Louis Maria. In consequence of this authority I
confirmed, on the coast of Malabar, in the course of two years, viz.
1780 and 1781, above 20,000 persons. During that period I visited
_Angamali_, _Maleatur_, _Codomangalam_, _Molicolam_, _Puttenpalli_,
_Mageapre_, and other Christian congregations lying at a great
distance in the forests; and I can say that I was resorted to by
great numbers. The desire of obtaining confirmation went so far that
sick people were brought to the church on beds, in order that I might
administer to them the sacrament.
From what has been said, the reader may easily conceive what are
the peculiar functions of a missionary in _Malayala_. He is obliged
to instruct children; to preach, to confess, to visit churches,
and to punish and absolve, _in foro externo_, Christians who have
transgressed. He must also take care that the priests under his
inspection read their Breviary in public; that they diligently visit
their parishioners, and administer the sacraments properly: that the
overseers lay out the church money with economy; that they embezzle
none of it; and that they give a just account of it at the stated
time: that the Christians regularly attend divine worship; follow
no superstitious practices; and frequent neither the festivals nor
public processions of the Pagans: that their wives and daughters
do not lead unchaste lives; with various other things of the like
kind. These missionaries have jurisdiction at the same time over
the Christian congregations, to settle the disputes which arise
among the members, and to punish all civil crimes committed by the
Christians. Every thing that relates to marriage, family quarrels,
offences of the clergy, irreligious conduct, and even the oppression
which the Christians suffer from the Pagans, must be brought before
the tribunal of the bishop and the missionaries. Their cognizance
extends to every thing except murder and robbery. For this reason the
king of Cochin grants them the privilege of causing a large umbrella
of palm-leaves, and even sometimes a sword, to be borne before them,
in order that both Christians and Pagans may know that they are
entrusted with the power of administering justice among the former.
When the missionaries are on good terms with their congregations, the
Pagan magistrates, so far from interfering with, stand in awe of them.
The method and means employed to convert the Indians to the
Catholic religion, are as follows: The missionaries go round among
the congregations who adhere to the Latin and Syriac ritual; get
acquainted with persons in whom they can place confidence, and desire
them to give them immediate information when they hear of any Pagan
who is inclined to become a Christian. When they find out any of
this description, they give notice privately to the missionary, who
then sends him a short introduction to the Christian religion, and
perhaps a catechism, in order that he may read in it, make him self
acquainted with its contents, and perhaps get some passages of it by
heart. After this preparation he is conducted by the catechumen,
with great privacy, to the missionary, who converses with him
respecting his conduct, and endeavours to bring him over completely
to the right faith. In Malabar there are some excellent manuscripts
in verse, which on such occasions are of great service. Among these
are _Nishithaparvam_, a poem by _Giaco Mappulla_, written, against
the religion of the Pagans, and to ridicule their deities. There is
also the Life of Christ by Ernest Hanxleden; and I myself wrote a
poem under the title of _Dèvasya shashta cinha gànam_, that is, A
Hymn on the six attributes of God; and converted into verse the Life
of St. Theresa. Such works are highly gratifying to the Pagans, who
are as fond of poetry as they are of moral subjects; and produce
far more effect than the strongest persuasion and the most laboured
arguments of the missionaries[107]. If the new converts are fully
convinced of the truth of the doctrines which they have embraced,
they return from time to time and bring with them their parents,
sisters, and other relations. The missionary then baptises them in
the church during the night, and only in the presence of some trusty
persons, in order that it may be concealed, and to avoid giving
any occasion to the Pagan magistrates to make complaints against
the missionary. If he be afraid that the circumstance will not be
concealed, he sends his catechumen to _Verapole_, or some other
congregation under the Dutch government, where he will be exposed to
no danger. There he is fully instructed by the clergyman, or some
other Christian, and then baptised. It happens not unfrequently,
that some of the Pagans go to _Verapole_ of their own accord, and
cause that ceremony to be performed. Their view on these occasions
generally is to marry some Christian; to shun the persecution of
some despotic ruler; to avoid a law-suit; or to live in a happier
manner under the Dutch government. Such motives are, indeed, not pure
and disinterested; but it often happens that they are sanctified
by the blessing of God. Even if these people are not sincere in
their conversion, their posterity at least abandon the Pagan vices,
and strive to be real followers of Jesus Christ. In short, it is
customary to place such new converts in some numerous Christian
family, and to have a watchful eye over their conduct. Seldom do
any of them return to Paganism; for, according to the laws of the
Brahmans, they must be subjected to the severest punishment and
purification before they can be again admitted among their former
brethren. A _Giàdi bhrshten_, that is an apostate, who has been
unfaithful to his cast, is detested by them; and it cannot be denied
that this circumstance greatly contributes to the spreading of
Christianity. At _Verapole_, however, it is not customary to baptise
converts until they have gone through the severest probation[108].
In the two first years of my missionary charge, that is in 1777 and
1778, I had the good fortune to convert to the Catholic religion
forty-six persons, among whom there were even some protestants[109].
These were afterwards followed by more than 300. I shall say nothing
of what was done by other missionaries, who exert themselves in
the business of conversion also; but I must not omit to mention,
that a house has been built at _Verapole_ for the particular use
of the catechumens. It consists of two divisions; one destined for
persons of the male sex, and the other exclusively for females. The
former, in my time, were under the direction of _Toma Mapulla_,
who had been once a Brahman; and the latter were committed to the
care of _Vittanda Umà_, a matron of threescore. From this house 300
converts were sent out one year, and distributed among different
Roman Catholic congregations, all consisting of such newly-converted
Christians who by the Pagans are called _Marggacarer_, that is,
people who have a law. I have already said, that the number of
these Christians amounts to 100,000, without reckoning those who
reside only in the neighbourhood of Cochin. The latter are called
_Mundocàrer_, or people in white clothing, to distinguish them from
the _Tupasi_[110], who wear indeed hats and drawers, but neither
shoes nor stockings. Both these are under the protection of the
Dutch East India Company, and belong to the government of Cochin.
That they may be kept in proper order and subjection, two captains
are appointed, one of whom is placed over the _Mundocarer_, and the
other over the _Tupasi_. These captains have the right of commanding
them; but are accountable for their conduct to the governor of
Cochin. Among these people there are some very rich families; for,
at present, they are generally in better circumstances than the
Christians of St. Thomas. The cause is, that the latter employ
themselves only in agriculture, and receive very little support
from the government; whereas the former are merchants, and carry
on a considerable trade with _copra_, oil, pepper, mats, and other
productions of the country. The newly-converted Christians on the
coast of Malabar are the chief support of the Dutch East India
Company at Cochin; for, as they are protected by the government
of that place, they consider it their duty to assist it by every
possible means, and are always ready to take up arms in its defence.
These Christians are all natives of the country, and therefore have
many adherents. They not only possess palm-gardens, which are
hereditary property, but procure a great deal also by their own
industry. If they should ever undertake to effect a revolution in
favour of the king of Cochin, or the king of Travancor, they would
soon bring matters to such a state as to oblige the Dutch to leave
Cochin. But I will here repeat, that the native Indians are the
strongest support of the Europeans. The Pagans and Mahometans are
naturally enemies to the Whites, as they call the Europeans; because
they have no similarity to them, either in their external appearance,
or in regard to their manners, their religion, or their interest.
If the English and Dutch, therefore, do not endeavour to secure the
friendship of the Christians in India, on whom can they depend?
How can they hope to preserve their possessions in that remote
country[111]?
The king of Cochin sends every year to the bishop of _Verapole_ a
letter, in which he expressly forbids him to receive any of his
subjects into the catechumen house at that place, or to baptise
them. The king of Travancor threatens with imprisonment and death
every nobleman who shall quit his court to become a Christian, and
who shall afterwards fall into his hands; and indeed _Nilampulla_,
an officer of a noble family, was shot at _Arampalli_ because he
refused to renounce the religion of Jesus Christ[112]. In the year
1787 I saw four _Nayris_, or noble _Shudris_, thrown into prison
at _Tiruvandaburam_, because they would not apostatise from the
Catholic Church. _Sampradi Keshavapulla_, at that time, entered with
me into a long conversation on Fatalism, in which he endeavoured to
prove, that embracing Christianity was of no use, as the destiny of
the spiritual part of man has been determined from all eternity. He
did every thing in his power to make the above four _Shudris_ abjure
Christianity; even paid them a visit himself, and, to gain his point,
employed every possible art of persuasion. As these were not attended
with success, his substitute proceeded to coercive means, and not
only tortured the prisoners with hunger and thirst, but even caused
them to be scourged twice a-day. These heroic souls, however, were
not to be shaken, and acknowledged openly in prison the word of God;
so that _Sampradi Keshavapulla_ was at length afraid they might make
proselytes. The king was unwilling to punish them with death, because
he had been informed, several years before, by a Catholic master of
languages, who taught him English, that he never would thrive if he
executed any person for having embraced Christianity. The king was
much struck with this observation; and he had made a principle of it
which he ever after followed. As he wished still to adhere to it, the
four captive Shudris, after every thing had been tried to make them
alter their opinion, were at last transported beyond the boundaries
of _Tovala_.
In the year 1786 the civil magistrate at _Parur_ sent a party of six
soldiers to bring me before him, in order that he might be informed
why I had baptised a Pagan family, consisting of eleven persons. I,
however, got rid of the soldiers, by making oath, and immediately
writing to the king, that these persons had come to me of their own
free will, and offered to embrace the Christian religion, and that
consequently it was impossible for me to reject them. The king had
already honoured me with the _Viraciangala_, by which the magistrate
perceived that the business might involve him in more trouble than he
expected; and for that reason he let it drop. These newly-converted
Christians had by this time been sent away from _Verapole_, and
therefore they were beyond his reach. From this it appears that too
much precaution cannot be employed when attempts are made to convert
the Indians to the Christian religion: and incidents of this kind
give an able missionary a sufficient opportunity of displaying his
talents.
CHAPTER IX.
_Quadrupeds, Birds, and amphibious Animals on the Coast
of Malabar._
That there is no want of oxen and cows in India appears from the
second chapter of this work. Horses were brought hither from Arabia
and Persia. They are of small size, but strong, exceedingly swift,
and capable of enduring long fatigue[113]. I am of opinion, that all
the horses here are of Arabian or Persian extraction; because there
are none in the southern parts, and because horses of the like kind
are still brought to Malabar in Arabian ships.
Buffaloes are found here in abundance. They are employed chiefly in
cultivating the land instead of oxen, as the latter are used for
drawing waggons, and, in particular, for transporting goods. Cheese
from cow’s milk, as well as all kinds of cheese in general, is not
common in Malabar; because the inhabitants employ as food the milk
that would be required for making it. Some of the Malabar women have
indeed lately begun to make cheese, but they sell it only to the
Europeans. The assertion that the people of Malabar are unacquainted
with the method of preserving butter, is entirely groundless. The
inhabitants of the Gauts certainly understand this part of domestic
economy; and, to preserve their butter, add to it a little salt,
some aromatic herbs, and _magnel_, or Malabar saffron. This kind
of butter, which contains the noblest parts of those nourishing
herbs and plants on which the cattle feed on the mountains, has a
singularly exquisite taste[114]. The _Vaishaya_, that is, those
Indians who apply to agriculture and the breeding of cattle, are
exceedingly well acquainted with the art of curing the diseases of
animals by very simple means. This art they have learned partly from
their own experience during the course of a great many years, partly
from the _Samanæi_, and are instructed in it from their infancy[115].
Tame goats, called in the Malabar dialect _Aada_, in the Samscred
_Haga_, _Staba_, and, when red, _Menda_, _Mesza_ or _Uranna_, are
found here in great numbers. These animals are under the care of
certain shepherds named _Idaya_, who form a particular cast called
_Idayagiadi_. The _Menda_, or red goats, belong to the sacred
animals, for which the Indians entertain the utmost reverence. They
make use of them chiefly in their great festivals, known under the
appellation of _Iaga_, instituted in honour of the sun and the
planets[116].
Sheep on the coast of Malabar are exceedingly rare; for, as they bear
a great deal of wool, they cannot thrive in a climate so hot as that
of India. Goats, on the other hand, thrive remarkably well, because
they climb the steepest mountains, and every where find food. Their
hair is uncommonly beautiful. In the northern part of India there is
a kind of wild goats, from the hair of which the shawls are made.
These excellent pieces of stuff, which are manufactured at Cachemir,
excel not only the finest cloths of Persia, but even the silk stuffs
of the Chinese[117]. The Europeans in India eat a great deal of
goat’s flesh; but the native Indians, who in general have an aversion
to flesh, eat only that of kids, and even the latter they never touch
except in the time of war.
The flesh of the Malabar swine is very difficult of digestion, and
has a disagreeable taste. This is owing to their being too much
fed with pilchards, which are found on the Sea coast in the utmost
abundance. The native Christians, however, eat sometimes pork; but
they are almost always sick afterwards[118].
Of dogs there is only one kind in Malabar. They are of a large size,
not unlike our butchers’ dogs; have little hair, and can be trained
to hunting.--The ass is never reared in this country.
Elephants, which among the wild animals deserve the first rank, are
found in great number in the forests of the Gauts. In the provinces
of _Aragoshe_, _Modelacodata_, and _Maleatur_, they may be sometimes
seen in herds of 200 or 300; and it happens not unfrequently that
they destroy whole fields of rice. The inhabitants endeavour to
frighten them away, by kindling large fires and beating drums. They
are caught in pits, which are covered over with green boughs. When
an elephant falls into one of these, it sends forth such a loud cry
as astonishes all the inhabitants of the forest. Ropes and chains
are then made fast around its legs, in a very ingenious manner, and,
when drawn up, it is conveyed to a place where these animals are
generally tamed. I had an opportunity of seeing one of these places
at _Magnapre_. It consisted of three stalls: those on the right
and left were destined for two tame elephants, and the wild animal
intended to be broke was shut up in the middle one. Its food was let
down to it through the roof; for no person durst approach it till it
was completely tamed. When that was accomplished, it would drag, over
the mountains, large logs of _Teka_ wood, and throw them into the
river which conveyed them to the place of their destination. By these
means this useful animal saved us great expence, which would have
been necessary, had we caused such large trunks to be transported
to the sea-coast, through these frightful mountains, by the hands
of men. Thus has the wise providence of God taken care, that in all
countries, and under every climate, certain kinds of animals shall be
subservient to the necessities of man!
Next to the elephant in this respect may be ranked the camel. It is
found in the twenty third degree of north latitude; but it does not
properly belong to the animals which are natives of India, though it
is found there[119]. The case is the same with the lion, which is
seldom seen in these countries.
The urus belongs properly to the genus of the wild ox, and never
appears beyond the borders of the thick forests of the Gauts. It is
about ten feet high, and proportionably thick; has large beautiful
horns, and very fine hair of a silvery ash-grey colour. Its tongue
is so rough and sharp that it can peel off with it the bark from the
trees: a wonderful provision of nature, in order that it may not want
a supply of food in the time of summer when a single blade of grass
is not to be found. The urus is of such strength that it ventures
to contend with the elephant and the tyger. Of its hide the Indians
make soles to their shoes, and various other things. Its flesh,
however, is coarse, fibrous, and hard; but exceedingly wholesome and
nourishing. It has also an excellent taste; because the animal feeds
only on aromatic herbs[120].
The case is the same with the wild swine, the flesh of which has a
very agreeable aromatic taste. I here speak from experience, having
often ate of both. A wild hog killed in hunting costs a rupee;
sometimes it may be procured for two or three charges of gun-powder,
by which the huntsman thinks himself sufficiently paid, as he can
then kill another.
The above-mentioned forests serve also as a retreat for the
wolf[121], and likewise for the mountain bear, which is even fiercer
than the tyger, and more dreaded by the _Malèr_, or inhabitants of
the Gauts. If the king of Travancor could resolve to hunt these wild
animals, he would procure essential advantages both to himself and
his subjects. But this is not done, because the Indians believe in
the doctrine of transmigration. By these means, indeed, the heart
of man is inspired with softer sensations, and a stop is put to the
shedding of blood; but, on the other hand, such ideas are attended
with this bad consequence, that the number of ravenous animals is
prodigiously increased.
The rhinoceros is found here and there in India; but on the coast of
Malabar it is never seen. Of the horn, from which it takes its name,
the Indians make drinking cups and bracelets.
Of tygers I have seen three kinds in Malabar. The royal tyger, called
in the Malabar language _Caduva_ or _Parienpuli_, and in the Samscred
_Vyacra_, or _Duìbina_, is of a yellowish colour, with long black
horizontal stripes. It is as large as a two-year-old heifer; but
long, and rather of low stature. It is much scarcer than the Malabar
_Puli_ or _Cuguar_, which is the real leopard, whatever may have been
said to the contrary by Pliny and Linnæus. The _Puli_, or common
Malabar tyger, is of a yellowish colour, inclining to black, and
marked with a few perfectly black spots on the back: hence it takes
its name _Puli_, that is, the spotted animal.
The panther, which frequents the Gauts, is a kind of royal tyger, but
of a dark chestnut colour. Here and there it is marked with a few
horizontal stripes, like the royal tyger; but with this difference,
that they are considerably blacker. This animal is much fiercer than
the tyger, and pursues its enemies with the most savage ferocity.
The above-mentioned _Puli_, or Malabar tyger, is often so bold as
to enter the towns and villages. One day, in the year 1786, while I
was in the church at _Vaypur_ employed in examining the overseer’s
accounts, a _Puli_ entered the village at noon, and, in the sight
of more than 200 persons, carried off a dog which was running about
in the street, not fifteen paces from the church. After that period
the people of _Vaypur_ always took care to shut their houses at the
time they were repeating the _Ave Maria_; but with trelliced doors,
in order to admit the light. At _Badagare_, one of these _Pulis_
took from the stall a calf belonging to the _Cassanar_, while I was
sitting with him in his apartment. We, however, pursued the animal
with muskets; but were not able to overtake him, for he had seized
the calf by the throat, and, having strangled it, dragged it away
with him, and soon disappeared. Some of these animals frequently
paid me a visit at _Magnapre_, during the time of _Ave Maria_. The
Christian women were generally the first who perceived them from
their houses, and on such occasions they immediately ran into the
streets, crying out: _Acia, patti vannu, patti vannu!_ that is, Sir,
the dog is there, the dog is there! This dog, however, was always a
tyger, to which the common people give that appellation.
The animal called by Pliny a panther, by Zimmermann an ounce, and
by Linnæus a leopard, has a white skin covered with black spots;
but neither the Malabar leopard nor the panther is ever seen in
the Gauts. Those who wish to destroy a tyger conceal themselves by
night on the top of some tree, near a pond or ditch where the animal
is accustomed to drink, and in that manner shoot him. The skin is
given to the king, and the hunter always obtains a reward from the
inhabitants of the district[122].
The flying cat I have several times seen in India, particularly at
_Vaypur_, _Puttenpalli_, and _Mohatushe_. It is properly a kind of
squirrel, but as large as a cat. It has two cartilaginous wings like
the bat, and a large thick tail, which, in its flight, it uses by way
of a rudder. Its hair is exceedingly fine, and of a silver colour. It
is generally seen on the _Mava_ tree, the fruit of which serves it as
food[123].
Another animal, of a kind totally different, is the Malabar
_Marapatti_, which the naturalists call Serval. It lives also
on trees, but cannot fly like the former, and feeds only on the
coco-nut. It is a sort of polecat, which destroys poultry, and sucks
their eggs. It is also a mortal enemy to serpents; and its flesh has
an offensive smell[124].
Of deer there are various kinds in Malabar. _Kàla_ is the common
stag; _Man_ is the hind; _Pulimàn_, the white spotted axis of the
ancients. The roe-buck, with crooked horns, twisted like a vine
branch, is catted _Krshnamrgam_, and is a kind of antelope with black
hair. Another kind, called in the Malabar language _Kesza_, and in
the Samscred _Rohida_, is not larger than a goat, and has red hair.
It is in all probability the _Antelope cervicapra_ of Zimmermann[125].
In Malabar there is also a great number of bezoar goats. In the
mountainous districts of the province of _Maleatur_ they wander about
in herds; and the largest and best bezoar stones are procured from
them.
The _Kuran_ is an antelope with hair entirely black, which I never
saw but in this country[126].
The civet cat, by the Indians called _Meruva_, is found here also. I
have seen great numbers of this animal in the forests of _Cernì_ and
_Cidàcolam_.
The _Kirri_ appears to be the same animal as that which the ancients
called the Ichneumon. It is found on the coast of Malabar, and in
considerable numbers. It is a mortal enemy to the snakes, which it
torments till they twist themselves together, and lie as if in a
state of torpor, when it springs upon them, and, seizing them by the
neck, soon dispatches them. During this contest the snake raises up
half its body, erects its crest, hisses, and endeavours to wound its
antagonist; but this little animal, which is exceedingly active and
sharp-sighted, finds means to avoid the threatened blow with the
utmost dexterity, till the snake at last loses its strength, and
resigns the victory. This contest I have myself seen more than once.
The _Kirri_ has fine hair of an ash-grey colour, a thick tail, a
sharp-pointed snout, keen eyes, small ears, and is not bigger than
a large mouse. This pretty animal is very much attached to man; is
fond of playing with him; and is not soon irritated. It creeps into
every hole and corner; frequently steals eggs; lies in wait for the
bats and other night birds, and never allows any of them to remain
in the house where it resides. In Malabar there is also another
kind of ichneumon, of a red colour, and much larger than that above
described, but which can never be rendered tame[127].
The _Annan_, or small squirrel, which generally frequents the
coco-nut trees, has hair of a whitish-brown colour, with beautiful
black stripes, like the zebra, or Indian wild ass. The latter,
however, is not found on the coast of Malabar.
The _Maleannan_ is a black squirrel, which is found only on the
highest trees[128].
The _Perciali_, or _Periciaszi_, is a large mouse, called by the
Portuguese _Fossador_, because it digs every where, and occasions
great devastation.
The _Cundeli_ is another kind of mouse, which emits an agreeable
smell[129]. The _Pucia_, or common house cat, never attacks the
larger kind of mice[130]. The small hedge-hog I never saw in Malabar;
but I have seen the porcupine, in the bowels of which bezoar is said
to be found. The truth of this, however, I doubt. The flesh of this
animal has a bad taste, and is difficult of digestion[131].
Of apes there are great multitudes in the forests of _Maleatur_,
_Codamangalam_, _Badagare_, _Codolur_, and _Vaypur_. The small
white ape is called _Vellacuranga_; and the large black ape,
_natibus calvis_, _cauda prælonga_, _Coringuranga_. The latter has
a large beard; and its head is entirely covered with hair. This ape
is, in all probability, the _Faunus_ or _Silenus_ of Zimmermann.
Another, with a small tail, I consider as the _Silvanus_ of the same
naturalist. The _Rajah-keda_, or royal ape, is of a black colour, and
has a long black beard, with a ruddy countenance like a man. It is
highly valued by the Pagans; because, according to their theology, it
represents the deity _Hanuman_, the Pan of the ancients. Such apes
run about in thousands, and defend themselves when attacked[132].
The _Adibe_, called in the Malabar _Curuken_, and in the Samscred
_Gembuga_, or _Kroshtàva_, is a kind of fox or wild dog. These
animals in Malabar are exceedingly numerous. If a dead body be buried
without the walls of a church, it is in great danger of being torn by
them and devoured[133].
The Malabar wolf is called _Cenna_, and has reddish hair. The wild
cat is called _Kokàn_.
Besides the above-mentioned civet cat, or _Meruva_, there are two
other kinds of that animal; viz. the _Malaweruva_, or mountain civet
cat; and the _Naypulla_, which has a variegated skin covered with
black spots[134].
The feathered tribe in Malabar, as in other countries, are partly
wild and partly tame. Among the latter are poultry, ducks and
turkeys. The house cock, according to the Indian mythology, is
dedicated to the goddess _Bhagàvadi_, and is presented at the door
of her temple as an offering. In the time of infectious diseases,
which the Indians ascribe to that goddess, their priests and
fortune-tellers sometimes slaughter a cock on the patient’s bed, rub
his body with its blood, and mutter over certain forms of prayer;
such, for example, as _Om bhadracàli namà_: that is, “Adoration to
thee, O goddess! thou who art black and good, so be it!” or, _Hum_,
_varàhi namà_: “Adoration to thee, thou offended, angry deity!” _Om,
panciamughi yumè_: “Adoration and health to thee, O woman with the
five visages!” _Hum varàhi namà_: “Adoration to thee, O goddess, who
art formed like a wild swine, so be it!”
The _Tarava_, or tame duck, is found in great abundance in the
neighbourhood of Cochin; because in that district there are a great
many rivers, where they procure nourishment. Their flesh, however, is
almost unfit for food, as they devour too many pilchards. On board
ship these animals are kept a long time on different food before they
are killed[135]. An immense trade is carried on with these fowls in
the maritime towns of India. It gives employment, in particular, to
the Christians, Mahometans, and black Jews.
The peacock is found also in Malabar. At _Vaypur_ and _Kidacolam_ I
saw whole flocks of these fowls. They occasion great destruction in
the gardens[136].
The wild cock, called _Kattucoli_, or _Kikidiri_, is a very beautiful
animal. Its feathers are diversified with all sorts of colours, and
have a shining appearance like gold[137].
The sparrow hawk, called in the Malabar language _Paranda_, and
in the Samscred _Garhuda_, is, according to the Indian mythology,
the vehicle on which _Vishnu_ commonly rides. It is held in great
veneration, particularly by the Malabar women; and if one of these
animals snatches a fish from their hand, they consider it as a most
fortunate omen.
The falcon affords the Indian warriors an agreeable diversion, for
they train it to pursue game.
The raven, _Kaka_, is considered by the Indians as a symbol of the
human spirit after death. It is not, therefore, surprising, that in
Malabar there should be an immense number of these birds of prey,
which are exceedingly troublesome to the Europeans.
The _Cembòtta_ is as large as the raven; but has red feathers, and
eats snakes.
The _Vesbàmbel_ is a fowl not much inferior in size to the ostrich,
which devours snakes also. Father Hanxleden and Viscoping call it,
in Portuguese, _Passaro de duos bicos_; for it has two bills, one
of which is always filled with water. This water it procures in the
plains, and preserves for a long time; as nature has assigned for its
place of residence very high mountains, where scarcely any water is
to be found, and from which it seldom descends[138].
The _Magnakli_ is one of the most beautiful birds in Malabar. It is
entirely yellow, except the wings, which are black.
The bird of paradise has a very small body, but two exceedingly long
feathers in its tail[139].
_Pindàramcòli_ is the name of a water fowl, the feathers of which are
blue[140].
The _Umen_ is a kind of geir falcon, or vulture.
The Malabar bats are almost as big as chickens. They have large
wings, terrible claws, and their whole bodies are covered with hair.
Their head is shaped somewhat like that of a horse. The people
of Malabar use them as food, and I myself have ate of them with
pleasure. Their flesh is dry, and tastes almost like that of the
hare[141].
Parrots, of all colours, forms and sizes, are found in Malabar in
immense numbers. They and the apes are real plagues to the districts
which they frequent; for they rob and steal wherever they come.
_Càda_ is the name of the Indian quail.--The snipe is found in the
marshy districts of _Ciranga_ and _Puducurici_.
In the Gauts there is a kind of black-bird, the body of which is
totally black; but its head is covered with a hood of a bright yellow
colour, which represents a small crown. This bird, on account of the
excellence of its song, is held in the highest estimation by the
inhabitants[142].
_Ciula_ is the wood-pigeon with greenish feathers; _Ciangalli_, the
turtle-dove; _Koca_, the crane. The flat parts of India swarm, as one
may say, with these animals.
The _Gnara_, or _Garça real_, is a kind of ibis, but larger than the
crane. The Indians, however, entertain no particular respect for
these birds; but they do not drive them away from their rice fields,
which they frequent in large flocks, and destroy the insects and
other vermin.
One of the most remarkable birds in India is that called in the
Malabar language _Olamàri_, in the Hinduvee _Bajà_, and in the
Samscred _Berbera_. It is of the size of the European sparrow, or
at least not much larger. This bird constructs its nest in a very
curious manner, with the long fibres of plants, or dry grass; and
suspends it by means of a kind of cord, nearly half an ell in length,
from the extremity of an exceedingly slender branch of some tree,
in order that it may be inaccessible to snakes and other animals
which might destroy its eggs or its young. This hanging nest, though
agitated by the wind, is so strongly secured that it never sustains
the least injury. The interior part of it consists of three neat
apartments or divisions. The first, which forms the forepart, is
occupied by the male; the second is destined for the female; and
the third contains the young. In the first apartment, where the
male always keeps watch while the female is hatching the eggs, a
little tough clay is found stuck against one side of it, and in the
top of this clay a glow-worm, which serves to afford light in the
night-time. These birds feed upon insects. Their head and feet are
yellowish; the body is of a dark yellow, and the breast is whitish.
They chiefly frequent the coconut trees, in which I observed the
greater part of their nests[143]. I had five of them in a chest,
which I was desirous of carrying with me to Europe; but as they
occupied too much room, I was obliged to leave them[144].
Among the amphibious animals of this country, are the _Nirna_,
or Malabar otter; the _Nirpucia_, a kind of water-cat; and the
_Nìrudumba_, a water salamander, called by the Portuguese _Talagoya
de agoa_. The salamander properly so called, which is a large black
lizard, from three to four palms in length, known by the natives of
Malabar under the name of _Udumba_, is found only in the woods. Its
flesh has an exquisite taste, forms a wholesome kind of food, and is
much relished by the Indians. The water lizard is of a black colour
also, but not so large.
The _Cicanni_, or _Scinco_, is a small crocodile, or rather large
lizard, four or five palms in length. It is of a dark brown colour,
and found for the most part in ponds or other stagnant water not far
distant from palm-gardens and rice-fields: but it is sometimes seen
on land, and consequently belongs to the class of amphibious animals.
The _Mudela_, or proper crocodile, which is also an amphibious
quadruped, is of all colours. It eats not only fish, but also dogs,
calves, and other animals; and even men, if they approach too near
it. Almost all the rivers in Malabar are full of these monsters.
I have seen several of them which were larger than a wild ox or
buffalo. Some of them are of a brown and greenish colour; others
brown and bright red; and the most of them are larger than the
Egyptian crocodile, which appears to me to be longer, but not so
thick. The crocodile belongs to the sacred animals of the Indians,
and has particular temples erected to it. Formerly, a person accused
of any crime was made to walk, in the presence of the Brahmans,
through a river frequented by a _Mudela_. If he got through in
safety, he was declared innocent. The _Mudelas_ are caught by means
of an iron hook, to which a piece of flesh is fastened. When the
animal is hooked, it is dragged to the bank with a strong rope.
Neither the crocodile nor the tyger ever attack man till pressed by
hunger; but this is not often the case, as they are accustomed to
eat a great deal at one time. In the head of the _Mudela_ is found
a yellow kind of musk, which emits a strong smell, and which is
used by the Pagans for painting the sacred marks on their forehead.
The following anecdote may serve as a proof how much these animals
are to be dreaded. A woman in the eighth month of her pregnancy,
being one day busily employed in washing at the river _Edacoci_, a
crocodile approached her imperceptibly, which it could do with the
greater ease, as these animals always swim with their head raised
only a very little above the surface of the water. As soon as the
monster got within reach, he made a sudden spring at the poor naked
woman, and tore the unborn child from her body. She was immediately
conveyed to a neighbouring church; but she soon after expired. The
large crocodile is called, in the Samscred language, _Shishumàra_;
the small one, _Cumbhìra_; the otter, _Udru_; the tortoise, _Curma
Camada_, or _Caciàba_; and the salamander, _Gòdha_. Those who wish to
study the natural history of India, must make themselves acquainted
with these names[145].
CHAPTER X.
_Seas, Rivers, Vessels used for Navigation, Fish, Shellfish, and
Serpents in India._
The whole sea-coast from Surat to Cape Comari is inhabited by
fishermen, who, because they belong to the despised or rather lowest
casts, dare not settle in the interior part of the country, and
are consequently obliged to construct habitations for themselves
on the sea-coast, or in the neighbourhood of harbours, rivers, and
other streams of water. These people are almost all Christians; a
small number of them only are Pagans and Mahometans. The latter
were induced to embrace Mahometanism by the Arabs, who established
themselves there in the eighth and ninth centuries; the former were
converted to the Christian faith by the Franciscans, Dominicans,
Jesuits, and bare-footed Carmelites. As most foreigners who visit
India travel along the sea-coast, and have no opportunity of going
far into the interior parts, they form an opinion of the country
and its inhabitants from the manners, customs, laws, peculiarities,
and fabulous relations of these fishermen. Hence the unfounded,
ridiculous, partial and insipid tales respecting the Indians, which
have been spread throughout all Europe. The _Mucarèr_ (fishermen,
or, according to the literal meaning of the word, people who dive
under water), _Paravas_, _Ciànas_, _Tupasis_, _Mestizes_, _Creoles_,
and other inhabitants of the sea-coast, are certainly incapable of
giving any authentic information respecting India; as they never saw
the interior part of the country, and dare enter into conversation
neither with the nobility nor the Brahmans. This regulation is
founded on the religious system and political constitution of the
Indians.
The sea, in the Samscred language, is called _Samudra_, _Abdhi_,
_Sàgara_, _Arnavà_, _Ambudhi_, and _Udadhi_; but, in the Malabar,
_Cadel_. According to the poetical fables of the Indians, there are in
this world _Sapta Sagara_, that is, seven seas. The first, named in the
Samscred _Kshìròda_, consists merely of milk; the Second, _Lavonoda_,
of salt; the third, _Suroda_, or _Sura_, of coco-nut juice; the fourth,
_Dadhimaṅòda_, of water which separates itself from the sour milk; the
fifth, _Ikshùda_, of water from the sugar-cane; the sixth, _Svavduda_,
of fresh water; and the seventh, _Navanidàmbudhi_, of fresh butter. In
the centre of these seas lies the island _Gembhu_, that is, the globe
which we inhabit. The English have promised to explain this allegorical
system in the third volume of the Asiatic Researches; and I shall not,
therefore, dispute with them that honour.
The Brahmans are not ignorant that the sea, under the equator, is
much salter than towards the poles; but they explain this physical
phenomenon by a very ridiculous fable, for they say that _Cashyaba_,
one of their _Munis_ (who is nothing else than the star which we
call _Canopus_), lets his urine fall into the sea under the equator,
which is never the case in the neighbourhood of the north pole. The
real cause why it was established by the all-wise Creator of the
world, that the sea at the equator should contain a greater quantity
of salt than elsewhere, and that it should be exposed to greater
agitation from its flux and reflux, and also from strong currents,
winds and storms, was undoubtedly to prevent the atmosphere from
being corrupted and impregnated with infectious vapours in so hot
a climate, and to render that part of the world as agreeable a
residence for man as either of the poles, where, on account of the
severity of the cold, no corruption can take place.
The principal and most remarkable rivers in India are the _Ganga_ or
_Ganges_; the _Sindhu_, which the Europeans very improperly call the
_Indus_; the _Jamunà_, called improperly also by the Greeks and the
Romans the _Jomanes_, or _Djemma_; the _Rèvà_; the _Sharavadi_; the
_Vaitravadi_; the _Ciandrabbàga_; the _Sarayuvà_; the _Sarasuadi_;
the _Devi_ or _Deva_; the _Caveri_, and the _Collàru_. All these
Samscredo-Indian appellations have been corrupted by foreigners.
Those not acquainted with the original languages of India must be
much bewildered when they cast their eye on the maps of India. To
be convinced that the above names have been totally disfigured, one
needs only look at D’Anville’s _Antiquités Géographiques de l’Inde_,
or Tiefenthaler’s and Rennel’s maps.
The importance of this point, which tends so much to throw light
on the history of India, makes it necessary for me to correct the
errors of these writers. The Brahman book, _Amarasinha_, which the
Indians hold in high esteem, according to the testimony of Sir
William Jones, Wilkins, Anquetil du Perron, and Davis, contains,
besides other things, in the division entitled _Samudravargga_, a
description of the principal rivers in India. The author begins with
the Ganges, which in the Samscred language is distinguished by the
following names: _Ganga_, _Vishnuvadi_, _Gehnutanayà_, _Suranimnaga_,
_Bhaguirathi_, _Tisròda_, _Bhishmasù_. After these come the names of
the river _Jamunà_; which are, _Jamunà_, _Càlini_, _Suryatanayà_,
_Shamanasuasà_. Then those of the _Rèvà_; viz. _Rèvà_, _Nammadà_,
_Somolbbavà_, _Mèghala_, _Canyagà_, _Karatoyà_, _Sadanirà-bahudà_,
_Saidavahini_. These Samscred names are accompanied with the
following Brahman observation, written in the common dialect of
Malabar: _Vindyattinguelnina purapetta Revajede per_; that is,
names of the river _Rèvà_, which has its source in, and springs
from the mountain _Vindhia_. We next find the names of the river
_Sarajuvà_; viz. _Shududri_, _Shadrada_, and _Sarajevà_, with the
following gloss: _Himavànguelnina purapetta Sarayùvinde per_; that
is, names of the river _Sarayùvà_, which has its source in, and flows
from the _Hima_. And after these the names of the river _Dèva_;
viz. _Vipàshà_, _Vipal_, and _Dèva_. On this occasion the Brahman
glossographer says: _Sanhjattinguelnina purapetta Dèvadajede per_;
that is, names of the river _Dèva_, which has its source in, and
flows from the mountain _Sanhya_. The names of the next five most
remarkable rivers are then mentioned; viz. _Sharavadi_, _Vetravadi_,
_Ciandrabhagà_, _Sarasvadi_, and _Caveri_; but not a word is said in
the gloss respecting their origin. All these different appellations
are contained in three Indian manuscripts, which I have now before
me. I must, however, observe, that there is no gloss in the Samscred
text of the _Amarasinha_, which is written in _Shlogas_, or distinct
paragraphs; but it is found in all the other Samscred manuscripts of
this work, which the Brahman literati have explained word by word. I
have in my possession a copy of this kind, written on palm-leaves;
and that it is genuine, no one who understands the Brahman characters
will entertain the least doubt. It is evident that the above
passage, which I have quoted from the _Amarasinha_, is of the utmost
importance; for it makes us acquainted with the sources of the three
largest rivers in India, which have hitherto been confounded by
geographers. This will appear from what follows:
I. Some consider the Ganges as the _Sarayuvà_, which Anquetil du
Perron calls _Sarjou_. Instead, therefore, of distinguishing two
large rivers, they mention only one, and give it the name of the
Ganges. This great error is observed in all the maps of India. Father
Tiefenthaler is the only author who has avoided it. De l’Isle, for
example, in his _Carte des Indes à Paris_ 1781, makes the Ganges and
another river take their source from one lake, and says: _Rivière qui
fort du même lac que le Gange; elle arrose le Royaume de Thibet_. He
then shews how the Ganges directs its course through India; but does
not speak a word of the _Sarayuvà_, which, however, is one of the
large rivers of that country.
II. Father Tiefenthaler and Anquetil du Perron were the first who
made a distinction between the Ganges and the _Sarayuvà_; who
assigned to each of these rivers a different source, and traced out
their proper courses. It is, however, here worthy of remark, that
the _Brahmaputra_ ridge of mountains, in which these two geographers
make the _Sarayuvà_ or _Sardjou_ take its rise, is called, in the
before-mentioned _Amaràsinha_, the mountain _Himala_. We thence find
that the Ganges is quite a different river from the _Sarayuvà_;
and we at the same time learn the real situation of the mountain
_Himala_, the _Imaus_ of the Greeks; for, according to Tiefenthaler’s
map, the _Sarayuvà_ has its source in the latitude of 35° north,
and the longitude of 78°; but according to M. De l’Isle’s map, in
the latitude of 34°, and the longitude of nearly 100°. We observe
farther, that the two appellations of the same river, which the old
Brahman catalogue in the _Amarasinha_ calls in the Samscred language
sometimes _Sarajuvà_, and sometimes _Shadrada_, have been changed
into _Sardjou_ and _Gagra_.
III. Tiefenthaler and Anquetil make, of the two streams _Sarayuvà_
and _Dèva_, only one, as may be seen in the before-mentioned map.
This is a very gross error; for, according to the book _Amarasinha_,
the _Dèva_ not only has a different name, but a totally different
origin. This river takes its source in the mountain _Sanhya_, and
in the Samscred language is called also _Vipasha_ and _Vipal_; both
which appellations belong to the _Dèva_ alone, and consequently
cannot be given to the _Sarayuvà_.
IV. We find likewise that the _Rèva_, which others very improperly
call the _Ravì_ or _Revi_, flows down from the ridge of mountains
called _Vindhya_. These are the _Vinidi Montes_ of Strabo and
Ptolemy, which were seen at a distance by the troops of Alexander
the Great. Hence there is reason to conjecture, with some degree of
probability, that Alexander, though he crossed the _Rèva_, did not
penetrate so far as the _Jamunà_. Had the case been otherwise, this
river would have been mentioned, by historians, among those which
Alexander’s army passed; for it was exceedingly well known to the
ancients under the name of _Jomanes_. But, as they observe perfect
silence in this respect, it may with certainty be admitted, that the
Macedonian hero, whose deeds have been so highly extolled, saw and
reduced to obedience only a very small part of India.
V. The word _Sindhu_, in the Samscred language, signifies the sea;
from which it appears, that this appellation does not properly belong
to the whole of the river called the _Sindhu_, _Sandus_, _Indus_, and
_Hendo_; and that it can be applied to it only where it discharges
itself into the sea. In the old Brahmanic writings this river is
called the _Rèva_; for towards the north east, in the latitude of
30° north, and the longitude of 34°, the _Rèva_ forms the principal
stream of the _Sindhu_. It does not flow from Thibet, nor from the
mountains _Imau_, _Parvada_, or _Parapomiso_, as some pretend, but
from the _Vindhya_ mountains, lying in the latitude of 34°, and the
longitude of 94°. These mountains, however, are to be found neither
on De l’Isle’s map, nor in that of D’Anville.
VI. In the last place, we here see that in the Samscred language the
_Rèva_ is distinguished by several names, which geographers have
considered as belonging to so many different rivers, and therefore
they have mentioned a considerable number which never existed. Thus
M. De l’Isle speaks of a river in the latitude of 25°, to which he
gives the name of _Dimadee_. He has been led into this mistake by the
corrupted orthography of the word _Namadà_, an appellation given to
the _Rèva_, and which means that river alone. Such is the case when
writers do not understand the languages of India, and are not able to
procure accurate information by reading Indian works! The Samscred
names of the principal Indian rivers may be found, however, in
Biscoping’s dictionary. The _Rèva_, _Jamunà_, _Ganges_, _Sarayuvà_,
and _Caveri_, are considered by the Indians as sacred; and, according
to their belief, purify from their sins all those who bathe in them.
The different kinds of vessels employed for navigation on the coast,
and in the rivers of Malabar, are the following:
1st, _Candimaram_. It consists of two pieces of wood closely joined,
and strongly fastened together. With this frail and simple vessel the
Indians venture even out to sea. It is indeed often overset; but,
as the person who directs it rows quite naked, and on his knees, he
soon clambers back into his _Candimaram_, and escapes the fury of the
waves[146].
2d, _Toni_, _Mangi_, or _Vallam_. These are canoes, which consist of
the trunk of a tree made hollow.
3d, _Ciangada_. This is the name given to a certain number of planks
joined together so as to form a kind of raft.
4th, _Cemboca_. Is a broad boat or wherry, perfectly flat at the
bottom.
5th, _Pàrram_. This is also a kind of wherry, nearly of a square
form, and so narrow at the top that the aperture through which people
enter it is scarcely a foot in diameter. These vessels are built on
this construction, because they are employed for transporting the
_nella_ and other articles, which would be infallibly spoiled if the
sea-water should find admittance into them.
6th, _Koppel_ or _Padava_. This is the name given in the Malabar
language to large ships which have from two to three masts, and are
furnished with anchors, ropes, and sails. In the Samscred language
they are called _Nau_, _Pòda_, and _Janapàtra_.
The observation often repeated, that the Indians make little use of
nails or iron-work in building their ships, is perfectly just. They
can, indeed, dispense with both; for they join the planks together
with the greatest ingenuity; pay the seams with different kinds of
dissolved gum; and fill them up with the fine fibres of the coco-nut
tree, so as to be impenetrable to the water. On the outside they daub
them over with oil procured from pilchards and other fat substances,
which render the wood smooth, and at the same time defend it from
the saline particles of the sea-water, and from being destroyed by
worms[147]. The properties of the magnet are at present as well
known to the Indians as to other nations; but that they employed
the compass in very early periods, is much to be doubted. It is
probable that they then directed their course at sea by the monsoons,
and the motion of the heavenly bodies. Many of the Arabs, however,
still venture to cross the open sea to India without the help of
the compass. And, indeed, when it is considered that the Indian sea
during one half of the year is perfectly calm and still--that the
sun remains only a short time below the horizon--that the nights are
exceedingly serene, because the brightness of the stars is never
obscured by thick vapours or clouds--that the wind blows invariably
from one quarter, and that the currents never change their course, it
will readily appear that such a passage may be attempted and happily
effected without the help of that useful instrument.
The Indians are abundantly supplied with fish of all kinds. The
whale, which they call _Cadelàna_, that is the sea elephant, is not
uncommon in these seas. It may be frequently seen at Cape Comari,
and on the neighbouring coast. Some years ago a whale was driven by
the tide into the river at Cochin; and as it remained there till the
ebb tide, it was not able to return. It, therefore, proceeded up the
stream; but it soon got into shallow water, and was killed by the
Indians.
The _Souffleur_, a large fish of the like kind, is called in the
Malabar language _Turàva_. It received this name because it always
spouts up water through its nostrils, so that it rises as if from two
springs. It is said to be a great enemy of the whale. For farther
particulars respecting it I shall refer the reader to a work of the
celebrated Professor Schneider, published at Leipsic in the year
1795, under the title of _Collections towards a Natural History of
the different kinds of Whales_. The author describes there all the
species of this fish, together with their distinguishing characters
and properties[148].
The _Wallrus_, the isinglass-fish, and the sturgeon, are not found in
the Indian Seas.
The _Cadapami_, or sea-swine, is called so with great propriety, as
it has really a snout like that of a swine. Its flesh is tough, oily,
and difficult of digestion; and for that reason is not much used by
the natives of Malabar.
The sea-horse, called in the Malabar language _Cadelcudira_, the
hippopotamus of the ancients, is also seen sometimes in the Indian
Seas.
The _Tirada_, is the well-known salmon, a delicate fish, which
frequents the sea, as well as the streams and rivers. It is caught in
such abundance in Malabar, that I have often purchased from four to
six pound of it for two Cochinese _Panam_, which are equal in value
to about four Roman _Bajocchi_. At this rate three men for a _Paolo_
may procure a day’s maintenance, even including rice.
Pilchards are caught in such immense quantities on the coast of
Malabar, that the Indians often do not know how to employ them. They
feed their ducks, dogs, and swine with them; and even mix them among
the dung used as manure for their coconut trees. Were not the Indians
too lazy to salt these fish, they might carry on a very considerable
trade with them[149].
_Muri_, or oysters, are exceedingly plenty in the rivers near Cochin
and Collam. I have often purchased 300 of them for a _Panam_ (about
six-pence sterling). They are fished up in the same manner as the
pearl muscles. The fishermen repair to a place where the sea is not
too deep, and make fast their canoes to two posts. One of them then
ties a rope round his body, and dives under the water with a basket.
When he has filled his basket with oysters, he makes a signal to his
companion, who remained in the canoe, to draw him up; and while he
is doing so, the one who is bringing up the oysters assists him by
clambering up one of the posts.
The _Palagamim_, or sea-bream, is of a shining colour like gold, but
has a bad taste.
The _Neymin_, or oil-fish, is from three to four palms in length, and
has an excellent taste, but is somewhat difficult of digestion. The
_Karimim_, or stone-fish, appears to me to be the European sea-bream.
The _Ayla_, called in Portuguese _Cavala_, has a good taste when
fresh; but, when salted, becomes like the herring.
The Indian eel is very delicious; but too fat, and consequently
difficult of digestion.
The _Tirandi_, or roach, has an exceedingly good taste, though not
nearly so large as the roaches sold at Rome.
The _Anicannen_ and _Kòlen_ are both small fish of a bad quality.
The tench, pike, and mackarel are also caught on the Malabar coast;
but I do not find their names in Father Hanxleden’s dictionary.
The _Ettamin_ is in all probability the red sea-bream.--Soles and
flat fish are no where so good as at _Collam_ and _Angenga_.
The tortoises, which inhabit the sea, as well as the rivers, are here
of considerable size. I have seen some of them which weighed forty
pounds. The people of Malabar, however, do not eat the tortoise; and
if one of them enters a house, they consider it as a bad omen.
The Xiphias, or sword-fish, is caught in great abundance in the
Indian seas.--The barbel is found only in rivers which the water of
the sea never enters.
Crabs, called in the Malabar language _Gnanda_, and in the Samscred
_Carchidaga_, are poisonous in October and November; for about that
period the poisonous aquatic plants, such as the blue tithymal, or
wolf’s milk, grow up; and as these animals feed upon them, they are
rendered so poisonous as to occasion death to those who eat them.
It would be therefore proper, that in Malabar, as is the case in
the Isle of France, a law were made to prohibit crabs being caught
during these two months. M. Passavant the Danish factor at Calicut,
Father Louis Maria à Jesu, now a bishop, and myself, once happened to
be in company, and to eat of these animals. The other two gentlemen
each ate two of them; but I contented myself with one. Three hours
after, M. Passavant became pale as death, and was seized with so
violent a vomiting, that we absolutely thought he would have expired.
Father Louis Maria was attacked with vertigo; all the veins in his
body were swelled; his face, lips, and hands became blue, and he
experienced an oppression at the heart which threatened to prove
fatal. I immediately gave him some theriac, which the missionaries
generally carry about with them, and sent for a barber to bleed him.
In regard to myself I was seized with a giddiness and vomiting, the
latter of which I endeavoured to provoke. This accident, and others
of the like kind, which frequently happen in this country, ought to
serve as a caution to those who travel through Malabar, not to eat
crabs there during the summer months. The case is the same with some
kinds of fish. At Cochin and the neighbouring districts the water
also is exceedingly unwholesome. The natives of Malabar are not so
fond of springs as they are of their _Colam_ or ponds, from which
they draw the water they use as drink. As it, however, contains too
much marine salt and calcareous particles, if it be not properly
filtred, it gradually produces such bad effects on the body, as to
make the feet of those who drink it swell up in an extraordinary
manner. I have seen some of these people whose legs were as thick
as the body of a full-grown man. The most beautiful women at Cochin
have sometimes feet like an elephant[150]. Rich people cause their
water for drinking to be brought, for the most part, from the _Feira
d’Alva_, which is very pure, and has an excellent taste.
When a Malabar king, prince, or great man dies, the _Mucaver_ must
for some time give over fishing; and, as a signal that it is then
prohibited, branches of trees are always stuck up here and there on
the banks of the rivers. They are generally suffered to remain eight
or ten days, in order that the soul of the deceased during that time
may choose for itself a new habitation in the body of some fish.
* * * * *
SHELL-FISH.--The sea hedge-hog is found at Collam, and other places
on the coast; but it is much larger than at the Cape of Good Hope
and the Isle of France. These animals adhere so fast to the rocks
and stones, that it is almost impossible to detach them. On one
side they are covered with black, sharp prickles, which serve them
as a defence against their enemies; on the other is observed a round
smooth aperture, which supplies the place of a mouth, and through
which, by means of a few tender hollow fibres, they receive their
nourishment. When they are sated with food, they attach themselves
to the rocks with these fibres so fast that a knife is necessary to
disengage them. When they are desirous of removing from one place
to another, they use their prickles instead of oars, and swim along
the surface of the sea with great ease, so that they almost have the
appearance of black balls.
The sea-star is found in great abundance in the ocean to the east
of Cochin. These animals, like other kinds of fish, form themselves
into a sort of society; for it is very rare to see one of them alone.
They swim in shoals at the surface of the water, and always direct
their course according to the wind: their movement, however, is
scarcely perceptible. They have a few small suckers, through which
they receive their nourishment, and which they contract as soon as
they are touched. Their stomach, from which the nourishing juices are
conveyed to the smallest vessels, is probably in the centre of their
body, where all their points are united. They have neither eyes nor
mouth; but a most delicate sense of feeling, which supplies the place
of sight.
On the rocks near the sea there are found also a kind of testaceous
animals called in Italian _Ballani_, which are of a flesh colour, and
have an excellent taste. Their shell has the form of a half-blown
tulip.
The pipe coralline, _Tubipora_, has almost the appearance of a leaf
covered with prickles.--At Collam there are found also various kinds
of Turbinites.
* * * * *
SNAKES.--The commonest, though not the most poisonous kind of
these animals, found in Malabar, is the _Nallapamba_, that is, the
beautiful snake. It is so called, because it has hanging round its
neck two pieces of skin, which shine like a pair of spectacles, and
which it can extend over its head like a hood or cap. Of this snake
there are several varieties. One has a complete cap at both sides of
the head, and is called _Padamuliaven_: another is furnished with
this cap only on one side, and is called _Ottapadaven_. A third kind
has a complete cap, but is much smaller than the other two, and
is the most poisonous of all. When these snakes attack a man, or
fight with the _Kirri_, they raise themselves up in a perpendicular
direction; turn round on their tail, whistle, move the upper part
of their body from side to side, and in that manner endeavour to
wound their antagonist. Some of these snakes are from three to four,
others from six to eight palms in length; but the smallest, which
the Indians call _Caytolacurungni_, is, as already said, the most
poisonous. A person bit by it dies generally in three or four hours;
but this depends on the place where the wound has been inflicted,
whether in any of the nobler parts of the body from which the poison
is conveyed sooner to the heart. With theriac of Poictiers, and the
antidote of Madura, I have cured more than fifty persons who had
been bitten by serpents of this kind. When I took charge of such
patients, I caused them, above all things, to be kept under a very
warm covering, and both the doors and windows to be carefully shut,
that no cool air might touch them. As I knew from experience that
the poison communicates to the blood a deadly coldness, by which
it is curdled, I made my patients frequently drink warm water, and
gave them two or three doses of theriac or the Madura antidote.
If a perspiration followed, and if their breathing became freer,
I continued the same treatment, making them take theriac and warm
water. If the whole mass of the blood, however, was already infected,
my method of cure failed, and the patients infallibly died. The
previous symptoms were blueness of the lips and around the eyes;
the face became of a dark brown and white colour, and all the limbs
turned rigid. The most effectual remedies which can be used in such
cases are, eau de luce, and caustic alkali. These spirituous things,
however, are difficult to be procured in India; because they soon
evaporate, and cannot be preserved. The natives of Malabar generally
employ the _Alpam_ root, and pulverised _Amelpori_: they also bind
up the wounded part, and cauterise the wound with a red-hot iron.
The latter process is of little or no use; and for that reason this
poison proves mortal to so many people, who might perhaps be saved by
a different treatment.
The description given by the ancients, of the aspis, agrees
exceedingly well with this serpent, and there is reason to conclude
that it is the same animal[151]. The wild swine, and different kinds
of fowls, however, eat them; but they always leave the head. It is
not improbable, that the _Kirri_ destroys this snake, because it
sucks eggs in the same manner as it does, lies in wait for mice and
bats, and consequently deprives it of its food; but, when killed, the
_Kirri_ is satisfied, and leaves it untouched. It may be rendered
as tame as any domestic animal, if a little milk and sugar be daily
placed before it, as is done in Malabar. It comes then every day
at certain hours to eat its food; never offers the least injury to
any one; and suffers itself to be taught various tricks. I saw this
pastime several times, in the house of the _Pennicare_ at _Verapole_,
and was no longer astonished at the art of the ancient priests, who
are said to have been acquainted with the method of taming snakes
also. When these snakes arrive at any place where there are a great
many poultry, they unite together, and range themselves in order of
battle against the enemy. In this respect they seem to be guided
by the same instinct which induces the buffaloes, as soon as they
discover a tyger, to form themselves into a circle, with their hind
parts squeezed close together, and thus to present their horns to
the ravenous animal. This snake is fond of frequenting gardens where
there are pineapples, by the smell of which it seems to be attracted.
On the other hand, all snakes, without exception, fly from burning
sulphur, and from all plants, roots, and vegetables which emit a
strong smell.
Another poisonous snake is, by the natives of Malabar, called
_Velliketten_, or _Vallumi_, and by some of the Europeans the ringed
snake, because it has several white rings around its body. It is,
however, only two palms in length, and as thick as the finger, but
exceedingly poisonous. People, therefore, cannot be too much on their
guard against this animal, for it enters sitting apartments, and
creeps not only under tables and chairs, but even under the beds.
The spotted snake, called _Maudali_, is totally different from the
_Anelli_, with which it is confounded by Father Vincentius à Sancta
Catherina, who has given a description of it in the eighth chapter of
the fourth book of his Voyage to the East Indies.
The snake _Ettadimuken_ is called by the Portuguese _Cobra de oitto
passos_, because it always contracts itself together, and then
springs forwards eight paces.
The _Cerattapàmba_, that is, the springing snake, is of a small
size, perfectly white; always holds its head erect, and, when it
moves, forms its body into a bow. I found snakes of this kind on the
mountains of _Maleatur_, where they conceal themselves under the
fallen leaves.
_Tevi_ is the name of a beautiful, small, striped snake, which hurts
nobody. When one of this kind is killed, a great many of the same
species resort to the place, and remain in the neighbourhood till
their dead companion is removed. However incredible this circumstance
may appear, it is certain that an instance of it occurred at the
seminary of _Ambalacatti_, in the presence of at least thirty
persons. I have several times been on the point of killing one of
these snakes; but the Christians, as well as Pagans, always requested
me for Heaven’s sake not to do it, else it would be impossible for
them to remain in their houses, on account of the great number of
snakes which would assemble from all quarters, and which they would
not get rid of for several days. I shall leave it to naturalists to
explain this singular phenomenon.
_Malapàmba_, or _Perimpàmba_, the mountain-snake, found in the Gauts,
is altogether of a dark-brown colour; from thirty to forty feet in
length, and as thick as a fed ox. It has no teeth; but it devours
dogs, deer, cows and other animals, which it seizes by twisting
itself round their bodies. The existence of this monstrous animal
is beyond all doubt; for some of them have been seen at _Vaypur_,
_Cagnarapalli_, and other places. Sometimes they are swept down from
the mountains by the violence of the streams. I myself caused a
snake of this kind to be caught, and sent it as a present to M. de
l’Ormier. It was fifteen feet in length. If a person takes a spoonful
of the fat of this snake, and drinks warm water afterwards, it expels
the leprosy. I have in my possession a bottle filled with it.
The _Irutalakuszali_ is a snake with two heads, whatever Charleton
and others may say to the contrary. In Portuguese it is called _Cobra
de duas cabeças_, and in Latin the _Amphisbæna_. M. Rosier, the
commandant at Collam, shewed me two snakes of this kind, which he
preserved in a glass jar. I saw one of them also in the mountains
of _Maleatur_. It is a palm or a palm and a half in length; has the
colour of withered leaves; and does not, like other snakes, creep
straight forwards, but always rears one of its heads, and makes an
arch with its body when it moves. Its bite always occasions a tumour
filled with venom; but the poison acts very slowly, so that it is
seldom or never too late to apply a remedy[152].
The most poisonous and most dangerous of all the Malabar serpents
is called the _Rudhiramandali_. This Samscred word implies that it
is spotted, and that its poison forces the blood from the bodies of
those whom it wounds; for _Rudhira_ signifies blood, and _Mandali_
ornamented with spots. The dreadful effect of its poison is described
by Lucan in the following lines:
Deeply the fierce _Hæmorrhoïs_ imprest
Her fatal teeth on Tullus’ valiant breast:
The noble youth, with Virtue’s love inspir’d,
Her, in her Cato, followed and admired;
Mov’d by his great example, vow’d to share,
With him, each chance of that disastrous war.
And as when mighty Rome’s spectators meet
In the full theatre’s capacious seat,
At once, by secret pipes and channels fed,
Rich tinctures gush from every antique head;
At once ten thousand saffron currents flow,
And rain their odours on the crowd below:
So the warm blood at once from every part
Ran purple poison down, and drain’d the fainting heart;
Blood falls for tears, and o’er his mournful face
The ruddy drops their tainted passage trace:
Where’er the liquid juices find a way,
There streams of blood, there crimson rivers stray;
His mouth and gushing nostrils pour a flood,
And even the pores ooze out the trickling blood;
In the red deluge all the parts lie drown’d,
And the whole body seems one bleeding wound[153].
In this horrid situation I once saw a young woman of about twenty
years of age at _Verapole_. A great number of people earnestly
requested that I would endeavour to mitigate the sufferings of this
unfortunate girl; but neither theriac, volatile alkali, nor the
antidote of Madura, could be of any service, and she died in the
course of about three hours. The bite of this snake, therefore,
produces an effect directly contrary to that produced by the bite of
the asp. The latter causes the blood to coagulate, and to freeze as
it were in the veins; but the former decomposes it entirely, and sets
it in such a fermentation that it runs from the body, as one may say,
in the same manner as boiling water from a kettle that stands over
the fire. No remedy has ever yet been discovered for the bite of this
animal.
No less dangerous is another snake called _Polaven_ (not _Polaga_),
the body of which is covered with tumours and pustules. Those
unfortunate persons who are bit by it, sweat blood; but with this
difference, that it oozes from the body in drops.
The _Karuwaèla_ has on its head three knobs or excrescences, which
form a comb; and three red rings round its neck. It is an ell in
length, and of a shining black colour, as far as the eyes, which are
of a fiery red, and sparkle with savage wildness. It is said that it
can kill people merely by its look; and, if this be true, it may with
propriety be called the Malabar basilisk. It is found no where but in
the Gauts, from which it never descends unless when swept down by the
rains.
The _Cancutti_ is a small snake, which generally makes a spring at
the eyes. I never had an opportunity of seeing this snake, or the
preceding; but I was assured by the natives of Malabar, that both
kinds are found in the country.
During my residence at _Verapole_ I found snakes every where,
not only in the gardens, but also in the houses, and even in the
_Patayas_, or rice magazines. People, therefore, must be always on
their guard, and keep every thing neat and clean. They must also
burn frequently strong smelling substances, and such in particular
as occasion a great deal of smoke and vapour; for these are the best
means to drive away snakes, which generally take up their abode in
places where little attention is paid to cleanliness.
It is well known, that the Indians are acquainted with a method of
charming serpents, or of enticing them towards them by a certain
kind of art. This operation I have several times seen, and I always
observed that the whole process was perfectly natural. The people
who charm the snakes rub their hands with various kinds of sweet
smelling herbs, and employ at the same time the assistance of singing
and music. As soon as the snake, which is acute of hearing as well
as sharp-sighted, perceives what is doing, it creeps from its hole,
becomes as it were inchanted, and twists itself round a slender stick
which is presented to it. The charmer then takes out its poison, puts
it into a basket, and carries it about through the streets, where it
is made to amuse the populace with all kinds of tricks[154].
According to the Brahmanic mythology, there is a snake which
surrounds the whole world. They give it the name of _Sarparagia_,
the king of the snakes, or _Vàsughi_. Properly speaking it is
nothing else than the _Annulus Platonis_, a symbol of life and
death; the eternal revolution of every thing in the universe. It is
well known that Plato was indebted for this idea to his preceptor
Pythagoras[155], to whom it was first communicated by the Magi in
India.
Among the zoophytes, or animal plants of Malabar, is the sea-nettle;
called by some _urtica marina_, and by others _flamma maris_. It
is a spongy body, with a hole in the middle, which is surrounded by
a purple-coloured band, that forms as it were a sort of cap. In the
sea, near Cochin, there are two kinds of this animal, which swim
about in the same manner as the sea-star. When held in the hand it
occasions a painful sensation, like that produced by the common
nettles. In the Malabar language it is called _Cioriunu_.
Mother of pearl is employed by the Indians to make panes for their
windows. They are prepared at Cape Comari, where there is a pearl
fishery. The pearls themselves are not sold there by weight as
in Europe, but merely by an estimation of their value. Twenty
pearl-oysters may be bought for a rupee, and the purchaser is not
allowed to open them till he has paid the money. If only one pearl
is found in these twenty oysters, he has sufficient reason to be
satisfied with his bargain; but if they contain none, he must put up
with the loss.
VOYAGE
TO THE
EAST INDIES.
BOOK II.
CHAPTER I.
_Birth and Education of Children._
The Indians of Malabar say that women conceive in silence, but bring
forth amidst noise. When a woman is pregnant, the greatest respect
is paid to her; not only by her husband, but by her parents, her
relations, and her neighbours; and all the inhabitants of the place
belonging to her cast interest themselves for her health and safety.
They consider pregnancy as a very distinguished proof of the blessing
of the goddess _Lakshmi_[156], who is a symbol of the fertility of
the earth; and in the same degree that they detest widowhood and
barrenness, they treat with care and tenderness married and pregnant
women. The attention shown to the latter is founded in principles
of wise legislation and sound philosophy, which employ these means
to increase population and promote parental affection. When a woman
has attained to the seventh month of her pregnancy, a particular
festival is celebrated on her account. A bower, consisting of the
branches, leaves, and bloom of the coco-nut tree, is constructed in
the court-yard of her habitation; and her husband sends betel leaves
to all her friends and relations, and invites them to the solemnity.
As soon as the company have assembled in the arbour, boiled rice is
brought as an offering to the gods on a banana leaf. This offering is
called _Ponghel_, that is, the rice offering. The rice is accompanied
with some figs, a little sugar, and butter; so that the whole has
the appearance of a libation. It may be readily perceived, that the
object of this ceremony is to induce the gods to provide for the
support of the child, and to protect the mother, during the last
months of her pregnancy, from every thing that might prove hurtful
or prejudicial to her. After the libation, a coco-nut is broken and
presented as an offering to _Gannesha_. A garland of flowers is then
hung round the neck of the pregnant woman, who sits in the middle of
the arbour; and a dish filled with saffron and chalk, which have been
previously dissolved in water, is placed before her. The saffron, or
_cuncuma_, is consecrated to the planets, which are worshipped by
the Indians as deities, and which are said to possess the power of
driving away the mischievous demons. For this reason all the women
present at this solemnity take the above vessel in their hands, one
after the other, and move it three times backwards and forwards
before the face of the _Garbhani_, that is, the pregnant woman, to
fright away the evil demons, and to guard against all witchcraft
and sorcery which might do hurt to the child or the mother. These
women then take another wooden vessel, with a little milk, into
which are put several gold and silver medals. This vessel is given
to the pregnant woman, who holds it in her hand, and at the same
time bends her body forwards; upon which all the women present take
in succession a piece of gold or silver from the vessel, and place
it between her shoulders. This is done with a view to implore for
her the blessing of _Lakshmi_, whom the Indians worship as the
goddess of riches, milk, fruit, corn, and every thing produced by
the fertility of the earth. Many ceremonies and customs, which have
a striking similitude to the above, may be seen represented on some
of the Grecian vases; and I am fully convinced, that a satisfactory
explanation of them cannot be given till they are compared with the
manners of the orientals.
A woman for a certain time after her delivery is considered as
unclean; but the period prescribed in this respect is different
according to the cast to which she belongs. For the cast of the
Brahmans ten days are fixed; for that of the _Kschetria_, or
_Ràgiaputra_, eleven; and for the lowest cast, or that of the
_Vayshya_, fifteen. The wives of the _Shudras_, or artisans, and
other people of inferior rank, do not adhere very strictly to this
law; but in general they must remain a few days by themselves in a
separate apartment, which is sometimes fitted up for the purpose,
in order that the other inhabitants of the house may not render
themselves impure, contrary to the strict prohibition of their
religion. It, indeed, cannot be denied, that this practice is
connected with a great deal of superstition; but in so hot a country
as India it is useful and proper. The ablutions and bathing, which
these women must employ, are attended with equal advantages. They not
only promote cleanliness, but they strengthen the body and preserve
it from nervous weakness, as well as universal debility, which would
undoubtedly be the consequence of too violent perspiration[157].
As soon as a child comes into the world, it is not bound up, as among
us, in clothes and bandages, but is suffered to have the free use
of its limbs and is laid, quite naked, on a mat. After it has been
repeatedly washed with cold water, the mother gives it the breast.
Every female Indian, whatever be her condition, would consider it as
a great cruelty to neglect this duty of nature, and to commit her
child to the care of a nurse, from whom, as unfortunately is too
often the case in other countries, it might imbibe, at the same time
with her milk, her shameful passions, or her diseases[158]. In India,
therefore, there is no reason to apprehend that a nobleman will be
depraved by his nurse, and converted into a clown; for every child
receives the same education that was given to his father, and to
every member of the same cast.
When a woman is delivered, her husband, or lover, must acquaint the
magistrate or overseer of his cast, that the new-born child may
be added to the list of those persons who compose that cast. This
overseer, called _Giàdi Egiamàn_, is bound by the nature of his
office to transmit to the king an accurate account of the number and
qualities of the persons under his inspection. By this list the king
is enabled to discover, on the first view, the extent of his power;
how many vassals he has, and the amount of the tribute which he can
demand from them. This political establishment of the Indian princes
was usual in the oldest periods, and occurs in Strabo. It was equally
beneficial as that law of Servius Tullius at Rome, which obliged
every father of a family, as often as he had a child born, to bring a
piece of money to the temple of Lucina. The Brahmans are accustomed
also to mark, with equal care, in their pagodas or temples, the
birth-day of every child. In each of these there is always a Brahman,
if not two, paid by the overseer of the temple, whose business
expressly is to keep a register of the births, marriages and deaths,
and also of every interesting event that concerns the class to which
they belong. These _Vàriar_, or calculators, are therefore enabled to
give such an accurate and minute account of the family, connexions,
life and condition of every person in the neighbouring district, as
is truly astonishing. This knowledge is acquired, indeed, in the
most natural manner; but it has so much the appearance of something
supernatural, that persons of weak minds are at a loss how to account
for it. When a father has a child born, he sends for one of these
astrologers, who pretend to understand the twenty-eight houses of the
planets, through which the moon passes every month. The astrologer,
having learned the moment of the child’s birth, makes it the ground
of his calculations to discover the planet and constellation under
which it was born, and, according to the result, he foretels the
circumstances of its future life, of rather its destiny. This
destiny, which they call _Giàdaga_, is written by the god Brahma on
the forehead of all mankind at their birth; and from him proceed all
the unavoidable events to which they are exposed during their whole
lives. A belief in this destiny is the true cause why most of the
Indians are real stoics: and their stoicism is evidently seen by
their conduct when sick; by the women burning themselves with the
bodies of their husbands; by the singular apathy, and in part horrid
penances of their philosophers; and, in general, by the wonderful
patience with which the Indians endure pain, labour, slavery, and
other sufferings.
When the days of purification are over, it is then time to give the
child a name; and on that occasion the company before mentioned
assemble once more at the house of the mother. The latter having
washed herself several times with pure water, and put on a complete
new dress, appears with the child in her arms; presents it to her
female friends; and sits down in the middle of the company, close to
her husband. A Brahman then repeats publicly a number of prayers,
and kindles the _Hòma_, or burnt-offering, in virtue of which the
child is consecrated to _Shiva_, as the symbol of the Sun and of
Fire; which, according to the Brahmanic doctrine, is supposed to be
an image of the only true God. The substances used for this burnt
offering are wood, rice, and butter. The name given to the child is
taken immediately either from the elements, planets, and other stars;
or from the symbols and figures by which the elements, stars and
planets are represented. As soon as it is determined what the name is
to be, some boiled rice is poured upon a banana-leaf; a vessel filled
with water is placed upon the leaf; some _Vepa_ or _Amargoseira_
leaves are put into the vessel, and a coco-nut is laid over its
mouth. The Brahman consecrates the water by a great many prayers;
dips the leaves into the consecrated water, and besprinkles with it
both the child and every person present. He then splits the coco-nut
into two parts, and laying both halves upon a banana leaf, together
with some figs, and a little betel and areca, presents the whole as
an offering to an image of _Ganesha_. In honour of this deity he also
throws incense into the fire, which is carefully kept up during the
whole ceremony. The Brahman, at length, tells the father the name of
the child; the latter repeats it three times; and the company retire,
after some compliments of congratulation.
These ceremonies, however, are not all generally practised, as they
occasion considerable expence, which poor people are not able to
bear; and the Brahmans never do any thing without being paid. When
a child, therefore, is born to parents in indigent circumstances,
it receives a name from the chief of the cast; and the father or
grandfather makes it known to the other relations. In whatever light
these customs may be considered, it appears that they have been
invented by the Brahmans, and are founded on the philosophy of the
Heathens, by means of which their legislators endeavoured to make
the people obedient to the laws. This, however, holds good only
so far as these practices have a relation to the religious system
of the Indians, and are not merely ceremonial. Thus we know, for
instance, that the bananas represent fruitfulness, and are dedicated
to Bacchus or the sun; that the _Vepa_ leaves, which are extremely
bitter, cleanse wounds, and that they are consequently used in these
practices to represent, in a symbolical manner, the purification of
the mind and body; that the coco-nut is dedicated to _Gannesha_,
because it makes a whole without any joining; and that the Indian
philosophers are accustomed to combine with their ceremonies a
mystical sense, as was always the case among all the ancient nations
of the east[159].
All the Grecian historians represent the Indians as people of greater
size, and much more robust than those of other nations. Though this
is not true in general, it is certain that the purity of the air,
wholesome nourishment, temperance and education contribute, in an
uncommon degree, to the bodily conformation, and to the increase of
these people. Their new-born children lie always on the ground, as
if they were thrown away or neglected; and they are never wrapped
up with bandages, or confined in any other manner, as is done in
Europe. Their limbs, therefore, can expand themselves without the
least restraint; their nerves and bones become more solid; and when
these children attain to the period of youth, they acquire not only
a beautiful figure, but a sound, well turned, and robust bodily
conformation. The frequent use of the cold bath, repeated rubbing the
body with coco-nut oil and the juice of the _Ingia_ plant, as well as
their exercises, which have a great resemblance to the _Juvenilia_,
and which I have often seen in Malabar, all contribute to increase
their strength and agility. These advantages also are seldom lost,
unless some of these young people abandon themselves to debauchery,
or weaken their bodies by too great labour or excessive perspiration.
However healthful and lively the young Indians may be in general,
those who marry before the twentieth year of their age, for the most
part, soon become feeble and enervated. In a word, I seldom saw in
India a person either lame, crooked, or otherwise deformed. The
people of Malabar, who live towards the west, are much handsomer and
more robust than the natives of Coromandel, or the Tamulians on the
eastern coast of India.
The education of youth in India is much simpler, and not near so
expensive as in Europe. The children assemble half naked under the
shade of a coconut tree; place themselves in rows on the ground,
and trace out on the sand, with the fore finger of the right hand,
the elements of their alphabet, and then smooth it with the left
when they wish to trace out other characters. The writing master,
called _Agian_, or _Eluttacien_, who stations himself opposite to his
pupils, examines what they have done; points out their faults, and
shews them how to correct them. At first, he attends them standing;
but when the young people have acquired some readiness in writing,
he places himself cross-legged on a tyger’s or deer’s skin, or even
on a mat made of the leaves of the coco-nut tree, or wild ananas,
which is called _Kaida_[160], plaited together. This method of
teaching writing was introduced into India two hundred years before
the birth of Christ, according to the testimony of Megasthenes, and
still continues to be practised. No people, perhaps, on earth have
adhered so much to their ancient usages and customs as the Indians.
A schoolmaster in Malabar receives every two months, from each of
his pupils, for the instruction given them, two _Fanon_ or _Panam_.
Some do not pay in money, but give him a certain quantity of rice,
so that this expence becomes very easy to the parents. There are
some teachers who instruct children without any fee, and are paid by
the overseers of the temple, or by the chief of the cast. When the
pupils have made tolerable progress in writing, they are admitted
into certain schools, called _Eutupalli_, where they begin to write
on palm leaves (_Panà_), which, when several of them are stitched
together, and fastened between two boards, form a _Grantha_, that is,
an Indian book. If such a book be written upon with an iron style, it
is called _Granthavari_, or _Lakya_, that is, writing, to distinguish
it from _Alakya_, which is something not written.
When the _Guru_, or teacher, enters the school, he is always
received with the utmost reverence and respect. His pupils must
throw themselves down at full length before him; place their right
hand on their mouth, and not venture to speak a single word until
he gives them express permission. Those who talk and prate contrary
to the prohibition of their master are expelled the school, as boys
who cannot restrain their tongue, and who are consequently unfit
for the study of philosophy. By these means the preceptor always
receives that respect which is due to him: the pupils are obedient,
and seldom offend against rules which are so carefully inculcated.
The chief branches taught by the _Guru_ are: 1st, the principles of
writing and accompts: 2d, the Samscred grammar, which contains the
declensions and conjugations; in Malabar it is called _Sidharùba_;
but, in Bengal, _Sarasvada_, or the art of speaking with elegance:
3d, the second part of this grammar, which contains the syntax, or
the book _Vyagarna_: 4th, the _Amarasinha_, or Brahmanic dictionary.
This work, which is highly esteemed by the Brahmans, does not
consist, as Anquetil du Perron says, of three, but of four parts;
and contains every thing that relates to the gods, the sciences,
colours and sounds, the earth, seas and rivers, men and animals, as
well as to the arts and all kinds of employment in India. To render
the construction of the Samscred language, and its emphatic mode of
expression, more familiar to their pupils, the _Guru_ employs various
short sentences clothed in Samscred verse, which are called _Shloga_.
These verses serve not only as examples of the manner in which the
words must be combined with each other, but contain, at the same
time, most excellent moral maxims, which are thus imprinted in the
minds of the young people as if in play; so that, while learning the
language, they are taught rules proper for forming their character,
and directing their future conduct in life. That the reader may
be better enabled to conceive some idea of the morality of the
Brahmans, I shall here subjoin a specimen of these sentences.
I. What is the use of study, if the object of it be not to learn
knowledge and fear, which is true wisdom?
II. Why have we ceased living in the forests, and associated
ourselves in cities and towns, if the object of our doing so be
not to enjoy friendship; to do good mutually to each other, and to
receive in our habitations the stranger and wanderer?
III. The wounds occasioned by a slanderous tongue occasion far more
pain, and are much more difficult to be healed, than those which
proceed from fire and the sword.
IV. Of what use is it to thee to shut the door of thy house? It is
necessary in order that thy wife may learn to be upon her guard.
V. He who revenges an injury enjoys a pleasure which endures only a
day; but he who forgives receives a satisfaction which will accompany
him through life.
VI. Modesty becomes every one, but is a particular ornament to the
learned and rich.
VII. The state of a married pair, who never deviate from the path of
honour, virtue, and mutual duty, is as difficult as that of those who
impose on themselves the severest penances.
In the gardens, or sacred enclosures, in which children are taught,
the _Lingam_, or Priapus, represented under the form of a cylinder,
is generally found. It is, however, not worshipped by all the
Indians, but only by the _Shivanites_. These are a particular sect,
who pay divine honour to Fire, under the form of the god _Shiva_, as
the principle or creative power by which every thing was produced.
Besides the above idol, there are two other statues, which, for the
most part, are placed before the entrance of the school. One of them
represents _Ganesha_, the protector of the sciences, and of learned
men; and the other the goddess _Sarasvadi_, the goddess of eloquence
and history. Every student, as he enters the school, always directs
his eyes to these two idols; raises his hands to his head, and shews
his respect for them by repeating certain forms of prayer. That with
which he salutes _Ganesha_ is commonly in the following words: _Sal
Guruve namà_: Adoration to thee, thou true master! Or, _Ganabadaye
namà_: Adoration to thee, O Ganabadi! This is real idolatry; but
these practices at any rate prove that the Indians accustom their
children early to honour the gods, and to consider them as their
protectors and benefactors. “Those who are desirous of knowing the
power of religion, and the influence of religious opinions,” said the
marquis of Kergariou, who commanded the Calypso frigate, “need only
go to India.” This observation is indeed just; for among 2000 Indians
you will scarcely find one who is not convinced of the necessity of
supplicating the gods. Education, and the nature of the climate, are
the strongest incitements to the natives to worship the deity, and to
submit themselves to his will.
The other sciences and branches of learning taught to the Indian
youth are: Poetry, _Cavya_; Fencing, _Payatta_; Botany and medicine,
_Vaydyashastra_, or _Bheszagiashastra_: Navigation, _Naushastra_:
The use of the spear on foot (_Hastiludium_), _Cundèra_: The art of
playing at ball, _Pandacali_: Chess, _Ciudarangam_: Tennis, _Colàdi_:
Logic, _Tarkashastra_: Astrology, _Giòdisha_: Law, _Svadhyaya_:
Silence, _Mauna_[161]. The reader will have already remarked, that
surgery, anatomy, and geography are excluded from this catalogue.
The Indians are of opinion, that their country is the most beautiful
and happiest in the whole world; and for that reason they have very
little desire to be acquainted with foreign kingdoms. Their total
abstinence from all flesh, and the express prohibition of their
religion which forbids them to kill animals, prevent them from
directing them, and examining their internal construction.
Of the Indian poetry I have already spoken in my Samscred grammar;
and I shall give some farther account of it hereafter. Their
navigation is confined merely to their navigable rivers; for, in
general, the Pagan Indians have the greatest aversion to the sea.
The management of the lance, fencing, playing at ball and tennis,
have been introduced into their education on good grounds, to render
their youth active and robust, and that they may not want dexterity
to distinguish themselves in battles and engagements where cannon are
not used. There are particular masters for all these exercises, arts
and sciences; and each of them, as already mentioned, is treated with
particular respect by the pupils. Twice a year each master receives
a piece of silk, which he employs for clothing; and this present is
called _Samànam_.
All the Indian girls, those alone excepted who belong to the casts of
the _Shudras_ and _Nayris_, are confined at home till their twelfth
year; and when they go out, they are always accompanied by their
mother or aunt. They inhabit a particular division of the house,
called _Andarggraha_, which none of the male sex dare approach.
The boys, in the ninth year of their age, are initiated with great
ceremony into the calling or occupation of the cast to which their
father belongs, and which they can never abandon. This law, mention
of which occurs in Diodorus Siculus, Strabo, Arrian, and other Greek
writers, is indeed exceedingly hard; but, at the same time, it is
of great benefit to civil order, the arts and sciences, and even
to religion. According to a like regulation, no one is allowed to
marry from one cast into another. Hence it happens that the Indians
do not follow that general and superficial method of education by
which children are treated as if they were all intended for the same
condition, and for discharging the same duties; but those of each
cast are from their infancy formed for what they are to be during
their whole lives. A future Brahman, for example, is obliged, from
his earliest years, to employ himself in reading and writing, and to
be present at the presentation of offerings; to calculate eclipses
of the sun and moon; to study the laws and religious practices; to
cast nativities; in short, to learn every thing, which, according to
the injunction of the _Vèda_, or sacred books of the Indians, it is
necessary he should know. The _Vayshya_, on the other hand, instruct
youth in agriculture; the _Kshetria_, in the science of government
and the military arts; the _Shudra_, in mechanics; the _Mucaver_, in
fishing; the _Ciàna_, in gardening; and the _Bànyen_, in commerce.
By this establishment the knowledge of a great many things necessary
for the public good is not only widely diffused, but transmitted
to posterity; who are thereby enabled still farther to improve
them, and bring them nearer to perfection. In the time of Alexander
the Great, the Indians had acquired such skill in the mechanical
arts, that Nearchus, the commander of his fleet, was much amazed
at the dexterity with which they imitated the accoutrements of
the Grecian soldiers. I once found myself in a similar situation.
Having intrusted to an Indian artist a lamp made in Portugal, the
workmanship of which was exceedingly pretty, Some days after he
brought me another so like my own that I could Scarcely distinguish
any difference. It, however, cannot be denied, that the arts and
sciences in India have greatly declined since foreign conquerors
expelled the native kings; by which several provinces have been laid
entirely waste, and the casts confounded with each other. Before
that period, the different kingdoms were in a flourishing condition;
the laws were respected, and justice and civil order prevailed: but,
unfortunately, at present every thing in many of the provinces must
give way to absolute authority and despotic sway.