independence in the five years that followed, till the Katipunan
outbreak came; but he condemned that beforehand as a foolish venture,
and reprobated it as harmful to Filipino interests before his
death. Though in a sense this was a movement for independence, we
have seen that only vague ideas of a political organization were in
the minds of the leaders, while the deluded masses who followed them
with, for the most part, bolos only, had virtually no idea of such an
organization, except that Filipinos should succeed Spaniards. [174]
The prematurely commenced revolt, as it gained at the outset, some
defensive advantages over the bad military organization of Spain,
developed ideas and aspirations quite beyond the early crude dreams
of its leaders; they were really surprised at their own (temporary)
success, and emboldened thereby. [175] Even after the loss of Cavite,
when the revolutionists were hemmed in and hiding in the Bulakan
Mountains, they put forward, in an "Assembly" at Biak-na-bató, a more
comprehensive and ambitious political program (a Filipino Republic,
in short) than had ever before been drawn up by Filipinos. [176]
We know also that no small part was played by the "reign of terror"
in turning even the moderate Filipinos against Spanish rule as an
entirety. We should be far from the truth if we should say that
this Tagálog rebellion, and the demonstrations of sympathy with
it in other provinces, brought the Filipino people together in a
unanimous sentiment for independence. That it did greatly stimulate
this feeling is certain. He would be a bold man who would now assert
that independence was not the common aspiration, when outside pressure
suddenly pricked the bubble of Spanish authority in 1898 and released
the people for the free expression of their sentiments. But he is
equally bold who asserts that the Filipino people had been suddenly
and miraculously transformed into a real nation by these events, or
that the Aguinaldo government had the support of or really represented
the whole country, above all of the most sober-thinking Filipinos.
EVENTS IN FILIPINAS, 1841-1872
This period, opening with the coming of Governor Marcelino de Oraá
Lecumberri, and closing during the governorship of Rafael de Izquierdo
y Gutierrez, is one of the most important and critical in the history
of the Philippines. It witnessed the insurrection of Tayabas (1841)
under the leadership of Apolinario de la Cruz (q.v., ante, pp. 92,
93); the use of steamships against the Moros (1848), whereby the
Spaniards gained great advantage; approval for the Spanish-Filipino
bank, August 1, 1851, with a capital stock of 400,000 pesos, and
2,000 shares of 200 pesos each, of which 1,000 shares were to be
acquired by the obras pías and 1,000 were open to the public (the
bank beginning operation in 1852); the reinstatement of the Jesuits
(October 19, 1852; although the first band did not arrive until the
middle of 1859), whereby education was given a slightly freer movement;
[177] the famous educational laws of December 20, 1863, and other
educational orders, decrees, and regulations (q.v., VOL. XLVI); the
Spanish revolution of 1867-68, and the new constitution; the opening
of the Suez Canal (November 17, 1869), by which communication with the
mother-country was rendered quicker and easier, and liberalism given
more decided tendencies; and lastly, the Cavite insurrection of 1872,
which ended with the execution of three native secular priests. During
this period there were in all fourteen regularly-appointed governors,
and eleven provisional terms, in the latter, Ramon Montero y Blandino
serving three times, and Joaquin del Solar twice--the average of each
term (regular and provisional) being slightly over one year. This was
comparatively a period of newspaper activity, about thirty newspapers
being founded during these years. The entire period may be called
the period of adolescence.
Conditions in Spain were to a certain extent reflected in the
islands. Confusion and uncertainty in the Peninsula had their
counterpart in the colony. The administrational experiments of the
Madrid officials extended to the government of the colonies, and
there were many changes which vitally affected the Philippines. Some
of the new laws were good; others show a greater or less ignorance
regarding the islands. Throughout, however, the prevailing tone is
one of greater liberalism.
To be classed under foreign politics of the period were the laws
regulating foreign commerce; the slight contact with the Dutch who
appeared to be making overtures for a settlement in the Southern
Islands; some negotiations with the celebrated Rajah Brooke; and the
campaign of Cochinchina, in which the Spaniards aided the French.
Local politics show great activity. Provincial limits were changed and
fixed, and new provinces were created. Special subordinate governments
were created for the Visayan Islands and for the Marianas. Police
regulations were made, and bodies of police created. There were
city improvements in Manila. Reforms were instituted in the various
provinces in regard to the alcaldes-mayor. Various departments of
the government were also reorganized. In 1867-68 new regulations were
adopted for the management of the Audiencia of Manila.
In nothing is the upward trend more strongly marked than in economic
lines. The measures passed were often groping, it is true, but yet
on the whole looked toward the greater light. There was an attempt
to exploit the coal mines of the islands, and mining regulations
were made. Agriculture received attention (see post, appendix on
agriculture). Commerce was given greater concessions, and the customs
duties were revised. Provincial chiefs were forbidden to engage in
trade. Various acts of legislation regarding monetary conditions,
the establishment of a mint, and the coinage of special money for
the Philippines attest the greater commercial activity. There was
considerable legislation in regard to tobacco. The many laws regarding
the Chinese have a purely economic basis. Topographical maps which
were ordered made and the new roads ordered constructed indicate a
desire to know the country and its conditions better. Exhibits of
Philippine products were made at the world's fair in London in 1851
and 1862. Telegraphic regulations were made in 1869.
For religious and educational influences of this period see the
religious appendix in our VOL. XXVIII, and the educational appendices
in VOLS. XLV and XLVI. An important order of January 15, 1849, forbade
the religious orders to alienate their property. A decree of June 20,
1849 gave the Recollects charge of the island of Negros, and they did
considerable work there and developed the island somewhat, although
they but built on previous efforts, and did not accomplish as much
as has been claimed. The reëstablished Society of Jesus was given
control of the mission work of Mindanao in 1861. The suppression of
the house of St. John of God in Manila and the establishment of the
Sisters of Charity were asked from the pope in 1852, at the time
of the reëstablishment of the Jesuits. The conciliar seminaries
were given into charge of the Fathers of St. Vincent de Paul on
their establishment in the islands. The Franciscans were allowed
to maintain a college in Spain for the training of missionaries for
the Philippines.
The history of the development of the people during this period has
been greatly neglected. There was a decided advance educationally
and politically, as well as a growing discontent, that were due to
a complexity of factors, among which were the easier communication
with Spain, the greater number of Spaniards in the islands, and the
spread of books and papers through the capital and provinces. On
the side of the government there were expeditions into the north
country against the Igorots and other tribes. In the south there were
almost continual campaigns against the Moros, over whom some important
victories were obtained. The usual decrees ordering good treatment of
the natives were issued, with as little effect as of old. The liberal
policy that the government was inclined to adopt toward the natives
is evidenced by the efforts made to secure educational laws, and by
the regulations of 1863. By an order of October 31, 1844, a casino
was opened for the natives in Manila. Another order prohibited the
smoking of opium by Chinese and natives. Discontent in the native
body is seen in the revolts of native soldiers and police. It was
forbidden to carry arms without a license. The lottery established
in 1850 had a bad influence. The vaccination board established at
Manila and the leper hospital established in 1850 at Cebú, were on
the other hand good measures, but were not welcomed so heartily as the
lottery. The surreptitious introduction and circulation of books and
plays caused the government in 1854 to attempt to regulate the book
trade. Government pawnshops were opened in 1860 in Manila. Pensions
were granted to the parents of those natives who were killed in the
service of the country. The earthquake of 1863 proved especially
disastrous, and the cholera epidemic of the same year, while not
so severe as that of 1820, decimated the people considerably. The
Moret decrees (see VOL. XLV, pp. 163-165) were distinctly in favor
of the natives, but were never carried out. The discontent ever
grew more pronounced, and at last broke out actively in the Cavite
rebellion, which was instigated and promoted by the secular clergy
and others. There has been no attempt to do more than point out
general tendencies during this period, and to note some of the most
important matters. For a good working bibliography, which will be
found to cover this period see Mr. LeRoy's article The Philippines,
1860-1898--Some comment and bibliographical notes, which immediately
precedes the present document.
CONSTITUTION OF THE LIGA FILIPINA
Ends:
1. To unite the whole archipelago into one compact, vigorous,
and homogeneous body.
2. Mutual protection in every want and necessity.
3. Defense against all violence and injustice.
4. Encouragement of instruction, agriculture, and commerce.
5. Study and application of reforms.
Motto: Unus instar omnium [i.e., one like all.]
Countersign: ...
Form:
1. To set these ends in operation, a Popular Council, a Provincial
Council, and a Supreme Council shall be created.
2. Each Council shall consist of a Chief, a Fiscal, a Treasurer,
a Secretary, and members.
3. The Supreme Council shall consist of the Provincial Chiefs, just
as the Provincial Council shall be composed of the Popular Chiefs.
4. The Supreme Council shall have command of the Liga Filipina,
and shall deal directly with the Provincial Chiefs and Popular Chiefs.
5. The Provincial Council shall have command of the Popular Chiefs.
6. The Popular Council only shall have command of the members.
7. Each Provincial Council and Popular Council shall adopt a name
different from that of their locality or region.
Duties of the Members:
1. They shall pay monthly dues of ten centimos.
2. They shall obey blindly and promptly every order emanating from
a Council or a Chief.
3. They shall inform the Fiscal of their Council of whatever they
note or hear that has reference to the Liga Filipina.
4. They shall preserve the most absolute secrecy in regard to the
decisions of the Council.
5. In all walks of life, preference shall be given to the
members. Nothing shall be bought except in the shop of a member,
or whenever anything is sold to a member, he shall have a
rebate. Circumstances being equal, the member shall always be
favored. Every infraction of this article shall be severely punished.
6. The member who does not help another member in the case of need
or danger, although able to do so, shall be punished, and at least
the same penalty suffered by the other shall be imposed on him.
7. Each member, on affiliation, shall adopt a new name of his own
choice, and shall not be able to change the same unless he become a
Provincial Chief.
8. He shall bring to each Council a service [trabajo; evidently a
service done for the organization], an observation, a study, or a
new candidate.
9. He shall not submit to any humiliation or treat anyone with
contempt.
Duties of the Chief:
1. He shall continually watch over the life of his Council. He
shall memorize the new and real names of all the Councils if he
is the Supreme Chief, and if only a Popular Chief those of all his
affiliated members.
2. He shall constantly study means to unite his subordinates and
place them in quick communication.
3. He shall study and remedy the necessities of the Liga Filipina,
of the Provincial Council, or of the Popular Council, according as
he is Supreme Chief, Provincial Chief, or Popular Chief.
4. He shall heed all the observations, communications, and petitions
which are made to him, and shall immediately communicate them to the
proper person.
5. In danger, he shall be the first, and he shall be the first to be
held responsible for whatever occurs within a Council.
6. He shall furnish an example by his subordination to his superior
chiefs, so that he may be obeyed in his turn.
7. He shall see to the very last member, the personification of the
entire Liga Filipina.
8. The omissions of the authorities shall be punished with greater
severity than those of the simple members.
Duties of the Fiscal:
1. The Fiscal shall see to it that all comply with their duty.
2. He shall accuse in the presence of the Council every infraction
or failure to perform his duty in any member of the Council.
3. He shall inform the Council of every danger or persecution.
4. He shall investigate the condition of the funds of the Council.
Duties of the Treasurer:
1. He shall enter in a ledger the new names of the members forming
the Council.
2. He shall render strict monthly account of the dues received,
noted by the members themselves, with their special countermarks.
3. He shall give a receipt and shall have a note of it made in the
ledger in the hand of the donor, for every gift in excess of one peso
and not over fifty.
4. The Popular Treasurer shall keep in the treasury of the Popular
Council, the third part of the dues collected, for the necessities of
the same. The remainder, whenever it exceeds the sum of ten pesos,
shall be delivered to the Provincial Treasurer, to whom he shall
show his ledger, and himself writing in the ledger of the Provincial
Treasurer the amount delivered. The Provincial Treasurer shall then
give a receipt, and if it is in accordance with the accounts, shall
place his O. K. in the ledger of the other. Like proceedings shall
follow when the Provincial Treasurer delivers funds in excess of ten
pesos to the Supreme Treasurer.
5. The Provincial Treasurer shall retain from the sums handed to
him by the Popular Treasurer one-tenth part for the expenses of the
Provincial Council.
6. Whenever any member desires to give the Liga Filipina a sum in
excess of fifty pesos, he shall deposit the sum in a safe bank, under
his vulgar name and then shall deliver the receipt to the Treasurer
of his choice.
Duties of the Secretary:
1. At each meeting he shall keep a record of proceedings, and shall
announce what is to be done.
2. He shall have charge of the correspondence of the Council. In case
of absence or incapacity, every authority shall name a substitute,
until the Council name one to fill his place.
Rights of the members:
1. Every member has a right to the moral, material, and pecuniary
aid of his Council and of the Liga Filipina.
2. He may demand that all the members favor him in his trade or
profession whenever he offers as many guaranties as others. For this
protection, he shall transmit to his Popular Chief his real name
and his footing, so that the latter may hand it to the Supreme Chief
who shall inform all the members of the Liga Filipina of it by the
proper means.
3. In any want, injury, or injustice, the member may invoke the whole
aid of the Liga Filipina.
4. He may request capital for an enterprise whenever there are funds
in the treasury.
5. He may demand a rebate of all the institutions or members sustained
directly by the Liga Filipina, for all articles [sold him] or services
rendered him.
6. No member shall be judged without first being allowed his defense.
Rights of the Secretary [sic; Chief?]
1. He shall not be discussed unless an accusation of the Fiscal
precede.
2. For want of time and opportunity, he may act by and with himself, as
he has the obligation to perform the charges which may be laid on him.
3. Within the Council he shall be the judge of every question or
dispute.
4. He shall be the only one who shall be empowered to know the real
names of his members or subordinates.
5. He shall have ample power to organize the details of the meetings,
communications, and undertakings, for their efficacity, security,
and rapid despatch.
6. Whenever a Popular Council is sufficiently numerous, the Provincial
Chief may create other subordinate Councils after first appointing
the authorities. Once constituted, he shall allow them to elect their
authorities according to the regulations.
7. Every Chief shall be empowered to establish a Council in a village
where none exists, after which he shall inform the Supreme Council
or Provincial Council.
8. The Chief shall appoint the Secretary.
Rights of the Fiscal:
1. He shall cause every accused person to go out or appear while his
case is being discussed in the Council.
2. He shall be able to examine the ledgers at any time.
Rights of the Treasurer:
He shall dispose of the funds in an urgent and imperious necessity of
any member or of the Council, with the obligation of giving account
and answering before the tribunal of the Liga Filipina.
Rights of the Secretary:
He may convoke extra meetings or assemblies in addition to the
monthly meetings.
Investment of the funds:
1. The member or his son, who while not having means, shall show
application and great capacities shall be sustained.
2. The poor shall be supported in his right against any powerful
person.
3. The member who shall have suffered loss shall be aided.
4. Capital shall be loaned to the member who shall need it for an
industry or for agriculture.
5. The introduction of machines and industries, new or necessary in
the country, shall be favored.
6. Shops, stores, and establishments shall be opened, where the
members may be accommodated more economically than elsewhere.
The Supreme Chief shall have power to dispose of the funds in needy
cases, whenever he later renders an account to the Supreme Council.
General Rules:
1. No one shall be admitted without a previous and unanimous vote
of the Council of his village, and without satisfying the tests to
which he must submit.
2. Offices shall end every two years, except when there is an
accusation by the Fiscal.
3. In order to obtain the posts, three-fourths of all the votes
present shall be required.
4. The members shall elect the Popular Chief, the Popular Fiscal,
and the Popular Treasurer. The Popular authorities shall elect the
Provincial authorities; and the Provincial authorities shall elect
the Supreme authorities.
5. Every time that a member becomes the Popular Chief, that fact
shall be communicated to the Supreme Chief, together with his new and
old names; and the same shall be done whenever a new Council shall
be founded.
6. Communications in ordinary times, shall bear only the symbolical
names both of the writer and of the persons for whom they are intended,
and the course to be pursued shall be from the member to the Popular
Chief, from the latter to the Provincial Chief or the Supreme Chief,
and vice versa. In extraordinary cases alone shall these formalities
be omitted. However, in any time or place, the Supreme Chief may
address anyone directly.
7. It is not necessary for all the members of a Council to be present
to render decisions valid. It shall be sufficient if one-half the
members are present and one of the authorities.
8. In critical moments, each Council shall be considered as the
safeguard of the Liga Filipina, and if for any cause or other the
other Councils are dissolved or disappear, each Council, each Chief,
each member, shall take upon himself the mission of reorganizing and
reëstablishing them. [178]
THE FRIAR MEMORIAL OF 1898
His Excellency, the Minister of the colonies:
We, the superiors of the corporations of the Augustinians, Franciscans,
Recollects, Dominicans, and Jesuits, established in Filipinas,
in fulfilment of the statement of the telegram presented to his
Excellency, the governor-general and viceroyal patron, [179] on
the first instant, to be transmitted officially to your Excellency,
and which has been done by the said superior authority, as he has
condescended to inform us, have the honor of presenting this exposition
to his Majesty, King Don Alfonso XIII (whom may God preserve), and in
his royal name, to her Majesty, the queen regent, Doña María Cristina,
to the president and members [vocales] of the Council of Ministers
of the Crown [Ministros de la Corona], [180] and most especially to
your Excellency, as minister of the colonies. We send it directly to
your Excellency, in accordance with law and custom, so that, in due
time, you may condescend to lay it before the lofty personages above
mentioned, and even, if you deem it advisable, before the entire
nation, duly assembled in the Cortes of the kingdom.
In writing this exposition, to us, the religious of the corporations
existing in the country from ancient times, united in one soul and
one heart, as faithful brethren, is reserved the honor in the very
beginning of fulfilling respectfully the most acceptable duty of
reiterating our traditional adhesion to the king, to his government,
and to all the authorities of the fatherland, to whom we have always
considered it an honor to keep ourselves subject and obedient, by
the law of conscience, which is the strongest human bond, endeavoring
continually and in all earthly things, from our respective sphere of
action, to coöperate with every class of endeavor for the maintenance
of public order in Filipinas, for its legitimate and holy progress,
for the development of its intellectual and even material interests;
and, in a very special manner, for the propagation and conservation
of the divine teachings of Catholicism, for the encouragement of
good morals, and for the security of the moral prestige, the only
force which has been until now the great bond of union between these
beautiful lands and their dear mother the mother-country [metrópoli].
Motive for this exposition. Truly, your Excellency, if extremely
troublesome circumstances, by which Spanish authority in the
archipelago is threatened, and the bitter campaign (or better,
conspiracy) of defamation and anti-monastic schemes, incited against
us, especially since the outbreak of the insurrection, did not compel
us to talk, very willingly would we leave it to politicians to occupy
themselves with the problems that concern this country, and we would
maintain the silence that has fittingly been our norm of procedure
for many years, not speaking except when questioned officially, being
jealous, by that manner of retirement, of avoiding the criticism which
has so often been heaped upon us with audacious flippancy or malice,
that we meddle with the temporal government of these islands.
But now the hour is come, when, as loyal patriots and constant
supporters of Spanish authority in Filipinas, we must break that
silence, in order that one may never with reason repeat of us, either
as religious or as subjects of España, that terrible accusation of the
prophet, canes muti non valentes latrare. [181] The hour is come, also,
when we must emerge in defense of our honor, atrociously blemished in
many ways, of our prestige that has been trampled upon, of our holy
and patriotic ministry, which has, finally, been subjected to the most
terrible calumnies and the most unqualified accusations. Though private
persons may at any time make a noble renunciation of their good name
that has been defamed, offering to God the sacrifice of what civilized
man esteems highest, never is that allowed in any form, according to
the teachings of the holy doctors of the Church, to public persons,
to prelates, to superiors, to corporations, who must defend and
preserve their prestige, their credit, and their reputation, in order
to worthily fulfil their respective functions. A religious corporation
discredited and publicly reviled, is in its class like a nation whose
flag is insulted or whose laws are disavowed. It should die struggling
for its honor, rather than allow its good name to be trodden under
foot, and its rights to become unrecognized and unrevered.