INDIAN RUGS
THROUGHOUT parts of India are woven rugs known as _Dari_, which are
unlike the rugs of any other country. They are pileless cotton fabrics,
that may represent an indigenous craft old as the Aryan migrations.
Their designs are of the simplest order; usually no more than plain
stripes of blue, red, and black, or only blue and white modified
occasionally by simple geometric figures. Furthermore, their workmanship
is poor, so that they possess little artistic merit. Some pieces of
large size are exported, but they awaken but little interest compared
with other kinds of rugs.
The weaving of pile carpets in India, on the other hand, does not appear
to have been the result of spontaneous growth or to have flourished
without artificial encouragement. It was probably introduced by the
Saracens, but carpets of elaborate design and workmanship were not made
till the reign of Shah Akbar, who imported Persian weavers. Under his
patronage and the encouragement of his royal successors, the manufacture
of pieces that rivalled those of Persia continued for a hundred years,
but after the death of Shah Jahan, in 1658, the industry began to
decline. Nevertheless, for nearly a hundred years longer excellent
fabrics were produced as the result of the system that was maintained in
all the provinces by lesser potentates. This system, which was also in
vogue in parts of Persia, is described by Dr. George Birdwood as
follows: “The princes and great nobles and wealthy gentry, who are the
chief patrons of these grand fabrics, collect together in their own
houses and palaces all who gain a reputation for special skill in their
manufacture. These men receive a fixed salary and daily rations and are
so little hurried in their work that they have plenty of time to execute
private orders also. Their salaries are continued even when through age
or accident they are past work; and on their death they pass to their
sons, should they have become skilled in their father’s art. Upon the
completion of any extraordinary work, it is submitted to the patron; and
some honour is at once conferred on the artist and his salary increased.
It is under such conditions that the best art work of the East has
always been produced.”
After the overthrow of the Mogul dominion by Nadir Shah, in 1731, the
production of carpets rapidly diminished and the quality deteriorated.
This was due to several causes. With the conquests of the East Indian
Company, that began in the middle of the XVIII Century, and the
extension of trade into every district, large quantities of antique
carpets became the property of the Company or of those in its employ.
Many of them, including sumptuous pieces that had adorned the palaces of
the descendants of Tamerlane, found their way to England. Thus were
removed many of the masterpieces that had been an inspiration to the
weavers. Moreover, with the overthrow of native princes their patronage
ceased; and later, when looms were established in jails for the
employment of convicts, undesirable competition reduced the wages of
free labour. Still more pernicious was the introduction of aniline dyes,
and the elimination of individual taste by supplying patterns, that were
often of European origin, to be mechanically copied. Thus it followed
that, in spite of the efforts of Mr. Robinson and of others, for nearly
half a century, to resuscitate the art and restore it to its former
condition, weaving in India, to-day, rests purely on a commercial basis;
and the workmanship is almost as mechanical as the manufacture of
machine-made carpets in Europe or America.
Yet to the cloud hanging over the weaving of India is a brighter lining.
European companies have established factories where natives are employed
making rugs that in quality equal the products of Smyrna and Sultanabad.
Some of them, indeed, are even more firmly woven than the Persian
products from which they are copied. In many of the towns, also, are
looms where the weavers, who are mostly boys, enjoy more independence.
Moreover, the companies, realising that the future of their business
depends on the quality of the fabrics, are largely discarding aniline
dyes. It is now possible, therefore, to obtain Indian rugs of excellent
workmanship and colours at very moderate prices; but individuality,
representative of native character and temperament, is entirely lacking;
and in its place is simply a reproduction of Persian or European
patterns.
[Illustration: PLATE 57. BESHIRE PRAYER RUG]
Any arrangement of these rugs in sub-groups must be arbitrary, as
similar conditions of early foreign influence, royal patronage, and the
jail and factory systems, have prevailed throughout India. Yet since the
northern part has been more directly under the influence of the courts
and more intimately connected with Herat, which seems to have left a
strong impress on the weavings of all the surrounding country, it is
convenient to make a distinction between the rugs of Northern and
Southern India.
The principal rug-producing centres of Northern India at present are
Srinagar, Amritsar, Lahore, Multan, Allahabad, Agra, Mirzapur, Sindh,
Jubbulpur, and Jaipur.
SRINAGAR.—From the extreme northern part of India come the rugs of
Kashmir, which are often named after the capital of the province,
Srinagar, the “City of the Sun.” To a large extent, they resemble the
far more famous shawls that were woven in the central valley, where
winds the Jhelum, that some believe first suggested the pear design. The
pieces woven before the British occupation of India were of excellent
quality and contained delicate colour schemes, that were exceedingly
pleasing; but the products of the last half century show deterioration.
The colours are harsher, the mechanical drawing of the patterns show
European influence, and the borders resemble too closely the central
field to have distinct characters. Yet many of them are now dyed with
vegetable colours, and are stoutly woven with the soft and silky wool
for which this district is renowned.
AMRITSAR.—On account of famine and several other causes, a large number
of the people of Kashmir migrated about the year 1840. Some of them
settled at Amritsar, where they followed their former craft of making
shawls, until a change of fashion, that occurred about the year 1870,
deprived many of their occupation. These turned to rug weaving and thus
gave an impetus to that industry.
Amritsar is now the most populous and wealthy city of the Punjab; and as
some twenty thousand men and boys are employed at the looms, it is one
of the leading rug-producing centres of India. Yet before the exhibition
of Indian rugs at the World’s Fair in Chicago, in 1893, there had not
been any demand in this country for its rugs. For a long period it has
been the home of weavers who found in the surrounding mountains and
valleys the best of wool, but before the revival of the industry their
patterns and workmanship were of an inferior character. Under the
factory system, conducted by American and English firms, has been a
marked improvement. Both dyes and wool are excellent, and the technique
of weave equals what is found in the best of Persian products, To the
square inch are frequently two hundred Sehna knots; and since when tying
a knot one thread of warp is doubled under the other, as in Bijars, and
the threads of weft are pressed down very firmly, the texture is
unusually close. The nap is short; the sides are overcast; and as a
rule, the lower end has a cotton web and the upper end a web and fringe.
The moderate prices for rugs of such excellent dyes and workmanship are
possible only on account of the wage of the weaver, which does not
exceed one eighth what he would receive in this country.
There is nothing, however, in the pattern to distinguish these rugs from
others; for in the drawing the greatest latitude is exercised. It may be
a copy of a European carpet, or some Indian or Iranian antique. Of
recent years, many well-known modern Persian patterns have been
followed, so that not infrequently these pieces are mistaken for the
products of Kermanshah or Sultanabad.
LAHORE.—About the year 1580, the imperial carpet factory of Shah Akbar
was established at Lahore, the capital of the Punjab; where during the
reign of the Mogul princes were produced many of the best examples of
Indian weaving. It was here that, in 1634, was woven the well-known
carpet now in the possession of the Girdler’s Company of London. Some of
the pieces that still remain show wonderful delicacy of drawing and
brilliancy of colouring. At a much later period, under the British rule,
the jail system of weaving was inaugurated, and rugs were made with both
woollen and cotton foundation. Within more recent years the factory
system followed; and on account of the nearness of Amritsar to the
capital, some foreign firms have weaving establishments in both cities.
It is not surprising, then, that there should be a resemblance in their
products, which is seen in the finish of sides and ends and in the
character of weaving, which usually shows one thread of warp to each
knot doubled under the other; but as a rule the rugs of Lahore come in
lighter shades and are woven with fewer knots to the square inch. In the
guards of the border often appear geometric figures; but the patterns in
other respects largely follow well-known Persian drawing, though leaf
and flower are more artistically portrayed and the designs are less
crowded.
MULTANS.—One of the most ancient cities of the Punjab is Multan, which
during the vicissitudes of centuries was more than once captured by
early Mohammedan conquerors and also by Tamerlane. Its woven fabrics are
of three types: the _Dari_, which are made almost exclusively in the
jails; rugs of cotton pile, that have been made only within the last
sixty years; and rugs of woollen pile, that have been produced for an
unknown period. As the looms on which they are made are unlike those of
other districts, and the weavers are but little affected by external
influences, it is not surprising that the pile carpets not only display
uniqueness of pattern rarely seen in other Indian pieces but also
possess peculiarities of weaving as well as of material. Usually they
are of moderate size, but some have a breadth of twelve feet. There are
seldom more than one hundred knots to the square inch and occasionally
only nine, so that the texture is coarse. Not infrequently a single knot
encircles four threads of warp, and between two rows of knots is a
single thread of weft. Almost all of the weavers are Mohammedans, who
have a tradition that they originally came from Persia; yet their
products contain few of the Iranian characteristics, since the field is
usually occupied by geometric designs or crudely drawn floral patterns.
As is seldom the case with weavers who dwell in cities, these dye their
own wool, using both vegetable and aniline dyes. The principal colours
are bold and strongly contrasting tones of red, yellow, and blue. Some
of the cotton rugs, however, have a single colour of bluish shade. On
the whole, the Multan rugs possess great individuality but little
artistic merit.
AGRA.—Almost within sight of the minarets of the Taj Mahal are prison
walls where convicts of Agra ploddingly weave. In 1891, Dr. John Hurst
“saw a long row of prisoners for life, who were chained to each other by
the feet, engaged in weaving a rug for Queen Victoria, and another for
the ex-Empress Eugenie.” Most of these pieces are of cotton foundation.
Each thread of warp is equally prominent at the back, and the texture is
looser than in Amritsars. The nap is short, and the fibres of the knots
blend well together. Not infrequently the fields are monotones of
delicate shades of blue, green, or fawn colour. As a rule, the rugs are
very large and heavy; and it would seem that this has always been the
case, as Mr. Robinson suggested that the reason for establishing looms
at this place was the early demand for carpets too large to be imported
on elephants.
ALLAHABAD.—Situated like Benares on the banks of the Ganges, and next to
it the most sacred city of India to the faithful Brahman, is Allahabad,
capital of the northwestern provinces. Its geographic and political
importance, as well as the fact that each year half a million or more
devotees visit it, have been important factors in the growth of its
industries, one of which is the weaving of rugs. Yet the numbers
produced have never been great. As a rule they are of large size, and
are loosely woven with each thread of warp equally distinct at the back.
Few of them equal the best examples of the Amritsar looms.
MIRZAPUR.—When it is considered that Mirzapur is the centre of a very
populous cotton-producing district in the valley of the Ganges, to the
west of Benares, and is the seat of important manufactures, it is not
surprising that it is noted for its carpets. Those made half a century
ago were well woven and dyed with fast colours, but largely on account
of the employment of convicts, the texture of those made since then is
coarse and loose, the patterns are poor, the colours crude. To a limited
extent a higher grade of wool has been imported as a substitute for the
harsh local product, but the result has not been satisfactory. These
rugs accordingly find small favour among those who appreciate artistic
qualities, and give little satisfaction where durability is the chief
requisite. It should be noted, however, that within recent years efforts
have been made to raise their standard.
JUBBULPUR.—Two hundred miles to the southwest of Allahabad is Jubbulpur,
capital of a district of over half a million people. A century ago many
beautiful rugs were woven there; but since the establishment of a School
of Industry, in 1850, the character of weaving has retrograded rather
than advanced. In 1880, Dr. Birdwood wrote of its rugs as follows: “The
foundation, as now scamped is quite insufficient to carry the heavy pile
which is a feature of this work; and is moreover so short in the staple
as to be incapable of bearing the tension even of the process of
manufacture. Jubbulpur carpets often reach this country (England) which
will not bear sweeping, or even unpacking. I know of two which were
shaken to pieces in the attempt to shake the dust out of them when first
unpacked. The designs once had some local character, but have lost it
during the last four or five years.” Within recent years few have been
exported.
[Illustration: PLATE 58. BESHIRE RUG]
SINDH.—Formerly good rugs were woven at Sindh, one hundred miles above
the mouth of the Indus; but after the introduction of aniline dyes their
colours, as well as patterns, deteriorated. In the poorest pieces the
foundation was of cotton and hemp, and cow hair was frequently used for
pile. Very few of them have been imported into this country.
JAIPUR.—In the palace of the Maharajah at Jaipur, the great commercial
centre of Rajputana, are some of the most beautiful carpets that remain
in India. Native appreciation is also apparent in the present
workmanship of the district weavers. There is nothing crass or inelegant
in the patterns which follow the pleasing drawing of Persian rugs. The
vine, leaf, and flower, trees, and animals are faithfully portrayed. The
texture of weave is excellent.
The principal rug-producing centres of Southern India are Madras,
Marsulipatam, Ellore, Vellore, and Bangalore. Rugs are also woven in
Hyderabad, Warangal, and Ayyampet in the Tanjore district.
MADRAS.—Only within a comparatively recent period have rugs been made at
Madras, the early stronghold of the British in South India. Over half a
century ago, native products, woven in the interior towns of the Dekkan,
were shipped by way of Coconada to that city and were sometimes known as
Madras rugs. Two of these pieces, which were sent by Mr. Vincent
Robinson to the South Kensington Museum, differ widely in harmony of
colours, beauty of design, and delicacy of workmanship from the present
products of Madras. Yet the latter have much to commend them. Some are
made in the jail, others in the School of Fine Arts, and others in the
Anjuman Industrial School. All are made of good wool, coloured with
vegetable dyes. Great diversity appears in the patterns, as some are
copied from antique carpets represented in the “Vienna Carpet Book,”
others are copied from rugs of Northern India, Persia, and Asia Minor.
As a rule, the fields are well covered with repetitive designs, that
give them the appearance of factory-made carpets.
MARSULIPATAM.—Two hundred and fifty miles north of Madras on the
Coromandel coast is the city of Marsulipatam, one of the earliest of the
British settlements in India, from which the East India Company shipped
rugs over two centuries ago. At that time they were among the finest
produced in that country, but the demands of agents for articles that
could be produced as cheaply as possible resulted in the use of inferior
materials and in poorer workmanship. Most of the dyes are aniline. The
patterns, that once were executed with marvelous beauty of detail, gave
way to crude drawing until “these glorious carpets of Marsulipatam have
sunk to a mockery and travesty of their former selves.”[36] Few of them
are any longer imported into this country.
ELLORE.—Not far from the delta of the Godavari river is the town of
Ellore, where a few centuries ago some Persians settled, and where their
descendants, faithful to early tradition, have followed the craft of
weaving. Here in former times were produced some of the best rugs in
Southern India; and even as late as 1883, Mr. E. B. Havell wrote that he
had seen pieces woven to meet special orders which were equal in point
of interest and material to the old specimens in the hands of
connoisseurs of London or in native palaces. This is one of the few
districts in Southern India where the industry exists outside of jails.
In the town and surrounding country are about four hundred looms
operated by some three thousand people, who are Mohammedans.
In the better class of rugs, in which vegetable dyes are still used, and
the yarn is often a native product of wool obtained from sheep of the
uplands and spun by shepherds, something of the old style of
craftsmanship remains. On the other hand, a very large percentage of the
rugs which are intended solely for export trade are of an inferior
order, since many of their colours are obtained from aniline, their
weaving is inferior, and their patterns are ordinary. Mr. Henry T.
Harris, in his report on the Madras Industrial and Art Exhibition, 1903,
said: “The exhibits of carpets sent from Ellore were poor in conception,
weave, and colour.... The patterns in use were poor and often
modifications of cheap Wilton, Kidderminster, and German power loom
designs. Some of the old patterns are still with the weavers, but
unfortunately there is no trade demand for this fine class of goods, the
old dyes are being forgotten and have given place to cheap anilines
unskilfully applied.”
[Illustration: PLATE 59. AFGHAN RUG]
In length, the rugs are from a few feet to twenty-four feet. The warp is
of cotton, and the weft is sometimes of jute or hemp. The pile is of an
inferior quality, as it consists largely of the wool taken from a sheep
after death, known as “dead” wool, or as “Chunam” or “limed” wool, since
it is necessary to treat it with lime. Unfortunately vegetable dyes do
not produce in it the same results as in “live” wool; and since the
scarcity of wool in Southern India frequently necessitates its use,
aniline dyes are for this reason alone often employed. The number of
knots to the square inch is relatively small. The patterns show great
diversity, as Persian features predominate in the older rugs; but both
geometric and floral designs are employed in the modern.
VELLORE.—Almost a hundred miles to the west of Madras is the town of
Vellore, where native weavers once produced fine woollen carpets on
their own looms. A few specimens of these old pieces are preserved in
the jail to serve as patterns for the convicts, who now weave the only
rugs of the district. There are some fifty looms; and as the largest is
about thirty feet wide, almost any size of rug may be obtained. The
product rests on a commercial basis and depends on the market demands,
restricted by the material available and the limitations of the weavers.
According to the order, the rugs may be coloured with vegetable or
aniline dyes; they may have warp and weft of cotton, jute or hemp; and
they may have from six to sixteen knots to the inch measured
horizontally and perpendicularly. In the patterns, which are as
promiscuous as those of Ellore and often similar, the Herati design with
a corresponding border is not infrequently used. Recently an effort has
been made to exclude all but vegetable dyes and improve the
craftsmanship.
BANGALORE.—The principal weaving industry in the Mysore state is centred
about Bangalore, a city of about two hundred thousand inhabitants. Its
founder, Hyder Ali, is said to have established looms and to have
imported the first weavers. In 1908, the nine jail looms, of which the
largest had a length of nearly thirty feet, were constantly occupied in
making rugs to order. The number of knots to the square inch varied
greatly according to the quality required; and the dyes were almost
entirely aniline. In the city are employed a much larger number of
weavers, who clean and spin the wool produced in the district, as well
as dye it by secret processes, that they guard most carefully. The
closeness of texture; the colouring by aniline or vegetable dyes; and
the use of cotton, jute, or hemp, for warp and weft, are regulated by
the requirements of the trade, which is conducted largely by two or
three English firms.
HYDERABAD.—Splendid craftsmanship was once displayed in the rugs made in
the cities of Hyderabad and Warangal, in the district of Hyderabad. The
weave was exceedingly fine, and the colours were brilliant but
harmonious. Now few rugs are produced in these cities, and they have
poor patterns and wretched colours.