FOOTNOTE:

[1] The descent of the Feildings from the house of Habsburg, through

the counts of Laufenburg and Rheinfelden, long considered authentic,

and immortalized by Gibbon, has been proved to have been based on

forged documents. See J. H. Round, _Peerage and Family History_

(1901).

DENBIGH (_Dinbych_), a municipal and (with Holt, Ruthin and Wrexham)

contributory parliamentary borough, market town and county town of

Denbighshire, N. Wales, on branches of the London & North Western and

the Great Western railways. Pop. (1901) 6438. Denbigh Castle,

surrounding the hill with a double wall, was built, in Edward I.'s

reign, by Henry de Lacy, earl of Lincoln, from whom the town received

its first charter. The outer wall is nearly a mile round; over its main

gateway is a niche with a figure representing, possibly, Edward I., but

more probably, de Lacy. Here, in 1645, after the defeat of Rowton Moor,

Charles I. found shelter, the castle long resisting the

Parliamentarians, and being reduced to ruins by his successor. The chief

buildings are the Carmelite Priory (ruins dating perhaps from the 13th

century); a Bluecoat school (1514); a free grammar school (1527); an

orphan girl school (funds left by Thomas Howel to the Drapers' Co., in

Henry VII.'s reign); the town hall (built in 1572 by Robert Dudley, earl

of Leicester, enlarged and restored in 1780); an unfinished church

(begun by Leicester); a market hall (with arcades or "rows," such as

those of Chester or Yarmouth); and the old parish church of St Marcella.

The streams near Denbigh are the Clwyd and Elwy. The inhabitants of

Denbigh are chiefly occupied in the timber trade, butter-making,

poultry-farming, bootmaking, tanning and quarrying (lime, slate and

paving-stones). The borough of Denbigh has a separate commission of the

peace, but no separate court of quarter sessions. The town has long been

known as a Welsh publishing centre, the vernacular newspaper, _Baner_,

being edited and printed here. Near Denbigh, at Bodelwyddan, &c., coal

is worked.

The old British tower and castle were called _Castell caled fryn yn

Rhôs_, the "castle of the hard hill in Rhôs." _Din_ in _Dinbych_ means

a fort. There is a goblin well at the castle. Historically, David

(_Dafydd_), brother of the last Llewelyn, was here (_aet._ Edward I.)

perhaps on a foray; also Henry Lacy, who built the castle (_aet._ Edward

I.), given to the Mortimers and to Leicester (under Edward III. and

Elizabeth, respectively).

DENBIGHSHIRE (_Dinbych_), a county of N. Wales, bounded N. by the Irish

Sea, N.E. by Flint and Cheshire, S.E. by Flint and Shropshire, S. by

Montgomery and Merioneth, and W. by Carnarvon. Area, 662 sq. m. On the

N. coast, within the Denbighshire borders and between Old Colwyn and

Llandulas, is a wedge of land included in Carnarvonshire, owing to a

change in the course of the Conwy stream. (Thus, also, Llandudno is

partly in the Bangor, and partly in the St Asaph, diocese.) The surface

of Denbighshire is irregular, and physically diversified. In the N.W.

are the bleak Hiraethog ("longing") hills, sloping W. to the Conwy and

E. to the Clwyd. In the N. are Colwyn and Abergele bays, on the S. the

Yspytty (Lat. _Hospitium_) and Llangwm range, between Denbigh and

Merioneth. From this watershed flow the Elwy, Aled, Clywedog, Merddwr

and Alwen, tributaries of the Clwyd, Conwy and Dee (_Dyfrdwy_). Some of

the valleys contrast agreeably with the bleak hills, e.g. those of the

Clwyd and Elwy. The portion lying between Ruabon (_Rhiwabon_) hills and

the Dee is agricultural and rich in minerals; the Berwyn to Offa's Dyke

(_Wâl Offa_) is wild and barren, except the Tanat valley, Llansilin and

Ceiriog. One feeder of the Tanat forms the Pistyll Rhaiadr (waterspout

fall), another rises in Llyncaws (cheese pool) under Moel Sych (dry

bare-hill), the highest point in the county. Aled and Alwen are both

lakes and streams.

_Geology._-The geology of the county is full of interest, as it

develops all the principal strata that intervenes between the

Ordovician and the Triassic series. In the Ordovician district, which

extends from the southern boundary to the Ceiriog, the Llandeilo

formation of the eastern slopes of the Berwyn and the Bala beds of

shelly sandstone are traversed east and west by bands of intrusive

felspathic porphyry and ashes. The same formation occurs just within

the county border at Cerrig-y-Druidion, Langum, Bettys-y-coed and in

the Fairy Glen. Northwards from the Ceiriog to the limestone fringe

at Llandrillo the Wenlock shale of the Silurian covers the entire

mass of the Hiraethog and Clwydian hills, but verging on its western

slopes into the Denbighshire grit, which may be traced southward in a

continuous line from the mouth of the Conway as far as Llanddewi

Ystrad Enni in Radnorshire, near Pentre-Voelas and Conway they are

abundantly fossiliferous. On its eastern slope a narrow broken band

of the Old Red, or what may be a conglomeratic basement bed of the

Carboniferous Limestone series, crops up along the Vale of Clwyd and

in Eglwyseg. Resting upon this the Carboniferous Limestone extends

from Llanymynach, its extreme southern point, to the Cyrnybrain

fault, and there forks into two divisions that terminate respectively

in the Great Orme's Head and in Talargoch, and are separated from

each other by the denuded shales of the Moel Famma range. In the Vale

of Clwyd the limestone underlies the New Red Sandstone, and in the

eastern division it is itself overlaid by the Millstone Grit of

Ruabon and Minera, and by a long reach of the Coal Measures which

near Wrexham are 4½ m. in breadth. Eastward of these a broad strip of

the red marly beds succeeds, formerly considered to be Permian but

now regarded as belonging to the Coal Measures, and yet again between

this and the Dee the ground is occupied--as in the Vale of Clwyd--by

the New Red rocks. As in the other northern counties of Wales, the

whole of the lower ground is covered more or less thickly with

glacial drift. On the western side of the Vale of Clwyd, at Cefn and

Plâs Heaton, the caves, which are a common feature in such limestone

districts, have yielded the remains of the rhinoceros, mammoth,

hippopotamus and other extinct mammals.

Coal is mined from the Coal Measures, and from the limestone below,

lead with silver and zinc ores have been obtained. Valuable fireclays

and terra-cotta marls are also taken from the Coal Measures about

Wrexham.

The uplands being uncongenial for corn, ponies, sheep and black cattle

are reared, for fattening in the Midlands of England and sale in London.

Oats and turnips, rather than wheat, barley and potatoes, occupy the

tilled land. The county is fairly wooded. There are several important

farmers' clubs (the Denbighshire and Flintshire, the vale of Conway, the

Cerrig y druidion, &c.). The London & North-Western railway (Holyhead

line), with the Conway and Clwyd valleys branches, together with the

lines connecting Denbigh with Ruabon (Rhiwabon), via Ruthin and Corwen,

Wrexham with Connah's Quay (Great Central) and Rhosllanerchrhugog with

Glyn Ceiriog (for the Great Western and Great Central railways) have

opened up the county. Down the valley of Llangollen also runs the

Holyhead road from London, well built and passing through fine scenery.

At Nantglyn paving flags are raised, at Rhiwfelen (near Llangollen)

slabs and slates, and good slates are also obtained at Glyn Ceiriog.

There is plenty of limestone, with china stone at Brymbo. Cefn Rhiwabon

yields sandstone (for hones) and millstone grit. Chirk, Ruabon and

Brymbo have coal mines. The great Minera is the principal lead mine.

There is much brick and pottery clay. The Ceiriog valley has a dynamite

factory. Llangollen and Llansantffraid (St Bridgit's) have woollen

manufactures.

The area of the ancient county is 423,499 acres, with a population in

1901 of 129,942. The area of the administrative county is 426,084 acres.

The chief towns are: Wrexham, a mining centre and N. Wales military

centre, with a fine church; Denbigh; Ruthin, where assizes are held

(here are a grammar school, a warden and a 13th-century castle rebuilt);

Llangollen and Llanrwst; and Holt, with an old ruined castle. The

Denbigh district of parliamentary boroughs is formed of: Denbigh (pop.

6483), Holt (1059), Ruthin (2643), and Wrexham (14,966). The county has

two parliamentary divisions. The urban districts are: Abergele and

Pensarn (2083), Colwyn Bay and Colwyn (8689), Llangollen (3303), and

Llanrwst (2645). Denbighshire is in the N. Wales circuit, assizes being

held at Ruthin. Denbigh and Wrexham boroughs have separate commissions

of the peace, but no separate quarter-session courts. The ancient

county, which is in the diocese of St Asaph, contains seventy-five

ecclesiastical parishes and districts and part of a parish.

The county was formed, by an act of Henry VIII., out of the lordships of

Denbigh, Ruthin (Rhuthyn), Rhos and Rhyfoniog, which are roughly the

Perfeddwlad (midland) between Conway and Clwyd, and the lordships of

Bromfield, Yale (_Iâl_, open land) and Chirkland, the old possessions of

Gruffydd ap Madoc, _arglwydd_ (lord) of Dinas Brân. Cefn (Elwy Valley)

limestone caves hold the prehistoric hippopotamus, elephant, rhinoceros,

lion, hyena, bear, reindeer, &c.; Plâs Heaton cave, the glutton; Pont

Newydd, felstone tools and a polished stone axe (like that of

Rhosdigre); Carnedd Tyddyn Bleiddian, "platycnemic (skeleton) men of

Denbighshire" (like those of Perthi Chwareu). Clawdd Coch has traces of

the Romans; so also Penygaer and Penbarras. Roman roads ran from Deva

(Chester) to Segontium (Carnarvon) and from Deva to Mons Heriri (_Tomen

y mur_). To their period belong the inscribed Gwytherin and Pentrefoelas

(near Bettws-y-coed) stones. The Valle Crucis "Eliseg's pillar" tells of

Brochmael and the Cairlegion (Chester) struggle against Æthelfrith's

invading Northumbrians, A.D. 613, while Offa's dike goes back to the

Mercian advance. Near and parallel to Offa's is the shorter and

mysterious Watt's dike. Chirk is the only Denbighshire castle

comparatively untouched by time and still occupied. Ruthin has

cloisters; Wrexham, the Brynffynnon "nunnery"; and at both are

collegiate churches. Llanrwst, Gresford and Derwen boast rood lofts and

screens; Whitchurch and Llanrwst, portrait brasses and monuments;

Derwen, a churchyard cross; Gresford and Llanrhaiadr (Dyffryn Clwyd),

stained glass. Near Abergele, known for its sea baths, is the _ogof_ (or

cave), traditionally the refuge of Richard II. and the scene of his

capture by Bolingbroke in 1399.

See J. Williams, _Denbigh_ (1856), and T. F. Tout, _Welsh Shires_.

DENDERA, a village in Upper Egypt, situated in the angle of the great

westward bend of the Nile opposite Kena. Here was the ancient city of

Tentyra, capital of the Tentyrite nome, the sixth of Upper Egypt, and

the principal seat of the worship of Hathor [Aphrodite] the cow-goddess

of love and joy. The old Egyptian name of Tentyra was written 'In·t

(Ant), but the pronunciation of it is unknown: in later days it was

'In·t-t-ntr·t, "ant of the goddess," pronounced Ni-tentôri, whence

[Greek: Tentyra, Tentyris]. The temple of Hathor was built in the 1st

century B.C., being begun under the later Ptolemies (Ptol. XIII.) and

finished by Augustus, but much of the decoration is later. A great

rectangular enclosure of crude bricks, measuring about 900 X 850 ft.,

contains the sacred buildings: it was entered by two stone gateways, in

the north and the east sides, built by Domitian. Another smaller

enclosure lies to the east with a gateway also of the Roman period.

The plan of the temple may be supposed to have included a colonnaded

court in front of the present façade, and pylon towers at the entrance;

but these were never built, probably for lack of funds. The building,

which is of sandstone, measures about 300 ft. from front to back, and

consists of two oblong rectangles; the foremost, placed transversely to

the other, is the great hypostyle hall or pronaos, the broadest and

loftiest part of the temple, measuring 135 ft. in width, and comprising

about one-third of the whole structure; the façade has six columns with

heads of Hathor, and the ceiling is supported by eighteen great columns.

The second rectangle contains a small hypostyle hall with six columns,

and the sanctuary, with their subsidiary chambers. The sanctuary is

surrounded by a corridor into which the chambers open: on the west side

is an apartment forming a court and kiosk for the celebration of the

feast of the New Year, the principal festival of Dendera. On the roof of

the temple, reached by two staircases, are a pavilion and several

chambers dedicated to the worship of Osiris. Inside and out, the whole

of the temple is covered with scenes and inscriptions in crowded

characters, of ceremonial and religious import; the decoration is even

carried into a remarkable series of hidden passages and chambers or

crypts made in the solid walls for the reception of its most valuable

treasures. The architectural style is dignified and pleasing in design

and proportions. The interior of the building has been completely

cleared: from the outside, however, its imposing effect is quite lost,

owing to the mounds of rubbish amongst which it is sunk. North-east of

the entrance is a "Birth House" for the cult of the child Harsemteu, and

behind the temple a small temple of Isis, dating from the reign of

Augustus. The original foundation of the temple must date back to a

remote time: the work of some of the early builders is in fact referred

to in the inscriptions on the present structure. Petrie's excavation of

the cemetery behind the temple enclosures revealed burials dating from

the fourth dynasty onwards, the most important being mastables of the

period from the sixth to the eleventh dynasties; many of these exhibited

a peculiar degradation of the contemporary style of sculpture.

The zodiacs of the temple of Dendera gave rise to a considerable

literature before their late origin was established by Champollion in

1822: one of them, from a chamber on the roof, was removed in 1820 to

the Bibliothèque Nationale in Paris. Figures of the celebrated Cleopatra

VI. occur amongst the sculptures on the exterior of the temple, but they

are purely conventional, without a trace of portraiture. Horus of Edfu,

the enemy of the crocodiles and hippopotami of Set, appears sometimes as

the consort of Hathor of Dendera. The skill displayed by the Tentyrites

in capturing the crocodile is referred to by Strabo and other Greek

writers. Juvenal, in his seventeenth satire, takes as his text a

religious riot between the Tentyrites and the neighbouring Ombites, in

the course of which an unlucky Ombite was torn to pieces and devoured by

the opposite party. The Ombos in question is not the distant Ombos south

of Edfu, where the crocodile was worshipped; Petrie has shown that

opposite Coptos, only about 15 m. from Tentyra, there was another Ombos,

venerating the hippopotamus sacred to Set.

See A. Mariette, _Dendérah_ (5 vols. atlas and text, 1869-1880); W.

M. F. Petrie, _Denderah_ (1900); _Nagada_ and _Ballas_ (1896).

(F. LL. G.)

DENDROCOMETES (so named by F. Stein), a genus of suctorian Infusoria,

characterized by the repeatedly branched attached body; each of the

lobes of the body gives off a few retractile tentacles. It is parasitic

on the gills of the so-called freshwater shrimp _Gammarus pulex_.

For its conjugation see Sydney H. Hickson, in _Quarterly Journ. of

Microsc. Science_, vol xlv. (1902), p. 325.

DENE-HOLES, the name given to certain caves or excavations in England,

which have been popularly supposed to be due to the Danes or some other

of the early northern invaders of the country. The common spelling "Dane

hole" is adduced as evidence of this, and individual names, such as

Vortigern's Caves at Margate, and Canute's Gold Mine near Bexley,

naturally follow the same theory. The word, however, is probably derived

from the Anglo-Saxon _den_, a hole or valley. There are many underground

excavations in the south of the country, also found to some extent in

the midlands and the north, but true dene-holes are found chiefly in

those parts of Kent and Essex along the lower banks of the Thames. With

one exception there are no recorded specimens farther east than those of

the Grays Thurrock district, situated in Hangman's Wood, on the north,

and one near Rochester on the south side of the river.

The general outline of the formation of these caves is invariably the

same. The entrance is a vertical shaft some 3 ft. in diameter falling,

on an average, to a depth of 60 ft. The depth is regulated, obviously,

by the depth of the chalk from the surface, but, although chalk could

have been obtained close at hand within a few feet, or even inches, from

the surface, a depth of from 45 to 80 ft., or more, is a characteristic

feature. It is believed that dene-holes were also excavated in sand, but

as these would be of a perishable nature there are no available data of

any value. The shaft, when the chalk is reached, widens out into a domed

chamber with a roof of chalk some 3 ft. thick. The walls frequently

contract somewhat as they near the floor. As a rule there is only one

chamber, from 16 to 18 ft. in height, beneath each shaft. From this

excessive height it has been inferred that the caves were not primarily

intended for habitations or even hiding-places. In some cases the

chamber is extended, the roof being supported by pillars of chalk left

standing. A rare specimen of a twin-chamber was discovered at Gravesend.

In this case the one entrance served for both caves, although a separate

aperture connected them on the floor level. Where galleries are found

connecting the chambers, forming a bewildering labyrinth, a careful

scrutiny of the walls usually reveals evidence that they are the work of

a people of a much later period than that of the chambers, or, as they

become in these cases, the halls of the galleries.

Isolated specimens have been discovered in various parts of Kent and

Essex, but the most important groups have been found at Grays Thurrock,

in the districts of Woolwich, Abbey Wood and Bexley, and at Gravesend.

Those at Bexley and Grays Thurrock are the most valuable still existing.

It is generally found that the tool work on the roof or ceiling is

rougher than that on the walls, where an upright position could be

maintained. Casts taken of some of the pick-holes near the roof show

that, in all probability, they were made by bone or horn picks. And

numerous bone picks have been discovered in Essex and Kent. These

pick-holes are amongst the most valuable data for the study of

dene-holes, and have assisted in fixing the date of their formation to

pre-Roman times. Very few relics of antiquarian value have been

discovered in any of the known dene-holes which have assisted in fixing

the date or determining the uses of these prehistoric excavations. Pliny

mentions pits sunk to a depth of a hundred feet, "where they branched

out like the veins of mines." This has been used in support of the

theory that dene-holes were wells sunk for the extraction of chalk; but

no known dene-hole branches out in this way. Chrétien de Troyes has a

passage on underground caves in Britain which may have reference to

dene-holes, and tradition of the 14th century treated the dene-holes of

Grays as the fabled gold mines of Cunobeline (or Cymbeline) of the 1st

century.

Vortigern's Caves at Margate are possibly dene-holes which have been

adapted by later peoples to other purposes; and excellent examples of

various pick-holes may be seen on different parts of the walls.

Local tradition in some cases traces the use of these caves to the

smugglers, and, when it is remembered that illicit traffic was common

not only on the coast but in the Thames as far up the river as Barking

Creek, the theory is at least tenable that these ready-made

hiding-places, difficult of approach and dangerous to descend, were so

utilized.

There are three purposes for which dene-holes may have been originally

excavated: (a) as hiding-places or dwellings, (b) draw-wells for the

extraction of chalk for agricultural uses, and (c) storehouses for

grain. For several reasons it is unlikely that they were used as

habitations, although they may have been used occasionally as

hiding-places. Other evidence has shown that it is equally improbable

that they were used for the extraction of chalk. The chief reasons

against this theory are that chalk could have been obtained outcropping

close by, and that every trace of loose chalk has been removed from the

vicinity of the holes, while known examples of chalk draw-wells do not

descend to so great a depth. The discovery of a shallow dene-hole, about

14 ft. below the surface, at Stone negatives this theory still further.

The last of the three possible uses for which these prehistoric

excavations were designed is usually accepted as the most probable.

Silos, or underground storehouses, are well known in the south of Europe

and Morocco. It is supposed that the grain was stored in the ear and

carefully protected from damp by straw. A curious smoothness of the roof

of one of the chambers of the Gravesend twin-chamber dene-hole has been

put forward as additional evidence in support of this theory. One other

theory has been advanced, viz. that the excavations were made in order

to get flints for implements, but this is quite impossible, as a careful

examination of a few examples will show.

Further reference may be made to _Essex Dene-holes_ by T. V. Holmes

and W. Cole; to _The Archaeological Journal_ (1882); the

_Transactions_ of the Essex Field Club; _Archaeologia Cantiana_, &c.;

_Dene-holes_ by F. W. Reader, in _Old Essex_, ed. A. C. Kelway

(1908).

(A. J. P.)

DENGUE (pronounced deng-ga), an infectious fever occurring in warm

climates. The symptoms are a sudden attack of fever, accompanied by

rheumatic pains in the joints and muscles with severe headache and

erythema. After a few days a crisis is reached and an interval of two or

three days is followed by a slighter return of fever and pain and an

eruption resembling measles, the most marked characteristic of the

disease. The disease is rarely fatal, death occurring only in cases of

extreme weakness caused by old age, infancy or other illness. Little is

known of the aetiology of "dengue." The virus is probably similar to

that of other exanthematous fevers and communicated by an intermediary

culex. The disease is nearly always epidemic, though at intervals it

appears to be pandemic and in certain districts almost endemic. The area

over which the disease ranges may be stated generally to be between 32°

47' N. and 23° 23' S. Throughout this area "dengue" is constantly

epidemic. The earliest epidemic of which anything is known occurred in

1779-1780 in Egypt and the East Indies. The chief epidemics have been

those of 1824-1826 in India, and in the West Indies and the southern

states of North America, of 1870-1875, extending practically over the

whole of the tropical portions of the East and reaching as far as China.

In 1888 and 1889 a great outbreak spread along the shores of the Aegean

and over nearly the whole of Asia Minor. Perhaps "dengue" is most nearly

endemic in equatorial East Africa and in the West Indies. The word has

usually been identified with the Spanish _dengue_, meaning stiff or prim

behaviour, and adopted in the West Indies as a name suitable to the

curious cramped movements of a sufferer from the disease, similar to the

name "dandy-fever" which was given to it by the negroes. According to

the _New English Dictionary_ (quoting Dr Christie in _The Glasgow

Medical Journal_, September 1881), both "dengue" and "dandy" are

corruptions of the Swahili word _dinga_ or _denga_, meaning a sudden

attack of cramp, the Swahili name for the disease being _ka-dinga pepo_.

See Sir Patrick Manson, _Tropical Diseases; a Manual of Diseases of

Warm Climates_ (1903).

DENHAM, DIXON (1786-1828), English traveller in West Central Africa, was

born in London on the 1st of January 1786. He was educated at Merchant

Taylors' School, and was articled to a solicitor, but joined the army in

1811. First in the 23rd Royal Welsh Fusiliers, and afterwards in the

54th foot, he served in the campaigns in Portugal, Spain, France and

Belgium, and received the Waterloo medal. In 1821 he volunteered to join

Dr Oudney and Hugh Clapperton (q.v.), who had been sent by the British

government via Tripoli to the central Sudan. He joined the expedition at

Murzuk in Fezzan. Finding the promised escort not forthcoming, Denham,

whose energy was boundless, started for England to complain of the

"duplicity" of the pasha of Tripoli. The pasha, alarmed, sent messengers

after him with promises to meet his demands. Denham, who had reached

Marseilles, consented to return, the escort was forthcoming, and Murzuk

was regained in November 1822. Thence the expedition made its way across

the Sahara to Bornu, reached in February 1823. Here Denham, against the

wish of Oudney and Clapperton, accompanied a slave-raiding expedition

into the Mandara highlands south of Bornu. The raiders were defeated,

and Denham barely escaped with his life. When Oudney and Clapperton set

out, December 1823, for the Hausa states, Denham remained behind. He

explored the western, south and south-eastern shores of Lake Chad, and

the lower courses of the rivers Waube, Logone and Shari. In August 1824,

Clapperton having returned and Oudney being dead, Bornu was left on the

return journey to Tripoli and England. In December 1826 Denham, promoted

lieutenant-colonel, sailed for Sierra Leone as superintendent of

liberated Africans. In 1828 he was appointed governor of Sierra Leone,

but after administering the colony for five weeks died of fever at

Freetown on the 8th of May 1828.

See _Narrative of Travels and Discoveries in Northern and Central

Africa in the years 1822-1824_ (London, 1826), the greater part of

which is written by Denham; _The Story of Africa_, vol. i. chap.

xiii. (London, 1892), by Dr Robert Brown.

DENHAM, SIR JOHN (1615-1669), English poet, only son of Sir John Denham

(1559-1639), lord chief baron of the exchequer in Ireland, was born in

Dublin in 1615. In 1617 his father became baron of the exchequer in

England, and removed to London with his family. In Michaelmas term 1631

the future poet was entered as a gentleman commoner at Trinity College,

Oxford. He removed in 1634 to Lincoln's Inn, where he was, says John

Aubrey, a good student, but not suspected of being a wit. The reputation

he had gained at Oxford of being the "dreamingest young fellow" gave way

to a scandalous reputation for gambling. In 1634 he married Ann Cotton,

and seems to have lived with his father at Egham, Surrey. In 1636 he

wrote his paraphrase of the second book of the Aeneid (published in 1656

as _The Destruction of Troy_, with an excellent verse essay on the art

of translation). About the same time he wrote a prose tract against

gambling, _The Anatomy of Play_ (printed 1651), designed to assure his

father of his repentance, but as soon as he came into his fortune he

squandered it at play. It was a surprise to everyone when in 1642 he

suddenly, as Edmund Waller said, "broke out like the Irish rebellion,

three score thousand strong, when no one was aware, nor in the least

expected it," by publishing _The Sophy_, a tragedy in five acts, the

subject of which was drawn from Sir Thomas Herbert's travels. At the

beginning of the Civil War Denham was high sheriff for Surrey, and was

appointed governor of Farnham Castle. He showed no military ability, and

speedily surrendered the castle to the parliament. He was sent as a

prisoner to London, but was soon permitted to join the king at Oxford.

In 1642 appeared _Cooper's Hill_, a poem describing the Thames scenery

round his home at Egham. The first edition was anonymous: subsequent

editions show numerous alterations, and the poem did not assume its

final form until 1655. This famous piece, which was Pope's model for his

_Windsor Forest_, was not new in theme or manner, but the praise which

it received was well merited by its ease and grace. Moreover Denham

expressed his commonplaces with great dignity and skill. He followed the

taste of the time in his frequent use of antithesis and metaphor, but

these devices seem to arise out of the matter, and are not of the nature

of mere external ornament. At Oxford he wrote many squibs against the

roundheads. One of the few serious pieces belonging to this period is

the short poem "On the Earl of Strafford's Trial and Death."

From this time Denham was much in Charles I.'s confidence. He was

entrusted with the charge of forwarding letters to and from the king

when he was in the custody of the parliament, a duty which he

discharged successfully with Abraham Cowley, but in 1648 he was

suspected by the Parliamentary authorities, and thought it wiser to

cross the Channel. He helped in the removal of the young duke of York to

Holland, and for some time he served Queen Henrietta Maria in Paris,

being entrusted by her with despatches for Holland. In 1650 he was sent

to Poland in company with Lord Crofts to obtain money for Charles II.

They succeeded in raising £10,000. After two years spent at the exiled

court in Holland, Denham returned to London and being quite without

resources, he was for some time the guest of the earl of Pembroke at

Wilton. In 1655 an order was given that Denham should restrict himself

to some place of residence to be selected by himself at a distance of

not less than 20 m. from London; subsequently he obtained from the

Protector a licence to live at Bury St Edmunds, and in 1658 a passport

to travel abroad with the earl of Pembroke. At the Restoration Denham's

services were rewarded by the office of surveyor-general of works. His

qualifications as an architect were probably slight, but it is safe to

regard as grossly exaggerated the accusations of incompetence and

peculation made by Samuel Butler in his brutal "Panegyric upon Sir John

Denham's Recovery from his Madness." He eventually secured the services

of Christopher Wren as deputy-surveyor. In 1660 he was also made a

knight of the Bath.

In 1665 he married for the second time. His wife, Margaret, daughter of

Sir William Brooke, was, according to the comte de Gramont, a beautiful

girl of eighteen. She soon became known as the mistress of the duke of

York, and the scandal, according to common report, shattered the poet's

reason. While Denham was recovering, his wife died, poisoned, it was

said, by a cup of chocolate. Some suspected the duchess of York of the

crime, but the Comte de Gramont says that the general opinion was that

Denham himself was guilty. No sign of poison, however, was found in the

examination after Lady Denham's death. Denham survived her for two

years, dying at his house near Whitehall in March 1669. He was buried on

the 23rd in Westminster Abbey. In the last years of his life he wrote

the bitter political satires on the shameful conduct of the Dutch War

entitled "Directions to a Painter," and "Fresh Directions," continuing

Edmund Waller's "Instructions to a Painter." The printer of these poems,

with which were printed one by Andrew Marvell, was sentenced to stand in

the pillory. In 1667 Denham wrote his beautiful elegy on Abraham Cowley.

Denham's poems include, beside those already given, a verse

paraphrase of Cicero's _Cato major_, and a metrical version of the

Psalms. As a writer of didactic verse, he was perhaps too highly

praised by his immediate successors. Dryden called _Cooper's Hill_

"the exact standard of good writing," and Pope in his _Windsor

Forest_ called him "majestic Denham." His collected poems with a

dedicatory epistle to Charles II. appeared in 1668. Other editions

followed, and they are reprinted in Chalmers' (1810) and other

collections of the English poets. His political satires were printed

with some of Rochester's and Marvell's in _Bibliotheca curiosa_, vol.

i. (Edinburgh, 1885).

DÉNIA, a seaport of eastern Spain, in the province of Alicante; on the

Mediterranean Sea, at the head of a railway from Carcagente. Pop. (1900)

12,431. Dénia occupies the seaward slopes of a hill surmounted by a

ruined castle, and divided by a narrow valley on the south from the

limestone ridge of Mongó (2500 ft.), which commands a magnificent view

of the Balearic Islands and the Valencian coast. The older houses of

Dénia are characterized by their flat Moorish roofs (_azoteas_) and

view-turrets (_miradores_), while fragments of the Moorish ramparts are

also visible near the harbour; owing, however, to the rapid extension of

local commerce, many of the older quarters were modernized at the

beginning of the 20th century. Nails, and woollen, linen and esparto

grass fabrics are manufactured here; and there is a brisk export trade

in grapes, raisins and onions, mostly consigned to Great Britain or the

United States. Baltic timber and British coal are largely imported. The

harbour bay, which is well lighted and sheltered by a breakwater,

contains only a small space of deep water, shut in by deposits of sand

on three sides. In 1904 it accommodated 402 vessels of 175,000 tons;

about half of which were small fishing craft, and coasters carrying

agricultural produce to Spanish and African ports.

Dénia was colonized by Greek merchants from Emporiae (Ampurias in

Catalonia), or Massilia (Marseilles), at a very early date; but its

Greek name of _Hemeroskopeion_ was soon superseded by the Roman

_Dianium_. In the 1st century B.C., Sertorius made it the naval

headquarters of his resistance to Rome; and, as its name implies, it was

already famous for its temple of Diana, built in imitation of that at

Ephesus. The site of this temple can be traced at the foot of the castle

hill. Dénia was captured by the Moors in 713, and from 1031 to 1253

belonged successively to the Moorish kingdoms of Murcia and Valencia.

According to an ancient but questionable tradition, its population rose

at this period to 50,000, and its commerce proportionately increased.

After the city was retaken by the Christians in 1253, its prosperity

dwindled away, and only began to revive in the 19th century. During the

War of the Spanish Succession (1701-14), Dénia was thrice besieged; and

in 1813 the citadel was held for five months by the French against the

allied British and Spanish forces, until the garrison was reduced to 100

men, and compelled to surrender, on honourable terms.

DENIKER, JOSEPH (1852- ) French naturalist and anthropologist, was

born of French parents at Astrakhan, Russia, on the 6th of March 1852.

After receiving his education at the university and technical institute

of St Petersburg, he adopted engineering as a profession, and in this

capacity travelled extensively in the petroleum districts of the

Caucasus, in Central Europe, Italy and Dalmatia. Settling at Paris in

1876, he studied at the Sorbonne, where he took his degree in natural

science. In 1888 he was appointed chief librarian of the Natural History

Museum, Paris. Among his many valuable ethnological works mention may be

made of _Recherches anatomiques et embryologiques sur les singes

anthropoides_ (1886); _Étude sur les Kalmouks_ (1883); _Les Ghiliaks_

(1883); and _Races et peuples de la terre_ (1900). He became one of the

chief editors of the _Dictionnaire de géographie universelle_, and

published many papers in the anthropological and zoological journals of

France.

DENILIQUIN, a municipal town of Townsend county, New South Wales,

Australia, 534 m. direct S.W. of Sydney, and 195 m. by rail N. of

Melbourne. Pop. (1901) 2644. The business of the town is chiefly

connected with the interests of the sheep and cattle farmers of the

Riverina district, a plain country, in the main pastoral, but suited in

some parts for cultivation. Deniliquin has a well-known public school.

DENIM (an abbreviation of _serge de Nîmes_), the name originally given

to a kind of serge. It is now applied to a stout twilled cloth made in

various colours, usually of cotton, and used for overalls, &c.

DENINA, CARLO GIOVANNI MARIA (1731-1813), Italian historian, was born at

Revello, Piedmont, in 1731, and was educated at Saluzzo and Turin. In

1753 he was appointed to the chair of humanity at Pignerol, but he was

soon compelled by the influence of the Jesuits to retire from it. In

1756 he graduated as doctor in theology, and began authorship with a

theological treatise. Promoted to the professorship of humanity and

rhetoric in the college of Turin, he published (1769-1772) his _Delle

revoluzioni d'Italia_, the work on which his reputation is mainly

founded. Collegiate honours accompanied the issue of its successive

volumes, which, however, at the same time multiplied his foes and

stimulated their hatred. In 1782, at Frederick the Great's invitation,

he went to Berlin, where he remained for many years, in the course of

which he published his _Vie et règne de Frédéric II_ (Berlin, 1788) and

_La Prusse littéraire sous Frédéric II_ (3 vols., Berlin, 1790-1791).

His _Delle revoluzioni della Germania_ was published at Florence in

1804, in which year he went to Paris as the imperial librarian, on the

invitation of Napoleon. At Paris he published in 1805 his _Tableau de la

Haute Italie, et des Alpes qui l'entourent_. He died there on the 5th of

December 1813.

DENIS (DIONYSIUS), SAINT, first bishop of Paris, patron saint of France.

According to Gregory of Tours (_Hist. Franc._ i. 30), he was sent into

Gaul at the time of the emperor Decius. He suffered martyrdom at the

village of Catulliacus, the modern St Denis. His tomb was situated by the

side of the Roman road, where rose the priory of St-Denis-de-l'Estrée,

which existed until the 18th century. In the 5th century the clergy of

the diocese of Paris built a basilica over the tomb. About 625 Dagobert,

son of Lothair II., founded in honour of St Denis, at some distance from

the basilica, the monastery where the greater number of the kings of

France have been buried. The festival of St Denis is celebrated on the

9th of October. With his name are already associated in the

_Martyrologium Hieronymianum_ the priest Rusticus and the deacon

Eleutherius. Other traditions--of no value--are connected with the name

of St Denis. A false interpretation of Gregory of Tours, apparently

dating from 724, represented St Denis as having received his mission from

Pope Clement, and as having suffered martyrdom under Domitian (81-96).

Hilduin, abbot of St-Denis in the first half of the 9th century,

identified Denis of Paris with Denis (Dionysius) the Areopagite

(mentioned in Acts xviii. 34), bishop of Athens (Eusebius, _Hist. Eccl._

iii. 4. 10, iv. 23. 3), and naturally attributed to him the celebrated

writings of the pseudo-Areopagite. St Denis is generally represented

carrying his head in his hands.

See _Acta Sanctorum_, Octobris, iv. 696-987; _Bibliotheca

hagiographica graeca_, p. 37 (Brussels, 1895); _Bibliotheca

hagiographica latina_, No. 2171-2203 (Brussels, 1899); J. Havet, _Les

Origines de Saint-Denis_, in his collected works, i. 191-246 (Paris,

1896); Cahier, _Caractéristiques des saints_, p. 761 (Paris, 1867).

(H. DE.)

DENIS, JOHANN NEPOMUK COSMAS MICHAEL (1729-1800), Austrian poet, was

born at Schärding on the Inn, on the 27th of September 1729. He was

brought up by the Jesuits, entered their order, and in 1759 was

appointed professor in the Theresianum in Vienna, a Jesuit college. In

1784, after the suppression of the college, he was made second custodian

of the court library, and seven years later became chief librarian. He

died on the 29th of September 1800. A warm admirer of Klopstock, he was

one of the leading members of the group of so-called "bards"; and his

original poetry, published under the title _Die Lieder Sineds des

Barden_ (1772), shows all the extravagances of the "bardic" movement. He

is best remembered as the translator of _Ossian_ (1768-1769; also

published together with his own poems in 5 vols. as _Ossians und Sineds

Lieder_, 1784). More important than either his original poetry or his

translations were his efforts to familiarize the Austrians with the

literature of North Germany; his _Sammlung kürzerer Gedichte aus den

neuern Dichtern Deutschlands_, 3 vols. (1762-1766), was in this respect

invaluable. He has also left a number of bibliographical compilations,

_Grundriss der Bibliographie und Bücherkunde_ (1774), _Grundriss der

Literaturgeschichte_ (1776), _Einleitung in die Bücherkunde_ (1777) and

_Wiens Buchdruckergeschichte bis 1560_ (1782).

_Ossians und Sineds_ Lieder have not been reprinted since 1791; but a

selection of his poetry edited by R. Hamel will be found in vol. 48

(1884) of Kürschner's _Deutsche Nationalliteratur_. His

_Literarischer Nachlass_ was published by J. F. von Retzer in 1802 (2

vols.). See P. von Hofmann-Wellenhof, _Michael Denis_ (1881).

DENISON, GEORGE ANTHONY (1805-1896), English churchman, brother of John

Evelyn Denison (1800-1873; speaker of the House of Commons 1857-1872;

Viscount Ossington), was born at Ossington, Notts, on the 11th of

December 1805, and educated at Eton and Christ Church, Oxford. In 1828

he was elected fellow of Oriel; and after a few years there as a tutor,

during which he was ordained and acted as curate at Cuddesdon, he became

rector of Broadwindsor, Dorset (1838). He became a prebendary of Sarum

in 1841 and of Wells in 1849. In 1851 he was preferred to the valuable

living of East Brent, Somerset, and in the same year was made archdeacon

of Taunton. For many years Archdeacon Denison represented the extreme

High Tory party not only in politics but in the Church, regarding all

"progressive" movements in education or theology as abomination, and

vehemently repudiating the "higher criticism" from the days of _Essays

and Reviews_ (1860) to those of _Lux Mundi_ (1890). In 1853 he resigned

his position as examining chaplain to the bishop of Bath and Wells owing

to his pronounced eucharistic views. A suit on the complaint of a

neighbouring clergyman ensued and after various complications Denison

was condemned by the archbishops' court at Bath (1856); but on appeal

the court of Arches and the privy council quashed this judgment on a

technical plea. The result was to make Denison a keen champion of the

ritualistic school. He edited _The Church and State Review_ (1862-1865).

Secular state education and the "conscience clause" were anathema to

him. Until the end of his life he remained a protagonist in theological

controversy and a keen fighter against latitudinarianism and liberalism;

but the sharpest religious or political differences never broke his

personal friendships and his Christian charity. Among other things for

which he will be remembered was his origination of harvest festivals. He

died on the 21st of March 1896.

DENISON, GEORGE TAYLOR (1839- ), Canadian soldier and publicist, was

born in Toronto on the 31st of August 1839. In 1861 he was called to the

bar, and was from 1865-1867 a member of the city council. From the first

he took a prominent part in the organization of the military forces of

Canada, becoming a lieutenant-colonel in the active militia in 1866. He

saw active service during the Fenian raid of 1866, and during the

rebellion of 1885. Owing to his dissatisfaction with the conduct of the

Conservative ministry during the Red River Rebellion in 1869-70, he

abandoned that party, and in 1872 unsuccessfully contested Algoma in the

Liberal interest. Thereafter he remained free from party ties. In 1877

he was appointed police magistrate of Toronto. Colonel Denison was one

of the founders of the "Canada First" party, which did much to shape the

national aspirations from 1870 to 1878, and was a consistent supporter

of imperial federation and of preferential trade between Great Britain

and her colonies. He became a member of the Royal Society of Canada, and

was president of the section dealing with English history and

literature. The best known of his military works is his _History of

Modern Cavalry_ (London, 1877), which was awarded first prize by the

Russian government in an open competition and has been translated into

German, Russian and Japanese. In 1900 he published his reminiscences

under the title of _Soldiering in Canada_.

DENISON, a city of Grayson county, Texas, U.S.A., about 2½ m. from the

S. bank of the Red river, about 70 m. N. of Dallas. Pop. (1890) 10,958;

(1900) 11,807, of whom 2251 were negroes; (1910 census) 13,632. It is

served by the Houston & Texas Central, the Missouri, Kansas & Texas, the

Texas & Pacific, and the St Louis & San Francisco ('Frisco System)

railways, and is connected with Sherman, Texas, by an electric line.

Denison is the seat of the Gate City business college (generally known

as Harshaw Academy), and of St Xavier's academy (Roman Catholic). It is

chiefly important as a railway centre, as a collecting and distributing

point for the fruit, vegetables, hogs and poultry, and general farming

products of the surrounding region, and as a wholesale and jobbing

market for the upper Red river valley. It has railway repair shops, and

among its manufactures are cotton-seed oil, cotton, machinery and

foundry products, flour, wooden-ware, and dairy products. In 1905 its

factory products were valued at $1,234,956, 47.0% more than in 1900.

Denison was settled by Northerners at the time of the construction of

the Missouri, Kansas & Texas railway to this point in 1872, and was

named in honour of George Denison (1822-1876), a director of the

railway; it became a city in 1891, and in 1907 adopted the commission

form of government.

DENIZEN (derived through the Fr. from Lat. _de intus_, "from within,"

i.e. as opposed to "foreign"), an alien who obtains by letters patent

(_ex donatione regis_) certain of the privileges of a British subject.

He cannot be a member of the privy council or of parliament, or hold any

civil or military office of trust, or take a grant of land from the

crown. The Naturalization Act 1870 provides that nothing therein

contained shall affect the grant of any letters of denization by the

sovereign.

DENIZLI (anc. _Laodicea (q.v.) ad Lycum_), chief town of a sanjak of the

Aidin vilayet of Asia Minor, altitude 1167 ft. Pop. about 17,000. It is

beautifully situated at the foot of Baba Dagh (Mt. Salbacus), on a

tributary of the Churuk Su (Lycus), and is connected by a branch line

with the station of Gonjeli on the Smyrna-Dineir railway. It took the

place of Laodicea when that town was deserted during the wars between

the Byzantines and Seljuk Turks, probably between 1158 and 1174. It had

become a fine Moslem city in the 14th century, and was then called

Ladik, being famous for the woven and embroidered products of its Greek

inhabitants. The delightful gardens of Denizli have obtained for it the

name of the "Damascus of Anatolia."

DENMAN, THOMAS, 1ST BARON (1779-1854), English judge, was born in

London, the son of a well-known physician, on the 23rd of July 1779. He

was educated at Eton and St John's College, Cambridge, where he

graduated in 1800. Soon after leaving Cambridge he married; and in 1806

he was called to the bar at Lincoln's Inn, and at once entered upon

practice. His success was rapid, and in a few years he attained a

position at the bar second only to that of Brougham and Scarlett (Lord

Abinger). He distinguished himself by his eloquent defence of the

Luddites; but his most brilliant appearance was as one of the counsel

for Queen Caroline. His speech before the Lords was very powerful, and

some competent judges even considered it not inferior to Brougham's. It

contained one or two daring passages, which made the king his bitter

enemy, and retarded his legal promotion. At the general election of 1818

he was returned M.P. for Wareham, and at once took his seat with the

Whig opposition. In the following year he was returned for Nottingham,

for which place he continued to sit till his elevation to the bench in

1832. His liberal principles had caused his exclusion from office till

in 1822 he was appointed common serjeant by the corporation of London.

In 1830 he was made attorney-general under Lord Grey's administration.

Two years later he was made lord chief justice of the King's Bench, and

in 1834 he was raised to the peerage. As a judge he is most celebrated

for his decision in the important privilege case of _Stockdale_ v.

_Hansard_ (9 Ad. & El. I.; 11 Ad. & El. 253), but he was never ranked as

a profound lawyer. In 1850 he resigned his chief justiceship and retired

into private life. He died on the 26th of September 1854, his title

continuing in the direct line.

The HON. GEORGE DENMAN (1819-1896), his fourth son, was also a

distinguished lawyer, and a judge of the Queen's Bench from 1872 till

his death in 1896.

See Memoir of _Thomas, first Lord Denman_, by Sir Joseph Arnould (2

vols., 1873); E. Manson, _Builders of our Law_ (1904).

DENMARK (_Danmark_), a small kingdom of Europe, occupying part of a

peninsula and a group of islands dividing the Baltic and North Seas, in

the middle latitudes of the eastern coast. The kingdom lies between 54°

33' and 57° 45' N. and between 8° 4' 54" and 12° 47' 25" E., exclusive

of the island of Bornholm, which, as will be seen, is not to be included

in the Danish archipelago. The peninsula is divided between Denmark and

Germany (Schleswig-Holstein). The Danish portion is the northern and the

greater, and is called Jutland (Dan. _Jylland_). Its northern part is

actually insular, divided from the mainland by the Limfjord or

Liimfjord, which communicates with the North Sea to the west and the

Cattegat to the east, but this strait, though broad and possessing

lacustrine characteristics to the west, has only very narrow entrances.

The connexion with the North Sea dates from 1825. The Skagerrack bounds

Jutland to the north and north-west. The Cattegat is divided from the

Baltic by the Danish islands, between the east coast of the Cimbric

peninsula in the neighbourhood of the German frontier and south-western

Sweden.

There is little variety in the surface of Denmark. It is uniformly low,

the highest elevation in the whole country, the Himmelbjerg near Aarhus

in eastern Jutland, being little more than 500 ft. above the sea.

Denmark, however, is nowhere low in the sense in which Holland is; the

country is pleasantly diversified, and rises a little at the coast even

though it remains flat inland. The landscape of the islands and the

south-eastern part of Jutland is rich in beech-woods, corn fields and

meadows, and even the minute islets are green and fertile. In the

western and northern districts of Jutland this condition gives place to

a wide expanse of moorland, covered with heather, and ending towards the

sea in low whitish-grey cliffs. There is a certain charm even about

these monotonous tracts, and it cannot be said that Denmark is wanting

in natural beauty of a quiet order. Lakes, though small, are numerous;

the largest are the Arresö and the Esromsö in Zealand, and the chain of

lakes in the Himmelbjerg region, which are drained by the largest river

in Denmark, the Gudenaa, which, however, has a course not exceeding 80

m. Many of the meres, overhung with thick beech-woods, are extremely

beautiful. The coasts are generally low and sandy; the whole western

shore of Jutland is a succession of sand ridges and shallow lagoons,

very dangerous to shipping. In many places the sea has encroached; even

in the 19th century entire villages were destroyed, but during the last

twenty years of the century systematic efforts were made to secure the

coast by groynes and embankments. A belt of sand dunes, from 500 yds. to

7 m. wide, stretches along the whole of this coast for about 200 m.

Skagen, or the Skaw, a long, low, sandy point, stretches far into the

northern sea, dividing the Skagerrack from the Cattegat. On the western

side the coast is bolder and less inhospitable; there are several

excellent havens, especially on the islands. The coast is nowhere,

however, very high, except at one or two points in Jutland, and at the

eastern extremity of Möen, where limestone cliffs occur.

Continental Denmark is confined wholly to Jutland, the geographical

description of which is given under that heading. Out of the total area

of the kingdom, 14,829 sq. m., Jutland, including the small islands

adjacent to it, covers 9753 sq. m., and the insular part of the kingdom

(including Bornholm), 5076 sq. m. The islands may be divided into two

groups, consisting of the two principal islands Fünen and Zealand, and

the lesser islands attendant on each. Fünen (Dan. _Fyen_), in form

roughly an oval with an axis from S.E. to N.W. of 53 m., is separated

from Jutland by a channel not half a mile wide in the north, but

averaging 10 m. between the island and the Schleswig coast, and known as

the Little Belt. Fünen, geologically a part of southern Jutland, has

similar characteristics, a smiling landscape of fertile meadows, the

typical beech-forests clothing the low hills and the presence of

numerous erratic blocks, are the superficial signs of likeness. Several

islands, none of great extent, lie off the west coast of Fünen in the

Little Belt; off the south, however, an archipelago is enclosed by the

long narrow islands of Aerö (16 m. in length) and Langeland (32 m.),

including in a triangular area of shallow sea the islands of Taasinge,

Avernakö, Dreiö, Turö and others. These are generally fertile and well

cultivated. Aeröskjöbing and Rudkjöbing, on Aerö and Langeland

respectively, are considerable ports. On Langeland is the great castle

of Tranekjaer, whose record dates from the 13th century. The chief towns

of Fünen itself are all coastal. Odense is the principal town, lying

close to a great inlet behind the peninsula of Hindsholm on the

north-east, known as Odense Fjord. Nyborg on the east is the port for

the steam-ferry to Korsör in Zealand; Svendborg picturesquely overlooks

the southern archipelago; Faaborg on the south-west lies on a fjord of

the same name; Assens, on the west, a port for the crossing of the

Little Belt into Schleswig, still shows traces of the fortifications

which were stormed by John of Ranzau in 1535; Middelfart is a seaside

resort near the narrowest reach of the Little Belt; Bogense is a small

port on the north coast. All these towns are served by railways

radiating from Odense. The strait crossed by the Nyborg-Korsör ferry is

the Great Belt which divides the Fünen from the Zealand group, and is

continued south by the Langelands Belt, which washes the straight

eastern shore of that island, and north by the Samso Belt, named from an

island 15 m. in length, with several large villages, which lies somewhat

apart from the main archipelago.

Zealand, or Sealand (Dan. _Sjaelland_), measuring 82 m. N. to S. by 68

E. to W. (extremes), with its fantastic coast-line indented by fjords

and projecting into long spits or promontories, may be considered as the

nucleus of the kingdom, inasmuch as it contains the capital, Copenhagen,

and such important towns as Roskilde, Slagelse, Korsör, Naestved and

Elsinore (Helsingör). Its topography is described in detail under

ZEALAND. Its attendant islands lie mainly to the south and are parts of

itself, only separated by geologically recent troughs. The eastern

coast of Möen is rocky and bold. It is recorded that this island formed

three separate isles in 1100, and the village of Borre, now 2 m. inland,

was the object of an attack by a fleet from Lübeck in 1510. On Falster

is the port of Nykjöbing, and from Gjedser, the extreme southern point

of Denmark, communication is maintained with Warnemünde in Germany (29

m.). From Nykjöbing a bridge nearly one-third of a mile long crosses to

Laaland, at the west of which is the port of Nakskov; the other towns

are the county town of Maribo with its fine church of the 14th century,

Saxkjöbing and Rödby. The island of Bornholm lies 86 m. E. of the

nearest point of the archipelago, and as it belongs geologically to

Sweden (from which it is distant only 22 m.) must be considered to be

physically an appendage rather than an internal part of the kingdom of

Denmark.

_Geology._--The surface in Denmark is almost everywhere formed by the

so-called Boulder Clay and what the Danish geologists call the Boulder

Sand. The former, as is well known, owes its origin to the action of ice

on the mountains of Norway in the Glacial period. It is unstratified;

but by the action of water on it, stratified deposits have been formed,

some of clay, containing remains of arctic animals, some, and very

extensive ones, of sand and gravel. This boulder sand forms almost

everywhere the highest hills, and besides, in the central part of

Jutland, a wide expanse of heath and moorland apparently level, but

really sloping gently towards the west. The deposits of the boulder

formation rest generally on limestone of the Cretaceous period, which in

many places comes near the surface and forms cliffs on the sea-coast.

Much of the Danish chalk, including the well-known limestone of Faxe,

belongs to the highest or "Danian" subdivision of the Cretaceous period.

In the south-western parts a succession of strata, described as the

Brown Coal or Lignite formations, intervenes between the chalk and the

boulder clay; its name is derived from the deposits of lignite which

occur in it. It is only on the island of Bornholm that older formations

come to light. This island agrees in geological structure with the

southern part of Sweden, and forms, in fact, the southernmost portion of

the Scandinavian system. There the boulder clay lies immediately on the

primitive rock, except in the south-western corner of the island, where

a series of strata appear belonging to the Cambrian, Silurian, Jurassic

and Cretaceous formations, the true Coal formation, &c., being absent.

Some parts of Denmark are supposed to have been finally raised out of

the sea towards the close of the Cretaceous period; but as a whole the

country did not appear above the water till about the close of the

Glacial period. The upheaval of the country, a movement common to a

large part of the Scandinavian peninsula, still continues, though

slowly, north-east of a line drawn in a south-easterly direction from

Nissumfjord on the west coast of Jutland, across the island of Fyen, a

little south of the town of Nyborg. Ancient sea-beaches, marked by

accumulations of seaweed, rolled stones, &c., have been noticed as much

as 20 ft. above the present level. But the upheaval does not seem to

affect all parts equally. Even in historic times it has vastly changed

the aspect and configuration of the country.

_Climate, Flora, Fauna._--The climate of Denmark does not differ

materially from that of Great Britain in the same latitude; but whilst

the summer is a little warmer, the winter is colder, so that most of the

evergreens which adorn an English garden in the winter cannot be grown

in the open in Denmark. During thirty years the annual mean temperature

varied from 43.88° F. to 46.22° in different years and different

localities, the mean average for the whole country being 45.14°. The

islands have, upon the whole, a somewhat warmer climate than Jutland.

The mean temperatures of the four coldest months, December to March, are

33.26°, 31.64°, 31.82°, and 33.98° respectively, or for the whole winter

32.7°; that of the summer, June to August, 59.2°, but considerable

irregularities occur. Frost occurs on an average on twenty days in each

of the four winter months, but only on two days in either October or

May. A fringe of ice generally lines the greater part of the Danish

coasts on the eastern side for some time during the winter, and both the

Sound and the Great Belt are at times impassable on account of ice. In

some winters the latter is sufficiently firm and level to admit of

sledges passing between Copenhagen and Malmö. The annual rainfall varies

between 21.58 in. and 27.87 in. in different years and different

localities. It is highest on the west coast of Jutland; while the small

island of Anholt in the Cattegat has an annual rainfall of only 15.78

in. More than half the rainfall occurs from July to November, the

wettest month being September, with an average of 2.95 in.; the driest

month is April, with an average of 1.14 in. Thunderstorms are frequent

in the summer. South-westerly winds prevail from January to March, and

from September to the end of the year. In April the east wind, which is

particularly searching, is predominant, while westerly winds prevail

from May to August. In the district of Aalborg, in the north of Jutland,

a cold and dry N.W. wind called _skai_ prevails in May and June, and is

exceedingly destructive to vegetation; while along the west coast of the

peninsula similar effects are produced by a salt mist, which carries its

influence from 15 to 30 m. inland.

The flora of Denmark presents greater variety than might be anticipated

in a country of such simple physical structure. The ordinary forms of

the north of Europe grow freely in the mild air and protected soil of

the islands and the eastern coast; while on the heaths and along the

sandhills on the Atlantic side there flourish a number of distinctive

species. The Danish forest is almost exclusively made up of beech, a

tree which thrives better in Denmark than in any other country of

Europe. The oak and ash are now rare, though in ancient times both were

abundant in the Danish islands. The elm is also scarce. The almost

universal predominance of the beech is by no means of ancient origin,

for in the first half of the 17th century the oak was still the

characteristic Danish tree. No conifer grows in Denmark except under

careful cultivation, which, however, is largely practised in Jutland

(q.v.). But again, abundant traces of ancient extensive forests of fir

and pine are found in the numerous peat bogs which supply a large

proportion of the fuel locally used. In Bornholm, it should be

mentioned, the flora is more like that of Sweden; not the beech, but the

pine, birch and ash are the most abundant trees.

The wild animals and birds of Denmark are those of the rest of central

Europe. The larger quadrupeds are all extinct; even the red deer,

formerly so abundant that in a single hunt in Jutland in 1593 no less

than 1600 head of deer were killed, is now only to be met with in

preserves. In the prehistoric "kitchen-middens" (_kjökkenmödding_) and

elsewhere, however, vestiges are found which prove that the urochs, the

wild boar, the beaver, the bear and the wolf all existed subsequently to

the arrival of man. The usual domestic animals are abundantly found in

Denmark, with the exception of the goat, which is uncommon. The sea

fisheries are of importance. Oysters are found in some places, but have

disappeared from many localities, where their abundance in ancient times

is proved by their shell moulds on the coast. The Gudenaa is the only

salmon river in Denmark.

[Illustration: DENMARK]

_Population._--The population of Denmark in 1901 was 2,449,540. It was

929,001 in 1801, showing an increase during the century in the

proportion of 1 to 2.63. In 1901 the average density of the population

of Denmark was 165.2 to the square mile, but varied much in the

different parts. Jutland showed an average of only 109 inhabitants per

square mile, whilst on the islands, which had a total population of

1,385,537, the average stood at 272.95, owing, on the one hand, to the

fact that large tracts in the interior of Jutland are almost

uninhabited, and on the other to the fact that the capital of the

country, with its proportionately large population, is situated on the

island of Zealand. The percentages of urban and rural population are

respectively about 38 and 62. A notable movement of the population to

the towns began about the middle of the 19th century, and increased

until very near its end. It was stronger on the islands, where the rural

population increased by 5.3% only in eleven years, whereas in Jutland

the increase of the rural population between 1890 and 1901 amounted to

12.0%. Here, however, peculiar circumstances contributed to the

increase, as successful efforts have been made to render the land

fruitful by artificial means. The Danes are a yellow-haired and

blue-eyed Teutonic race of middle stature, bearing traces of their

kinship with the northern Scandinavian peoples. Their habits of life

resemble those of the North Germans even more than those of the Swedes.

The independent tenure of the land by a vast number of small farmers,

who are their own masters, gives an air of carelessness, almost of

truculence, to the well-to-do Danish peasants. They are generally slow

of speech and manner, and somewhat irresolute, but take an eager

interest in current politics, and are generally fairly educated men of

extreme democratic principles. The result of a fairly equal distribution

of wealth is a marked tendency towards equality in social intercourse.

The townspeople show a bias in favour of French habits and fashions. The

separation from the duchies of Schleswig and Holstein, which were more

than half German, intensified the national character; the Danes are

intensely patriotic; and there is no portion of the Danish dominions

except perhaps in the West Indian islands, where a Scandinavian language

is not spoken. The preponderance of the female population over the male

is approximately as 1052 to 1000. The male sex remains in excess until

about the twentieth year, from which age the female sex preponderates in

increasing ratio with advancing age. The percentage of illegitimacy is

high as a whole, although in some of the rural districts it is very low.

But in Copenhagen 20% of the births are illegitimate. Between the middle

and the end of the 19th century the rate of mortality decreased most

markedly for all ages. During the last decade of the century it ranged

between 19.5 per thousand in 1891 and 15.1 in 1898 (17.4 in 1900).

Emigration for some time in the 19th century at different periods, both

in its early part and towards its close, seriously affected the

population of Denmark. But in the last decade it greatly diminished.

Thus in 1892 the number of emigrants to Transatlantic places rose to

10,422 but in 1900 it was only 3570. The great bulk of them go to the

United States; next in favour is Canada.

_Communications._--The roads of Denmark form an extensive and

well-maintained system. The railway system is also fairly complete, the

state owning about three-fifths of the total mileage, which amounts to

some 2000. Two lines enter Denmark from Schleswig across the frontier.

The main Danish lines are as follows. From the frontier a line runs east

by Fredericia, across the island of Fünen by Odense and Nyborg, to

Korsör on Zealand, and thence by Roskilde to Copenhagen. The straits

between Fredericia and Middelfart and between Nyborg and Korsör are

crossed by powerful steam-ferries which are generally capable of

conveying a limited number of railway wagons. This system is also in use

on the line which runs south from Roskilde to the island of Falster,

from the southernmost point of which, Gjedser, ferry-steamers taking

railway cars serve Warnemünde in Germany. The main lines in Jutland run

(a) along the eastern side north from Fredericia by Horsens, Aarhus,

Randers, Aalborg and Hjörring, to Frederikshavn, and (b) along the

western side from Esbjerg by Skjerne and Vemb, and thence across the

peninsula by Viborg to Langaa on the eastern line. The lines are

generally of standard gauge (4 ft. 8½ in.), but there is also a

considerable mileage of light narrow-gauge railways. Besides the

numerous steam-ferries which connect island and island, and Jutland with

the islands, and the Gjedser-Warnemünde route, a favourite passenger

line from Germany is that between Kiel and Korsör, while most of the

German Baltic ports have direct connexion with Copenhagen. With Sweden

communications are established by ferries across the Sound between

Copenhagen and Malmö and Landskrona, and between Elsinore (Helsingör)

and Helsingborg. The postal department maintains a telegraph and

telephone service.

_Industries._--The main source of wealth in Denmark is agriculture,

which employs about two-fifths of the entire population. Most of the

land is freehold and cultivated by the owner himself, and comparatively

little land is let on lease except very large holdings and glebe farms.

The independent small farmer (_bönder_) maintains a hereditary

attachment to his ancestral holding. There is also a class of cottar

freeholders (_junster_). Fully 74% of the total area of the country is

agricultural land. Of this only about one-twelfth is meadow land. The

land under grain crops is not far short of one-half the remainder, the

principal crops being oats, followed by barley and rye in about equal

quantities, with wheat about one-sixth that of barley and hardly

one-tenth that of oats. Beet is extensively grown. During the last forty

years of the 19th century dairy-farming was greatly developed in

Denmark, and brought to a high degree of perfection by the application

of scientific methods and the best machinery, as well as by the

establishment of joint dairies. The Danish government has assisted this

development by granting money for experiments and by a rigorous system

of inspection for the prevention of adulteration. The co-operative

system plays an important part in the industries of butter-making,

poultry-farming and the rearing of swine.

Rabbits, which are not found wild in Denmark, are bred for export. Woods

cover fully 7% of the area, and their preservation is considered of so

much importance that private owners are under strict control as regards

cutting of timber. The woods consist mostly of beech, which is

principally used for fuel, but pines were extensively planted during the

19th century. Allusion has been made already to the efforts to plant the

extensive heaths in Jutland (q.v.) with pine-trees.

_Agriculture._--Rates and taxes on land are mostly levied according to a

uniform system of assessment, the unit of which is called a _Tonde

Hartkorn_. The Td. Htk., as it is usually abbreviated, has further

subdivision, and is intended to correspond to the same value of land

throughout the country. The Danish measure for land is a _Tonde Land_

(Td. L.), which is equal to 1.363 statute acres. Of the best ploughing

land a little over 6 Td. L., or about 8 acres, go to a Td. Htk., but of

unprofitable land a Td. Htk. may represent 300 acres or more. On the

islands and in the more fertile part of Jutland the average is about 10

Td. L., or 13½ acres. Woodland, tithes, &c., are also assessed to Td.

Htk. for fiscal purposes. In the island of Bornholm, the assessment is

somewhat different, though the general state of agricultural holdings is

the same as in other parts. The selling value of land has shown a

decrease in modern times on account of the agricultural depression. A

homestead with land assessed less than 1 Td. Htk. is legally called a

_Huus_ or _Sted_, i.e. cottage, whilst a farm assessed at 1 Td. Htk. or

more is called _Gaard_, i.e. farm. Farms of between 1 and 12 Td. Htk.

are called _Bondergaarde_, or peasant farms, and are subject to the

restriction that such a holding cannot lawfully be joined to or entirely

merged into another. They may be subdivided, and portions may be added

to another holding, but the homestead, with a certain amount of land,

must be preserved as a separate holding for ever. The seats of the

nobility and landed gentry are called _Herregaarde_. The peasants hold

about 73% of all the land according to its value. As regards their size

about 30% are assessed from 1 to 4 Td. Htk.; about 33% from 4 to 8 Td.

Htk.; the remainder at about 8 Td. Htk. An annual sum is voted by

parliament out of which loans are granted to cottagers who desire to

purchase small freehold plots.

The fishery along the coasts of Denmark is of some importance both on

account of the supply of food obtained thereby for the population of the

country, and on account of the export; but the good fishing grounds, not

far from the Danish coast, particularly in the North Sea, are mostly

worked by the fishing vessels of other nations, which are so numerous

that the Danish government is obliged to keep gun-boats stationed there

in order to prevent encroachments on territorial waters.

_Other Industries._--The mineral products of Denmark are unimportant. It

is one of the poorest countries of Europe in this particular. It is

rich, however, in clays, while in the island of Bornholm there are

quarries of freestone and marble. The factories of Denmark supply mainly

local needs. The largest are those engaged in the construction of

engines and iron ships. The manufacture of woollens and cotton, the

domestic manufacture of linen in Zealand, sugar refineries, paper mills,

breweries, and distilleries may also be mentioned. The most notable

manufacture is that of porcelain. The nucleus of this industry was a

factory started in 1772, by F. H. Müller, for the making of china out of

Bornholm clay. In 1779 it passed into the hands of the state, and has

remained there ever since, though there are also private factories.

Originally the Copenhagen potters imitated the Dresden china made at

Meissen, but they later produced graceful original designs. The

creations of Thorvaldsen have been largely repeated and imitated in this

ware. Trade-unionism flourishes in Denmark, and strikes are of frequent

occurrence.

_Commerce._--Formerly the commercial legislation of Denmark was to such

a degree restrictive that imported manufactures had to be delivered to

the customs, where they were sold by public auction, the proceeds of

which the importer received from the custom-houses after a deduction was

made for the duty. To this restriction, as regards foreign intercourse,

was added a no less injurious system of inland duties impeding the

commerce of the different provinces with each other. The want of roads

also, and many other disadvantages, tended to keep down the development

of both commerce and industry. During the 19th century, however, several

commercial treaties were concluded between Denmark and the other powers

of Europe, which made the Danish tariff more regular and liberal.

The vexed question, of many centuries' standing, concerning the claim of

Denmark to levy dues on vessels passing through the Sound (q.v.), was

settled by the abolition of the dues in 1857. The commerce of Denmark is

mainly based on home production and home consumption, but a certain

quantity of goods is imported with a view to re-exportation, for which

the free port and bonded warehouses at Copenhagen give facilities. In

modern times the value of Danish commerce greatly increased, being

doubled in the last twenty years of the 19th century, and exceeding a

total of fifty millions sterling. The value of export is exceeded as a

whole by that of import in the proportion, roughly, of 1 to 1.35. By far

the most important articles of export may be classified as articles of

food of animal origin, a group which covers the vast export trade in the

dairy produce, especially butter, for which Denmark is famous. The value

of the butter for export reaches nearly 40% of the total value of Danish

exports. A small proportion of the whole is imported chiefly from Russia

(also Siberia) and Sweden and re-exported as of foreign origin. The

production of margarine is large, but not much is exported, margarine

being largely consumed in Denmark instead of butter, which is exported.

Next to butter the most important article of Danish export is bacon, and

huge quantities of eggs are also exported. Exports of less value, but

worthy of special notice, are vegetables and wool, bones and tallow,

also dairy machinery, and finally cement, the production of which is a

growing industry. The classes of articles of food of animal origin, and

living animals, are the only ones of which the exportation exceeds the

importation; with regard to all other goods, the reverse is the case. In

the second of these classes the most important export is home-bred

horned cattle. The trade in live sheep and swine, which was formerly

important, has mostly been converted into a dead-meat trade. A

proportionally large importation of timber is caused by the scarcity of

native timber suitable for building purposes, the plantations of firs

and pines being insufficient to produce the quantity required, and the

quality of the wood being inferior beyond the age of about forty years.

The large importation of coal, minerals and metals, and goods made from

them is likewise caused by the natural poverty of the country in these

respects.

Denmark carries on its principal import trade with Germany, Great

Britain and the United States of America, in this order, the proportions

being about 30, 20 and 16% respectively of the total. Its principal

export trade is with Great Britain, Germany and Sweden, the percentage

of the whole being 60, 18 and 10. With Russia, Norway and France (in

this order) general trade is less important, but still large. A

considerable proportion of Denmark's large commercial fleet is engaged

in the carrying trade between foreign, especially British, ports.

Under a law of the 4th of May 1907 it was enacted that the metric system

of weights and measures should come into official use in three years

from that date, and into general use in five years.

_Money and Banking._--The unit of the Danish monetary system, as of the

Swedish and Norwegian, is the _krone_ (crown), equal to 1s. 1{1/3}d.,

which is divided into 100 _öre_; consequently 7½ öre are equal to one

penny. Since 1873 gold has been the standard, and gold pieces of 20 and

10 kroner are coined, but not often met with, as the public prefers

bank-notes. The principal bank is the National Bank at Copenhagen, which

is the only one authorized to issue notes. These are of the value of 10,

50, 100 and 500 kr. Next in importance are the Danske Landmands Bank,

the Handels Bank and the Private Bank, all at Copenhagen. The provincial

banks are very numerous; many of them are at the same time savings

banks. Their rate of interest, with few exceptions, is 3½ to 4%. There

exist, besides, in Denmark several mutual loan associations

(_Kreditforeninger_), whose business is the granting of loans on

mortgage. Registration of mortgages is compulsory in Denmark, and the

system is extremely simple, a fact which has been of the greatest

importance for the improvement of the country. There are comparatively

large institutions for insurance of all kinds in Denmark. The largest

office for life insurance is a state institution. By law of the 9th of

April 1891 a system of old-age pensions was established for the benefit

of persons over sixty years of age.

_Government._--Denmark is a limited monarchy, according to the law of

1849, revised in 1866. The king shares his power with the parliament

(_Rigsdag_), which consists of two chambers, the _Landsthing_ and the

_Folkething_, but the constitution contains no indication of any

difference in their attributes. The Landsthing, or upper house, however,

is evidently intended to form the conservative element in the

constitutional machinery. While the 114 members of the Folkething (House

of Commons) are elected for three years in the usual way by universal

suffrage, 12 out of the 66 members of the Landsthing are life members

nominated by the crown. The remaining 54 members of the Landsthing are

returned for eight years according to a method of proportionate

representation by a body of deputy electors. Of these deputies one-half

are elected in the same way as members of the Folkething, without any

property qualification for the voters; the other half of the deputy

electors are chosen in the towns by those who during the last preceding

year were assessed on a certain minimum of income, or paid at least a

certain amount in rates and taxes. In the rural districts the deputy

electors returned by election are supplemented by an equal number of

those who have paid the highest amounts in taxes and county rates

together. In this manner a representation is secured for fairly large

minorities, and what is considered a fair share of influence on public

affairs given to those who contribute the most to the needs of the

state. The franchise is held by every male who has reached his thirtieth

year, subject to independence of public charity and certain other

circumstances. A candidate for either house of the Rigsdag must have

passed the age of twenty-five. Members are paid ten kroner each day of

the session and are allowed travelling expenses. The houses meet each

year on the first Monday in October. The constitutional theory of the

Folkething is that of one member for every 16,000 inhabitants. The

Faeröe islands, which form an integral part of the kingdom of Denmark in

the wider sense, are represented in the Danish parliament, but not the

other dependencies of the Danish crown, namely Iceland, Greenland and

the West Indian islands of St Thomas, St John and St Croix. The budget

is considered by the Folkething at the beginning of each session. The

revenue and expenditure average annually about £4,700,000. The principal

items of revenue are customs and excise, land and house tax, stamps,

railways, legal fees, the state lottery and death duties. A considerable

reserve fund is maintained to meet emergencies. The public debt is about

£13,500,000 and is divided into an internal debt, bearing interest

generally at 3½%, and a foreign debt (the larger), with interest

generally at 3%. The revenue and expenditure of the Faeröes are included

in the budget for Denmark proper, but Iceland and the West Indies have

their separate budgets. The Danish treasury receives nothing from these

possessions; on the contrary, Iceland receives an annual grant, and the

West Indian islands have been heavily subsidized by the Danish finances

to assist the sugar industry. The administration of Greenland (q.v.)

entails an annual loss which is posted on the budget of the ministry of

finances. The state council (_Statsraad_) includes the presidency of the

council and ministries of war, and marine, foreign affairs, the

interior, justice, finance, public institution and ecclesiastical,

agriculture and public works.

_Local Government._--For administrative purposes the country is divided

into eighteen counties (_Amter_, singular _Amt_), as follows. (1)

Covering the islands of Zealand and lesser adjacent islands, Copenhagen,

Frederiksborg, Holbaek, Sorö, Praestö. (2) Covering the islands of

Laaland and Falster, Maribo. (3) Covering Fünen, Langeland and adjacent

islets, Svendborg, Odense. (4) On the mainland, Hjörring, Aalborg,

Thisted, Ringkjöbing, Viborg, Randers, Aarhus, Vejle, Ribe. (5)

Bornholm. The principal civil officer in each of these is the _Amtmand_.

Local affairs are managed by the _Amstraad_ and _Sogneraad_,

corresponding to the English county council and parish council. These

institutions date from 1841, but they have undergone several

modifications since. The members of these councils are elected on a

system similar to that applied to the elections for the Landsthing. The

same is the case with the provincial town councils. That of Copenhagen

is elected by those who are rated on an income of at least 400 kroner

(£22). The burgomasters are appointed by the crown, except at

Copenhagen, where they are elected by the town council, subject to royal

approbation. The financial position of the municipalities in Denmark is

generally good. The ordinary budget of Copenhagen amounts to about

£1,100,000 a year.

_Justice._--For the administration of justice Denmark is divided into

_herreds_ or hundreds; as, however, they are mostly of small extent,

several are generally served by one judge (_herredsfoged_); the

townships are likewise separate jurisdictions, each with a _byfoged_.

There are 126 such local judges, each of whom deals with all kinds of

cases arising in his district, and is also at the head of the police.

There are two intermediary Courts of Appeal (_Overret_), one in

Copenhagen, another in Viborg; the Supreme Court of Appeal

(_Höjesteret_) sits at Copenhagen. In the capital the different

functions are more divided. There is also a Court of Commerce and

Navigation, on which leading members of the trading community serve as

assessors. In the country, Land Commissions similarly constituted deal

with many questions affecting agricultural holdings. A peculiarity of

the Danish system is that, with few exceptions, no civil cause can be

brought before a court until an attempt has been made at effecting an

amicable settlement. This is mostly done by so-called Committees of

Conciliation, but in some cases by the court itself before commencing

formal judicial proceedings. In this manner three-fifths of all the

causes are settled, and many which remain unsettled are abandoned by the

plaintiffs. Sanitary matters are under the control of a Board of Health.

The whole country is divided into districts, in each of which a medical

man is appointed with a salary, who is under the obligation to attend to

poor sick and assist the authorities in medical matters, inquests, &c.

The relief of the poor is well organized, mostly on the system of

out-door relief. Many workhouses have been established for indigent

persons capable of work. There are also many almshouses and similar

institutions.

_Army and Navy._--The active army consists of a life guard battalion and

10 infantry regiments of 3 battalions each, infantry, 5 cavalry

regiments of 3 squadrons each, 12 field batteries (now re-armed with a

Krupp Q.F. equipment), 3 battalions of fortress artillery and 6

companies of engineers, with in addition various local troops and

details. The peace strength of permanent troops, without the annual

contingent of recruits, is about 13,500 officers and men, the annual

contingent of men trained two or three years with the colours about

22,500, and the annual contingent of special reservists (men trained for

brief periods) about 17,000. Thus the number of men maintained under

arms (without calling up the reserves) is as high as 75,000 during

certain periods of the year and averages nearly 60,000. Reservists who

have definitively left the colours are recalled for short refresher

trainings, the number of men so trained in 1907 being about 80,000. The

field army on a war footing, without depot troops, garrison troops and

reservists, would be about 50,000 strong, but by constituting new cadres

at the outbreak of war and calling up the reserves it could be more than

doubled, and as a matter of fact nearly 120,000 men were with the

colours in the manoeuvre season in 1907. The term of service is eight

years in the active army and its reserves and eight years in the second

line. The armament of the infantry is the Krag-jorgensen of .314 in.

calibre, model 1889, that of the field artillery a 7.5 cm. Krupp Q.F.

equipment, model 1902. The navy consists of 6 small battleships, 3 coast

defence armour-clads, 5 protected cruisers, 5 gun-boats, and 24 torpedo

craft.

_Religion._--The national or state church of Denmark is officially

styled "Evangelically Reformed," but is popularly described as Lutheran.

The king must belong to it. There is complete religious toleration, but

though most of the important Christian communities are represented their

numbers are very small. The Mormon apostles for a considerable time made

a special raid upon the Danish peasantry and a few hundreds profess this

faith. There are seven dioceses, Fünen, Laaland and Falster, Aarhus,

Aalborg, Viborg and Ribe, while the primate is the bishop of Zealand,

and resides at Copenhagen, but his cathedral is at Roskilde. The bishops

have no political function by reason of their office, although they may,

and often do, take a prominent part in politics. The greater part of the

pastorates comprise more than one parish. The benefices are almost

without exception provided with good residences and glebes, and the

tithes, &c., generally afford a comfortable income. The bishops have

fixed salaries in lieu of tithes appropriated by the state.

_Education and Arts._--The educational system of Denmark is maintained

at a high standard. The instruction in primary schools is gratuitous.

Every child is bound to attend the parish school at least from the

seventh to the thirteenth year, unless the parents can prove that it

receives suitable instruction in other ways. The schools are under the

immediate control of school boards appointed by the parish councils, but

of which the incumbent of the parish is _ex-officio_ member; superior

control is exercised by the Amtmand, the rural dean, and the bishop,

under the Minister for church and education. Secondary public schools

are provided in towns, in which moderate school fees are paid. There are

also public grammar-schools. Nearly all schools are day-schools. There

are only two public schools, which, though on a much smaller scale,

resemble the great English schools, namely, those of Sorö and

Herlufsholm, both founded by private munificence. Private schools are

generally under a varying measure of public control. The university is

at Copenhagen (q.v.). Amongst numerous other institutions for the

furtherance of science and training of various kinds may be mentioned

the large polytechnic schools; the high school for agriculture and

veterinary art; the royal library; the royal society of sciences; the

museum of northern antiquities; the society of northern antiquaries, &c.

The art museums of Denmark are not considerable, except the museum of

Thorvaldsen, at Copenhagen, but much is done to provide first-rate

training in the fine arts and their application to industry through the

Royal Academy of Arts, and its schools. Finally, it may be mentioned

that a sum proportionately large is available from public funds and

regular parliamentary grants for furthering science and arts by

temporary subventions to students, authors, artists and others of

insufficient means, in order to enable them to carry out particular

works, to profit by foreign travel, &c. The principal scientific

societies and institutions are detailed under Copenhagen. During the

earlier part of the 19th century not a few men could be mentioned who

enjoyed an exceptional reputation in various departments of science, and

Danish scientists continue to contribute their full share to the

advancement of knowledge. The society of sciences, that of northern

antiquaries, the natural history and the botanical societies, &c.,

publish their transactions and proceedings, but the _Naturhistorisk

Tidsskrift_, of which 14 volumes with 259 plates were published

(1861-1884), and which was in the foremost rank in its department,

ceased with the death in 1884 of the editor, the distinguished

zoologist, I. C. Schiödte. Another extremely valuable publication of

wide general interest, the _Meddelelser om Grönland_, is published by

the commission for the exploration of Greenland. What may be called the

modern "art" current, with its virtues and vices, is as strong in

Denmark as in England. Danish sculpture will be always famous, if only

through the name of Thorvaldsen. In architecture the prevailing fashion

is a return to the style of the first half of the 17th century, called

the Christian IV. style; but in this branch of art no marked excellence

has been obtained.

AUTHORITIES.--J. P. Trap, _Statistisk Topographisk Beskrivelse af

Kongeriget Danmark_ (Copenhagen, 1859-1860, 3 vols., 2nd ed.,

1872-1879); V. Falbe-Hansen and W. Scharling, _Danmarks Statistik_

(Copenhagen, 1878-1891, 6 vols.). (Various writers) _Vort Folk i det

nittende Aarhundrede_ (Copenhagen, 1899 et seq.), illustrated; J.

Carlsen, H. Olrik and C. N. Starcke, _Le Danemark_ (Copenhagen,

1900), 700 pp.; illustrated, published in connexion with the Paris

Exhibition. _Statistisk Aarbog_ (1896, &c.). Annual publication, and

other publications of Statens Statistiske Bureau, Copenhagen;

_Annuaire météorologique_, Danish Meteorological Institution,

Copenhagen; E. Löffler, _Dänemarks Natur and Volk_ (Copenhagen,

1905); Margaret Thomas, _Denmark Past and Present_ (London, 1902).

(C. A. G.; O. J. R. H.)