and after acting as cura and holding the highest positions in the
province, was appointed bishop of Nueva Cáceres, being consecrated
Jan. 28, 1849. He died at the episcopal palace, Nov. 13, 1861.
Fausto Lopez, O.S.A., was born in 1811, took his vows at Valladolid in
1828, and went to the Philippines in 1829. He was located in Cebú until
1837, when he became provincial secretary. Afterwards he held several
offices and acted as cura until his death at Manila, April 17, 1866.
Manuel Jarava, O.S.A., was born at Zaragoza in 1804 and professed
at Valladolid in 1827. He was in the Philippines from 1829 to 1834,
returning in the latter year to Spain. The date of his death is
unknown.
See Pérez's Catálogo.
[17] Manuel Maria Cambronero was a Spanish jurisconsult. He was born
in Orihuela in 1765 and died in 1834. During the French invasion,
he acted as secretary of the Council of State, on account of which
he was compelled to leave the country when the French left. He later
returned to Madrid, where he opened a buffet, which was the most
celebrated one of his time. See Dic. encic. Hisp.-Amer., iv, p. 330.
[18] A tribute paid to the church by all Filipinos from the age
of sixteen.
"Since 1852 the tribute amounts to 12 reals, and in some districts
special rates are fixed. Not until 1841 was the payment of the tribute
in cash made universal. There are, besides, three other taxes;
the sanctorum, 3 reals; the comunidad, 1 real; and the recargo,
1/2 real. The total of imposts, then, is 16 1/2 reals; or for
each single person one dollar and 1/4 real. The sanctorum is for
[the expenses of] worship; but it is paid to the government, which
pays the minister at the rate of 180 dollars for 500 tributes. The
comunidad is a charge for the communal fund. The recargo is a charge
introduced since the suppression of the brandy monopoly, to cover the
deficit resulting therefrom. In Mindanao and the Bisayas no additional
charge is collected. According to Agius (Memoria, doc. 5) each single
tribute-payer now contributes 6.25 reals, plus 0.55 reals of recargo,
in all 6.8 reals, not considering the sanctorum and comunidad. The
inhabitants of Abra, Ilocos, and Union pay, besides, 1 1/2 to 2 1/4
reals for the permission to buy their tobacco outside the monopoly
dealers." "Mestizos by a Chinese man and an Indian woman pay a tribute
of $3.00 a year since 1852; earlier, it was less. The Indian woman
married to a mestizo of this class pays the same tribute as he during
their marriage; but when she becomes a widow she pays only as an Indian
woman. Mestizos who, like the natives, cultivate the soil with their
own hands, also pay only as the latter do. The mestizos form their own
barangays when there are 25 to 30 tributes of them living together;
otherwise they belong to the nearest barangay of natives. Every
Chinaman--excepting tillers of the soil, from whom only 12 reals are
collected--pays since 1852 a [capitation] head-tax of $6.00, and,
besides this, an industrial tax of $100, $60, $30, or $12."
"A law issued Nov. 3, 1863 (Legis. ultramar [compiled by Rodriguez
S. Pedro, pub. at Madrid, 1865] iii), actually decided that every
male inhabitant of the Philippines--European or native, Spanish
or foreign--must render personal service for twenty-four days in
the year, or else procure release from it by a money payment. But
this law was not put into execution, and Europeans are free from all
imposts. Mestizos by Spaniards and Indian women are similarly exempt,
save that they pay 7 reals for the sanctorum, and 1/2 real as a tithe
for the government; little care, however, is taken for exactness in
the enumeration of the mestizos, especially of their women." (Jagor,
Reisen, pp. 293-295.)
[19] The Colegio de Agustinos, or Colegio de Filipinas, at Valladolid,
would probably come under this category.
[20] The use of steam vessels against the Moros was introduced in 1847,
and proved an immediate benefit.
[21] See VOL. LI, notes 6, 7, 14, 16, 31.
[22] This was Admiral Cyrille-Pierre-Théodore Laplace, who was born at
sea Nov. 7, 1793, and died at Brest, Jan. 22, 1875. The book mentioned
by Mas is the Voyage autour du monde par les mers de l'Inde et de la
Chine (1833-39). The matte on the Philippines is contained in vol. i,
pp. 353-470, 547-553, and is as follows: "Manille; description de
Luçon; quelques details sur son gouvernement, ses habitants, leurs
moeurs et leur industrie;" and notes. See La grande encyclopédie,
xxi, p. 947; and the Philippine bibliography issued by the Library
of Congress.
[23] The office of army intendant was created by royal orders of July
17 and 26, 1784, in accordance with the proposition of Governor Basco;
to the office was united that of the subdelegate superintendency
of the treasury. The new office was independent of the superior
government of the islands. The first incumbent of the new office was
Ciriaco Gonzalez Carvajal, then auditor of the royal Audiencia and
assessor-general of the government. See Montero y Vidal, Historia
general, ii, pp. 311, 312.
[24] The first edition of the Recopilación de leyes de Indias was
published at Madrid in 1681.
[25] For the powers of the alcaldes-mayor, see VOL. XVII, pp. 323,
324, and 333, 334.
[26] i.e., A report of the matter must be made to the government,
through its respective ministries, and after deliberation the course
to be followed would be ordered. Throughout the history of the
Philippines, this method often proved a great drawback to effective
government, because of the distance from Spain and difficulty of
communication; so much so that when the answer was received, the
matter was already wellnigh or completely a dead letter.
[27] On leaving his office Francisco Enriquez left two printed
documents as follows: Oficio al Secretario de Estado dando cuenta de
haber hecho entrega de la Intendencia á D. Luis Urrejola (Manila,
June 11, 1836; 2 leaves on rice paper); and Entrega que hace de
sus funciones, en este dia, el Intendente general de Ejercito
... al Ecsmo. Sr. D. Luis Urrejola (Manila, July 11, 1836; in 16
leaves). The document mentioned by Mas must be one of these. See
Retana's Bibliografia filipina, pp. 54, 55 (the title to the first
document is made by Retana).
[28] i.e., All the papers belonging to any matter, judicial,
legislative, or executive, consisting of orders, opinions, reports,
and all other measures.
[29] A note at this point states that the polo and service tax had
not been extended to the Chinese mestizos, who were not in existence
when the tax was first imposed, or were but few, until a few years
back, when the natives of Lingayen brought up the matter. Chinese
mestizos formed the wealthiest part of many villages; and it was
decided that since they were to the natives as 1:6, they should pay
such taxes for one month to the natives' six. At Vigan, Ilocos Sur,
the natives also presented a petition against the mestizos because
natives alone were compelled to furnish provisions, etc., to the troops
in their province at the schedule price, while the mestizos escaped;
and for which reason many of the natives joined the mestizo ranks,
saying that the state profited thereby because as mestizos they
paid a double tribute. Governor Oraá, however, imposed a fine for
such denaturalization. As regards the petition against the mestizos,
an expediente was formed, and in July, 1841, the natives were ordered
to send a salaried agent to conduct a suit against the mestizos. But
they being poor could not do so, while it was understood that the
mestizos had paid a bribe of 1,000 pesos to the assessor. Consequently,
it appears that notwithstanding the efforts of the alcalde-mayor and
Mas, nothing could be done, as the governor was so hedged in.
[30] Francisco Enriquez succeeded Urrijola (who had been appointed
October, 1820, as intendant-general of the army and treasury), in
the office of intendant in 1828, being granted more ample powers than
the latter had enjoyed. By a royal decree of October 27, 1829, it was
ordered that the superintendency should be held by the intendant of the
army and royal treasury, and accordingly Enriquez took such charge on
September 9, 1630. See Montero y Vidal, Hist. gen., ii, pp. 457, 521.
[31] See José Cabezas de Herrera's Apuntes históricos sobre la
organización político-administrativa de Filipinas (Manila, 1883). This
is an excellent treatise on the governmental administration of the
Philippines.
[32] See the budget of receipts and expenditures in the Philippines
for the year, July, 1885-June, 1886, in Montero y Vidal's El
archipiélago filipino, pp. 169-186. The expenditures involve:
general obligations, 1,523,335.07 pesos; state, 125,000 pesos;
grace and justice, 1,085,769.62 pesos; war, 3,494,923.31 pesos;
treasury, 1,356,031.30 pesos; navy, 2,423,518.91 pesos; government,
1,267,007.43 pesos; public works (fomento), 349,322.87 pesos; total,
11,624,908.51 pesos. The receipts were 11,528,178 pesos.
[33] The administrative affairs of the colonies were placed in charge
of the ministerio de la gobernación (ministry of the government) in
1832, and were added in 1836 to the ministerio de marina (ministry
of the navy), which was after that called secretaría del despacho de
marina, comercio y gobernación de ultramar (department of the navy,
commerce, and colonial government). After various other changes, the
ministerio de ultramar (ministry of the colonies) was established by
royal decree, May 20, 1863. The duties of the ministry are outlined
as follows: to modify the organization or administrational régime
of the colonies; to fix or change the annual budget of receipts and
expenditures; to dispose of the surplus products of the colonies; to
adopt any rule relative to the establishment or suppression of imposts;
to propose persons for the offices of governor and captain-general,
intendants, and regents of the Audiencia; to grant titles, etc.,
to persons in the colonies; to adopt any measure affecting the
exterior regimen of the Church or the royal patronage; to decide any
serious matter according to the judgment of the minister; to draw
up preparatory measures of resolutions allowing expenses or advances
of funds by the public treasury of the Peninsula, which resolutions
belong to the ministry of the treasury; to transmit communications of
the ministers of state, war, and navy, to the authorities of those
provinces, and the communications of the latter to the respective
ministers. See Dic. encic. Hisp.-Amer., xiii, pp. 131, 132.
[34] In 1803 a Spanish pamphlet was published at Philadelphia,
advocating the opinion that Spain "ought to get rid of all her colonies
in America and Asia, in order to promote agriculture and industries
in the Peninsula;" it is attributed to the Marqués de Casa Irujo
(Vindel, Catálogo biblioteca filipina, no. 1797).
[35] Matta took possession of the above office on June 2, 1841; he
had long been connected with the affairs of the colony. In 1837 he
had drawn up a detailed report on the advantage which would result
from introducing steamboats into the islands. (Montero y Vidal,
Hist. de Filipinas, ii, p. 573.)
[36] Cuerpo del Resguardo: the guards employed by the treasury to look
after the customs and excise duties on the government monopolies of
tobacco, wines, liquors, etc.
[37] For accounts of the confraternity of San José, see Manuel
Sancho's Relacion expresiva de los principales acontecimientos de la
titulada Cofradía del señor San José (first published by W. E. Retana
in La Política de España, no. 21, et seq.); Memoria histórica de la
conducta militar y politica del Teniente General D. Marcelino Oraá
(Madrid, 1851), probably written by Pedro Chamorro; and Montero y
Vidal, Hist. gen., iii, pp. 37-56. This confraternity was founded by
Apolinario de la Cruz, a Tagálog, a native of Lucban in the province
of Tayabas, who was a donné in the hospital of San Juan de Dios in
Manila. The new confraternity soon had many adherents in the provinces
of Tayabas, Laguna, and Batangas, and in the middle of 1840 began to
hold meetings in Lucban, to which both sexes were admitted, and at
which letters from Apolinario were read. The attention of the friar
parish priests was directed to the confraternity, and the meeting of
October 19, 1840 was surprised and about 243 persons out of the 500 or
600 attending it, arrested. The governor of Tayabas province, however,
who regarded the matter as entirely one of ecclesiastical jurisdiction,
ordered the prisoners to be released. Through the representations
of the parish priest of Lucban, the provincial governor finally
intervened, and the adherents to the confraternity thereupon held
their meetings secretly in Majayjay in Laguna Province. The meeting of
Sept. 19, 1841, at the latter place, was surprised and some arrests
made, although but few, as information of the intended raid had
been received. The departure of the provincial governor of Tayabas,
Joaquin Ortega, for Manila, was favorable to the new sect, as a native
adherent or sympathizer was left in charge of the government. Through
his acquiescence, the members of the confraternity who had gathered in
armed bands at the village of Bay in Laguna (where they were joined
by Apolinario, who had fled from Manila), were allowed to ensconce
themselves in Igsaban, Tayabas. From thence they opened negotiations
with the government at Tayabas to be allowed to occupy that city,
the substitute governor requesting from the parish priest that they
be allowed to hold a novena in his church. Negotiations failed,
and Ortega, returning on the twenty-second of October, ordered the
natives to disperse, and on their refusal attacked them the next
day with a force of over three hundred men. The natives, aided by a
band of Negritos who had joined them, repulsed this force and killed
Ortega, and then retired to Alitao to celebrate a novena. There
they were attacked on the first of November by a force composed of
troops sent by Oraá, and those of the province of Tayabas, and after
a severe engagement the natives were defeated. Apolinario, who fled,
was soon captured and shot on the fourth, others of the leaders being
also arrested. Apolinario was but twenty-seven years old, and evidently
worked on the superstitious nature of his countrymen, who believed that
he was immune from danger and that the rebel forces would be aided by
the direct intervention of heaven. His followers baptized him under
the name of "The king of the Tagálogs." No one except pure-blooded
natives were allowed to become members of the organization, from which
circumstance the Spaniards have always professed to believe that the
confraternity was political in nature and that religious motives were
merely a blind. Some (as in Vindel's Catálogo biblioteca filipina,
no. 1895) assert that the confraternity was a sort of Katipunan. It
is quite probable, however, that its origin was entirely religious,
but religion mingled with superstition and fanaticism. The fact that
Apolinario attempted to legalize the existence of the organization
through both ecclesiastical and government centers, which was refused
in both instances, indicates that the insurrection was forced by the
Spaniards, through either fear or contempt. It is highly unlikely
that the organization had at the beginning any political motive,
and its attempted suppression was a mistake of the religious and
civil authorities.
[38] The defeat and slaughter of the members of the confraternity of
San José angered the native soldiers from the Province of Tayabas,
who were quartered in Malate. Conspiring with some of the garrison
of the fort of Santiago, also from the same province, they attacked
and took that fort Jan. 20, 1843, under the leadership of two brothers
(mestizos and officers of the regiment), after killing the officers on
guard. The mutiny was quickly stilled by Oraá, and the commander of
the insurgents, a sergeant, Samaniego, and some of the other leaders
were shot on the twenty-second at the camp of Bagumbayang. The other
native soldiers remained loyal and aided in quelling the mutiny. See
Montero y Vidal, Hist. de Filipinas, iii, pp. 58, 59, and note.
[39] The Spanish government decided to aid France against England,
and declared war against the latter power in June, 1779. The Spaniards
aided the Americans against the British in Florida and Mississippi,
and in March, 1780, captured Mobile. Martin A. S. Hume says in Modern
Spain (New York, 1900), p. 6: "As Aranda himself foresaw, and set forth
in a most remarkable prophecy, the aid lent by Spain to the revolt
of the English North American Colonies formed a dangerous precedent
for the separation of her own colonial dominions, and promoted the
establishment of a great Anglo-Saxon republic in America, which in
time to come should oust Spain from her last foothold in the New
World. 'This new federal republic,' wrote Aranda to Floridablanca,
'is, so to speak, born a mere pigmy, and has needed the support of two
powerful nations like France and Spain to win its independence. But the
day will come when it will grow into a giant, a terrible Colossus. It
will then forget the benefits it has received, and think only of its
own aggrandizement.'"
[40] See Mas's remarks in this connection, ante, pp. 32-34.
[41] Magistrates appointed to inquire into the circumstances of a
violent death.
[42] The college of San José sent out the following bishops: José
Cabral, bishop-elect of Nueva Cáceres; Rodrigo de la Cueva Jiron,
bishop of Nueva Segovia; Francisco Pizarro de Orellana, bishop of
Nueva Segovia; Jeronimo de Herrera, bishop of Nueva Segovia; Felipe
de Molina y Figueroa, bishop of Nueva Cáceres; Domingo de Valencia,
bishop of Nueva Cáceres; José de Andaya, bishop of Ovieda, Spain,
bishop-elect of Puebla de los Angeles, Mexico, and archbishop of
Mexico; and Ignacio de Salamanca, bishop of Cebu. The college also sent
out one auditor, one royal treasurer, two alcaldes-mayor; 39 Jesuits
(of whom three were martyrs), 4 provincials, 11 calced Augustinians,
10 Recollects, 8 Franciscans, and 3 Dominicans. These statistics are
given by Pablo Pastells in a letter in 1902, a translation of which
is in the possession of Rev. T. C. Middleton, O.S.A.
[43] Vindel says (Catálogo biblioteca filipina, no. 756) that the
school of agriculture in Manila was organized by Rafael García
López. In regard to this school, which was founded in 1889, see
VOL. XLV, pp. 314-318.
[44] On May 4, 1869, a society was authorized for "the promotion of
instruction in the arts and trades in the Filipinas Islands;" but it
was of short duration, as schools of this sort were soon afterward
established by the government. (Vindel, ut supra, no. 1661; see also
VOL. XLV of this series.)
[45] Vindel mentions (Catálogo biblioteca filipina, p. 50)
"arrangements regarding the Philippine Institute, and chairs of
Tagálog, Bisayan, and practical land-surveying," in the Boletin
oficial del Ministerio de Ultramar, vol. i.
[46] "There was still at Manila another caste of mestizos, originating
from Japanese and the Indian women. These Japanese landed on the
island of Luçon, about fourscore years ago, in a dismantled vessel,
and destitute of everything; I saw them in 1767. They numbered,
I believe, at most sixty or seventy persons, all Christians. But as
the form of government doubtless did not please them, nor perhaps did
the Inquisition, they had demanded to return [to their own country];
and all, or nearly all, actually departed in that same year, 1767,
and returned to Japan, where they have probably resumed the faith of
their fathers." (Le Gentil, Voyage, ii, pp. 53, 54.) Concepción states
(Hist. de Philipinas, vii, p. 6) that in 1658 a number of Christian
Japanese were living in the barrio of San Anton, near Manila; some of
them had come on a Japanese ship that was driven to Cavite by storms,
and remained with their countrymen at Manila.
[47] A list of many practical plans and regulations for the benefit of
the Philippine Islands, appearing in the Boletin oficial del Ministerio
de Ultramar (Madrid, 1875-83) may be found in Vindel, ut supra, pp. 49,
50. Many other lists of interesting articles regarding the islands,
found in periodical publications, are given therein, pp. 46-62;
also in Beleña's Recopilacion (p. 67).
[48] Some credit should also be given to the Royal Philippine Company
(Real Compañía de Filipinas), which, though unsuccessful financially,
stimulated considerably the development of Philippine agriculture
between 1790 and 1820, after which year it did little until its
dissolution.
[49] Comyn's Estado says that in 1810 the number of Spaniards,
born in the Peninsula or elsewhere, and of Spanish mestizos, of
both sexes and all ages, classes, and occupations, did not exceed
3,500 to 4,000. Diaz Arenas (Memorías históricas y estadísticas
de Filipinas; Manila, 1850) quotes official figures showing 293
Spaniards settled in the provinces, outside of Manila and Tondo, in
1848; and he records 7,544 as the number of Spanish mestizos in the
islands, including Tondo, as Manila province was then called. Cavada
(Historia geográfica, geológica y estadística de Filipinas; Manila,
1876), taking his figures apparently from the governmental statistics
as to houses and their occupants for 1870, gives for that year 3,823
Spaniards (all but 516 of them males) from the Peninsula, and 9,710
"Filipino-Spaniards," the latter classification apparently including
Spanish mestizos with such pure-blooded Spaniards as had been born in
the Philippines. Among his Peninsular Spaniards would be included
over 1,000 members of religious orders, an approximately equal
number of soldiers, and the civil officials of Spanish blood (except
a relatively small number born in the islands themselves, mostly
in the minor categories of officials). J. F. del Pan (La poblacion
de Filipinas; Manila, 1883), and F. Cañamaque (Las íslas Filipinas;
Madrid, 1880) both report the parochial statistics of 1876 as showing
the total of Spaniards, apart from members of the religious orders,
the civil service, and the army and navy, to be 13,265; Cañamaque
speaks of this latter class as "Spaniards without official character
(Peninsulars and Filipinos)," and Del Pan calls them "persons not
subject to the capitation-tax on account of being of the Spanish
race." At least some of the Spanish mestizos in the islands would
appear to have been included in this total. A statistical résumé for
1898 (La Política de España en Filipinas, 1898, pp. 87-92) gives the
number of Spaniards in the Philippines at the end of Spanish rule
as 34,000 (of whom 5,800 are credited as officers and employees of
governments, 3,800 as the normal number of Spaniards in army and navy,
and 1,700 as of the clerical estate). These figures, like various other
estimates in pamphlets of recent years, are considerably exaggerated;
they are reconcilable only on the supposition that they include not
only Spaniards of Philippine birth, but also Spanish mestizos. In 1903,
only 3,888 Peninsular Spaniards were found in the archipelago. The
census of 1896 would have shown separately Spaniards and Spanish
mestizos; but it was not completed for all provinces, and has never
been published. The foregoing estimates and figures do, however,
show the great relative increase of Spaniards and Spanish influence
in the Philippines in the latter part of the nineteenth century.