valuable source of revenue, and was tolerated only as such, but he was a
valuable possession. Chivalry, the parent of so much good and evil, was
a source of unmitigated wretchedness to the Jew--for religious
fanaticism and chivalry were inseparable, the knight of the Middle Ages
being bound with his good sword to extirpate all the enemies of Christ
and His Virgin Mother. The power of the clergy tended greatly to
increase this general detestation against the unhappy Jew. And when
undisciplined fanatics of the lowest order, under the guidance of Peter
the Hermit and Walter the Penniless, were fired with the spirit of the
Crusades, fearful massacres of Jews were perpetrated in Treves, Metz,
Spiers, Worms, and Cologne. Everywhere the tracks of the Crusaders were
deeply marked with Jewish blood.
Half a century after the shocking massacres of Jews during the First
Crusade, another storm gathered, as the monk Rodolph passed through
Germany preaching the duty of wreaking vengeance on all the enemies of
God. The terrible cry of "Hep!"--the signal for the massacre of
Isrælites--ran through the cities of the Rhine. Countless atrocities
took place as the Crusaders passed on, as the Jews record with triumph,
to perish by plague, famine, and the sword.
_V.--The Jews in England_
In the Dark Ages England was not advanced beyond the other nations of
Europe in the civil or religious wisdom of toleration. There were Jews
in England under the Saxons. And during the days of the Norman kings
they were established in Oxford and in London. They taught Hebrew to
Christian as well as to Jewish students. But they increased in both
wealth and unpopularity, false tales about atrocities committed by them
being bruited abroad. In many towns furious rabbles at different times
attacked the Jewish quarters, burnt the dwellings, and put the inmates
cruelly to death, as at York, where hundreds perished during a riot in
the reign of Richard I. King John by cruel measures extorted large sums
from wealthy Jews.
The Church was also their implacable enemy, securing many repressive
enactments against them. Jewish history has a melancholy
sameness--perpetual exactions, the means of enforcing them differing
only in their cruelty. When parliament refused to maintain the
extravagant royal expenditure, nothing remained but still further to
drain Hebrew veins. In the reign of Henry III. a tale was spread of the
crucifixion of a Christian child, called Hugh of Lincoln. The story
refutes itself, but it created horror throughout the country. For this
crime eighteen of the richest Jews of Lincoln were hanged, and many more
flung into dungeons.
The death of Henry brought no respite, for Edward acted with equal
harshness. At length he issued the famous irrevocable edict of total
expulsion from the realm. Their departure was fixed for October 10,
1290. All who delayed were to be hanged without mercy. The Jews were
pursued from, the kingdom with every mark of popular triumph in their
sufferings. In one day 16,511 were exiled; all their property, debts,
obligations, mortgages were escheated to the king. A like expulsion had
been effected in France; and Spain, where the Jews were of a far nobler
rank, was not to be outdone in bigotry.
During the reign of John I., in 1388 A.D., a fierce popular preacher of
Seville, Ferdinand Martinez, Arch-deacon of Ecija, excited the populace
to excesses against the Jews. The streets of the noble city ran with
blood, and 4,000 victims perished. The cruel spirit spread through the
kingdom, and appalling massacres followed in many cities. A series of
intermittent persecutions followed both in Spain and Portugal, in reign
after reign. Jews and Protestants together went through awful ordeals at
the hands of the Inquisition. When her glory had declined, Spain, even
in her lowest decrepitude, indulged in what might seem the luxury of
persecution.
It was in the reign of Charles II. that the Jews found opportunity to
steal insensibly back into England. Cromwell had felt very favourably
disposed towards them, but had not dared to permit the re-establishment
which they had openly sought. But the necessities of Charles and his
courtiers quietly accomplished the, change, and the race has ever since
maintained its footing, and no doubt contributed a fair share to the
national wealth. Russia throughout her history adhered to her hostility
to the Jews, but expulsion became impossible with such vast numbers. It
is estimated that Russia contains half the Jewish population of the
world, notwithstanding that Russia proper from ancient times has been
sternly inhospitable to the Jewish race, while Poland has ever been
hospitable.
The most important measures of amelioration in the lot of the Jews in
England were passed in 1723, when they acquired the right to possess
land; in 1753, when parliament enacted the Naturalisation Bill; in 1830,
when they were admitted to civic corporations; in 1833, when they were
admitted to the profession of advocates; in 1845, when they were
rendered eligible for the office of alderman and lord mayor; and in
1858, when the last and crowning triumph of the principle was achieved
by the admission of Jews into parliament.
In Asia, the Jews are still found in considerable numbers on the verge
of the continent; in China, they are now found in one city alone, and
possess only one synagogue. In Mesopotamia and Assyria the ancient seats
of the Babylonian Jews are still occupied by 5,270 families. But England
and Anglo-Saxon countries generally have been the most favourable to the
race. Perhaps the most remarkable fact in the history of modern Judaism
is the extension of the Jews in the United States. Writing in 1829, I
stated, on the best authority then attainable, their numbers at 6,000.
They are now [in 1863] reckoned at 75,000.
* * * * *
HERODOTUS
History
The "Father of History," as Herodotus has been styled, was
born at Halicarnassus, the centre of a Greek colony in Asia
Minor, between the years 490 and 480 B.C., and lived probably
to sixty, dying about the year 425 B.C. A great part of his
life was occupied with travels and investigations in those
lands with which his history is mainly concerned. His work is
the earliest essay in history in a European language. It is a
record primarily of the causes and the course of the first
great contest between East and West; and is a storehouse of
curious and delightful traveller's gossip as well as a
faithful record of events. The canons of evidence in his day
were defective, for obvious reasons; a miscellaneous divine
interposition in human affairs was taken for granted, and
science had not yet reduced incredible marvels to ordinary
natural phenomena. Nevertheless, Herodotus was a shrewd and
careful critic, honest, and by no means remarkably credulous.
If he had not acquired the conception of history as an exact
science, he made it a particularly attractive form of
literature, to which his simplicity of style gives a slight
but pleasant archaic flavour. This epitome has been specially
prepared far THE WORLD'S GREATEST BOOKS from the Greek text.
_I.--The Rise of Persian Power_
I will not dispute whether those ancient tales be true, of Io and Helen,
and the like, which one or another have called the sources of the war
between the Hellenes and the barbarians of Asia; but I will begin with
those wrongs whereof I myself have knowledge. In the days of Sadyattes,
king of Lydia, and his son Alyattes, there was war between Lydia and
Miletus. And Croesus, the son of Alyattes, made himself master of the
lands which are bounded by the river Halys, and he waxed in power and
wealth, so that there was none like to him. To him came Solon, the
Athenian, but would not hail him as the happiest of all men, saying that
none may be called happy until his life's end.
Thereafter trouble fell upon Croesus by the slaying of his son when he
was a-hunting. Then Cyrus the Persian rose up and made himself master of
the Medes and Persians, and Croesus, fearing his power, was fain to go
up against him, being deceived by an oracle; but first he sought to make
alliance with the chief of the states of Hellas. In those days,
Pisistratus was despot of Athens; but Sparta was mighty, by the laws of
Lycurgus. Therefore Croesus sent envoys to the Spartans to make alliance
with them, which was done very willingly. But when Croesus went up
against Cyrus, his army was put to flight, and Cyrus besieged him in the
city of Sardis, and took it, and made himself lord of Lydia. He would
have slain Croesus, but, finding him wise and pious, he made him his
counsellor.
Now, this Cyrus had before overthrown the Median king, Astyages, whose
daughter was his own mother. For her father, fearing a dream, wedded her
to a Persian, and when she bore a child, he gave order for its slaying.
But the babe was taken away and brought up by a herdsman of the
hill-folk. But in course of time the truth became known to Astyages, and
to Harpagus, the officer who had been bidden to slay the babe, and to
Cyrus himself. Then Harpagus, fearing the wrath of Astyages, bade Cyrus
gather together the Persians--who in those days were a hardy people of
the mountains--and made himself king over the Medians; which things
Cyrus did, overthrowing his grandfather Astyages. And in this wise began
the dominion of the Persians.
The Ionian cities of Asia were zealous to make alliance with Cyrus when
he had overthrown Croesus. But he held them of little account, and
threatened them, and the Lacedæmonians also, who sent him messengers
warning him to let the Ionians alone. And he sent Harpagus against the
cities of the Ionians, of whom certain Phocæans and Teians sailed away
to Rhegium and Abdera rather than become the slaves of the barbarians;
but the rest, though they fought valiantly enough, were brought to
submission by Harpagus.
While Harpagus was completing the subjugation of the West, Cyrus was
making conquest of Upper Asia, and overthrew the kingdom of Assyria, of
which the chief city was Babylon, a very wonderful city, wherein there
had ruled two famous queens, Semiramis and Nitocris. Now, this queen had
made the city wondrous strong by the craft of engineers, yet Cyrus took
it by a shrewd device, drawing off the water of the river so as to gain
a passage. Thus Babylon also fell under the sway of the Persian. But
when Cyrus would have made war upon Tomyris, the queen of the Massagetæ,
who dwelt to the eastward, there was a very great battle, and Cyrus
himself was slain and the most part of his host. And Cambyses, his son,
reigned in his stead.
_II.--Wars of Egypt and Persia_
Cambyses set out to conquer Egypt, taking in his army certain of the
Greeks. But of all that I shall tell about that land, the most was told
to me by the priests whom I myself visited at Memphis and Thebes and
Heliopolis. They account themselves the most ancient of peoples. If the
Ionians are right, who reckon that Egypt is only the Nile Delta, this
could not be. But I reckon that the whole Egyptian territory is. Egypt,
from the cataracts and Elephantiné down to the sea, parted into the
Asiatic part and the Libyan part by the Nile.
For the causes of the rising and falling of the Nile, the reasons that
men give are of no account. And of the sources whence the river springs
are strange stories told of which I say not whether they be true or
false: but the course of it is known for four months' journey by land
and water, and in my opinion it is a river comparable to the Ister.
The priests tell that the first ruler of Egypt was Menes, and after him
were three hundred and thirty kings, counting one queen, who was called
Nitocris. After them came Sesostris, who carried his conquest as far as
the Thracians and Scythians; and later was Rhampsinitus, who married his
daughter to the clever thief who robbed his treasure-house; and after
him Cheops, who built the pyramid, drawing the stones from the Arabian
mountain down to the Nile. Chephren also, and Mycerinus built pyramids,
and the Greeks have a story--which is not true--that another was built
by Rhodopis. And in the reign of Sethon, Egypt was invaded by
Sennacherib the Assyrian, whose army's bowstrings were eaten by
field-mice.
A thing more wonderful than the pyramids is the labyrinth near Lake
Moeris, and still more wonderful is Lake Moeris itself, all which were
made by the twelve kings who ruled at once after Sethon. And after them,
Psammetichus made himself the monarch; and after him his great grandson
Apries prospered greatly, till he was overthrown by Amasis. And Amasis
also prospered, and showed favour to the Greeks. But for whatever
reason, in his day Cambyses made his expedition against Egypt, invading
it just when Amasis had died, and his son Psammenitus was reigning.
Cambyses put the Egyptian army to rout in a great battle, and conquered
the country, making Psammenitus prisoner. Yet he would have set him up
as governor of the province, according to the Persian custom, but that
Psammenitus was stirred up to revolt, and, being discovered, was put to
death. Thereafter Cambyses would have made war upon Carthage, but that
the Phoenicians would not aid him; and against the Ethiopians, who are
called "long-lived," but his army could get no food; and against the
Ammonians, but the troops that went were seen no more.
Now, madness came upon Cambyses, and he died, having committed many
crimes, among which was the slaying of his brother Smerdis. And there
rose up one among the Magi who pretended to be Smerdis, and was
proclaimed king. But this false Smerdis was one whose ears had been cut
off, and he was thus found out by one of his wives, the daughter of a
Persian nobleman, Otanes. Then seven nobles conspired together, since
they would not be ruled over by one of the Magi; and having determined
that it was best to have one man for ruler, rather than the rule of the
people or of the nobles, they slew Smerdis and made Darius, the son of
Hystaspes, their king.
Then Darius divided the Persian empire into twenty satrapies, whereof
each one paid its own tribute, save Persia itself, and he was lord of
all Asia, and Egypt also.
In the days of Cambyses, Polycrates was despot of Samos, being the first
who ever thought to make himself a ruler of the seas. And he had
prospered marvellously. But Oroetes, the satrap of Sardis, compassed his
death by foul treachery, and wrought many other crimes; whom Darius in
turn put to death by guile, fearing to make open war upon him. And not
long afterwards, he sent Otanes to make conquest of Samos. And during
the same days there was a revolt of the Babylonians; and Darius went up
against Babylon, yet for twenty months he could not take it. Howbeit, it
was taken by the act of Zopyrus, who, having mutilated himself, went to
the Babylonians and told them that Darius had thus evilly entreated him,
and so winning their trust, he made easy entry for the Persian army, and
so Babylon was taken the second time.
_III.--Persian Arms in Europe_
Now, Darius was minded to make conquest of the Scythians--concerning
which people, and the lands beyond those which they inhabit, there are
many marvels told, as of a bald-headed folk called Argippæi; and the
Arimaspians or one-eyed people; and the Hyperborean land where the air
is full of feathers. Of these lands are legends only; nothing is known.
But concerning the earth's surface, this much is known, that Libya is
surrounded by water, certain Phoenicians having sailed round it. And of
the unknown regions of Asia much was searched out by order of Darius.
The Scythians themselves have no cities; but there are great rivers in
Scythia, whereof the Ister is the greatest of all known streams, being
greater even than the Nile, if we reckon its tributaries. The great god
of the Scythians is Ares; and their war customs are savage exceedingly,
and all their ways barbarous. Against this folk Darius resolved to
march.
His plan was to convey his army across the Bosphorus on a bridge of
boats, while the Ionian fleet should sail up to the Ister and bridge
that, and await him. So he crossed the Bosphorus and marched through
Thrace, subduing on his way the Getse, who believe that there is no true
death. But when he passed the Ister, he would have taken the Ionians
along with him; but by counsel of Coes of Mitylene, he resolved to leave
them in charge of the bridge, giving order that, after sixty days, they
might depart home, but no sooner.
Then the Scythians, fearing that they could not match the great king's
army, summoned the other barbaric peoples to their aid; among whom were
the Sauromatians, who are fabled to be the offspring of the Amazons. And
some were willing, but others not. Therefore the Scythians retired
before Darius, first towards those peoples who would not come to their
help; and so enticed him into desert regions, yet would in no wise come
to battle with him.
Now, at length, Darius found himself in so evil a plight that he began
to march back to the Ister. And certain Scythians came to the Ionians,
and counselled them to destroy the bridge, the sixty days being passed.
And this Miltiades, the Athenian despot of the Chersonese, would have
had them do, so that Darius might perish with all his army; but
Histiæus of Miletus dissuaded them, because the rule of the despots was
upheld by Darius. And thus the Persian army was saved, Megabazus being
left in Europe to subdue the Hellespontines. When Megabazus had subdued
many of the Thracian peoples, who, indeed, lack only union with each
other to make them the mightiest of all nations, he sent an embassy to
Amyntas, the king of Macedon, to demand earth and water. But because
those envoys insulted the ladies of the court, Alexander, the son of
Amyntas, slew them all, and of them or all their train was never aught
heard more.
Now Darius, with fair words, bade Histiseus of Miletus abide with him at
the royal town of Susa. Then Aristagoras, the brother of Histiæus,
having failed in an attempt to subdue Naxos, and fearing both
Artaphernes, the satrap of Sardis, and the Persian general Megabazus,
with whom he had quarrelled, sought to stir up a revolt of the Ionian
cities; being incited thereto by secret messages from Histiseus.
To this end, he sought alliance with the Lacedæmonians; but they would
have nothing to do with him, deeming the venture too remote. Then he
went to Athens, whence the sons of Pisistratus had been driven forth
just before. For Hipparchus had been slain by Harmodius and Aristogiton,
and afterwards Hippias would hardly have been expelled but that his
enemies captured his children and so could make with him what terms they
chose. But the Pisistratidse having been expelled, the city grew in
might, and changes were made in the government of it by Cleisthenes the
Alcmæonid. But the party that was against Cleisthenes got aid from
Cleomenes of Sparta; yet the party of Cleisthenes won.
Then, since they reckoned that there would be war with Sparta, the
Athenians had sought friendship with Artaphernes at Sardis; but since he
demanded earth and water they broke off. But because Athens was waxing
in strength, the Spartans bethought them of restoring the despotism of
the Pisistratidæ. But Sosicles, the Corinthian, dissuaded the allies of
Sparta from taking part in so evil a deed. Then Hippias sought to stir
up against the Athenians the ill-will of Artaphernes, who bade them take
back the Pisistratidæ, which they would not do.
Therefore, when Aristagoras came thither, the Athenians were readily
persuaded to promise him aid. And he, having gathered the troops of the
Ionians, who were at one with him, marched with them and the Athenians
against Sardis and took the city, which by a chance was set on fire. But
after that the Athenians refused further help to the Ionians, who were
worsted by the Persians. But the ruin of the Ionians was at the
sea-fight of Lade, where the men of Chios fought stoutly; but they of
Samos and Lesbos deserting, there was a great rout.
_IV.--Marathon and Thermopylæ_
Thereafter King Darius, being very wroth with the Athenians for their
share in the burning of Sardis, sent a great army across the Hellespont
to march through Thrace against Athens, under his young kinsman
Mardonius. But disaster befell these at the hands of the Thracians, and
the fleet that was to aid them was shattered in a storm; so that they
returned to Asia without honour. Then Darius sent envoys to demand earth
and water from the Greek states; and of the islanders the most gave
them, and some also of the cities on the mainland; and among these were
the Aeginetans, who were at feud with Athens.
But of those who would not give the earth and water were the Eretrians
of Eubcea. So Darius sent a great armament by sea against Eretria and
Athens, led by Datis and Artaphernes, which sailed first against
Eretria. The Athenians, indeed, sent aid; but when they found that the
counsels of the Eretrians were divided, so that no firm stand might be
made, they withdrew. Nevertheless, the Eretrians fought valiantly behind
their walls, till they were betrayed on the seventh day. But the
Persians, counselled by Hippias, sailed to the bay of Marathon.
Then the Athenians sent the strong runner Pheidippides to call upon the
Spartans for aid; who promised it, yet for sacred reasons would not move
until the full moon. So the Athenian host had none to aid them save the
loyal Platæans, valiant though few. Yet in the council of their generals
the word of Miltiades was given for battle, whereto the rest consented.
Then the Athenians and Platæans, being drawn up in a long line, charged
across the plain nigh a mile, running upon the masses of the Persians;
and, breaking them upon the wings, turned and routed the centre also
after long fighting, and drove them down to the ships, slaying as they
went; and of the ships they took seven. And of the barbarians there fell
6,400 men, and of the Athenians, 192. But as for the story that the
Alcmæonidæ hoisted a friendly signal to the Persians, I credit it not
at all.
Now, Darius was very wroth with the Greeks when he heard of these
things, and made preparation for a mighty armament to overthrow the
Greeks, and also the Egyptians, who revolted soon afterwards. But he
died before he was ready, and Xerxes, his son, reigned in his stead.
Then, having first crushed the Egyptians, he, being ruled by Mardonius,
gathered a council and declared his intent of marching against the
Hellenes; which resolution was commended by Mardonius, but Artabanus,
the king's uncle, spoke wise words of warning. Then Xerxes would have
changed his mind, but for a dream which came to him twice, and to
Artabanus also, threatening disaster if he ceased from his project; so
that Artabanus was won over to favour it.
Then Xerxes made vast provision for his invasion for the building of a
bridge over the Hellespont, and the cutting of a canal through the
peninsula of Athos, where the fleet of Mardonius had been shattered. And
from all parts of his huge empire he mustered his hosts first in
Cappadocia, and marched thence by way of Sardis to the Hellespont. And
because, when the bridge was a building, a great storm wrecked it, he
bade flog the naughty waves of the sea. Then, the bridge being finished,
he passed over with his host, which took seven days to accomplish.
And when they were come to Doriscus he numbered them, and found them to
be 1,700,000 men, besides his fleets. And in the fleet were 1,207 great
ships, manned chiefly by the Phoenicians and the Greeks of Asia, having
also Persian and Scythian fighting men on board. But when Demaratus, an
exiled king of Sparta, warned Xerxes of the valour of all the Greeks,
but chiefly of the Spartans, who would give battle, however few they
might be, against any foe, however many, his words seemed to Xerxes a
jest, seeing how huge his own army was.