RUG WEAVING BEFORE THE XVIII CENTURY
THERE are no records to definitely indicate in what land the art of rug
weaving originated, or to disprove that it developed independently in
different lands. It would be unreasonable, then, to assume that rugs
were not woven in northern regions as early as in southern. In fact,
during the Neolithic age the Lake-dwellers of Switzerland grew and spun
flax, and it is believed that they had looms. Moreover, it is probable
that the savages of cold climates soon learned to weave garments with
the long wool of their sheep or goats; and the similar process of
weaving mats for the floors of their huts would naturally follow.
Nevertheless, such evidence as now remains points to the civilisations
of the Euphrates or the Nile, as the birthplace of this art.
Though we do not know when the first rugs were made, without a doubt
they existed before the pyramids of Egypt or the palaces of Babylon had
risen from the plains. Among the rock-cut tombs of Beni-Hassan in Egypt,
that date from about 2500 B. C. are pictures of men with spindles, of
looms and weavers. There is also unmistakable evidence of the antiquity
of a high state of the textile art among the ruins in the valleys of the
Tigris and the Euphrates. On carved walls of the palaces of Nineveh,
where dwelt the rulers of Assyria over three thousand years ago, are
elaborate drawings indicating that carpets of remarkable workmanship
were then in use. In the borders of some of the robes worn by the rulers
are designs of rosettes and latch-hooks, and on one is depicted the tree
of life, similar to what may be seen in modern rugs. Nor are ancient
writers silent. In the Old Testament are frequent references to woven
fabrics. Homer, also, speaks of them in his Odyssey. Herodotus,
Diodorus, Pliny, Strabo, in fact almost all classic writers have
mentioned them. Moreover, designs on pottery, bowls, tiles, and walls,
similar in appearance to those found in the oldest existing carpets,
carry contributory evidence to their antiquity and character.
This art, that necessity created, comfort nourished, and luxury matured,
has been a process of slow development. To the mind of some dark
tribeswoman of the desert contemplating the rushes gathered from a
sluggish stream and strewn upon the floor of her master’s hut several
thousand years ago, may have been suggested the first idea of a mat.
Indeed, from earliest times mats of reeds, straw, bamboo, or other
pliable material have been constantly made. At first they were doubtless
without ornament; later they were coloured with dyes obtained from roots
and herbs to increase their attractiveness; finally designs symbolic of
nature or the deity were embroidered on them. As wealth and luxury
increased the ornamentation became more elaborate, until during the rule
of the Caliphs the mats rivalled in beauty the carpets for which, during
the summer months, they were substituted. “On these mats,” wrote the
eminent authority, Dr. F. R. Martin, “the artist found free scope for
displaying as much artistic skill as on the real carpets, and gold
threads were intertwined to make them as precious as the most expensive
silk and gold carpets.” Long, however, before they had reached such a
high state of perfection, they would have suggested the idea of making
warmer and more durable floor coverings. The first of these was a simple
web of warp and woof; later they assumed a character not dissimilar to
the kilims now made in the lands of their origin. With further advance,
more elaborate carpets and tapestries were made; but it was not until
the art had been developing for a great many centuries, that there
appeared those most perfect products of knotted pile that were similar
in kind but superior in quality to the modern pieces.
Slow as was this development, as early as the Christian era, the work of
the most skilled weavers of the Orient deserved to be classed as a fine
art. During the time of the Sassanian kingdom (extending from about 226
A. D. to 632 A. D.) carpets of elaborate design and finish were produced
in Mesopotamia and Syria. Most of them were of the wool of sheep or
goats; and in them were represented designs of trees, birds, animals,
and other figures. Other pieces were made of silk richly embroidered
with silver and gold. Moreover, authentic evidence from the VI Century
A. D. not only gives us positive knowledge of the marvellous workmanship
of that time, but enables us to conjecture through what a long period
of progression the artisans had been labouring to arrive at such
results. Dr. Karabacek, director of the Imperial Library of Vienna, in
his monograph “Die Persische Nadelmalerei Susandschird,” gave the
following description of the “Spring of Chosroes” carpet:
“When Ctesiphon, the residence of the Sassanides, fell into the hands of
the Arabs in the year 637 A. D., they found in the royal palace, the
ruins of which still remain, a colossal carpet of 1051 square
metres,[11] which was originally made for Chosroes I. His successor,
Anoschar (531-579 A. D.), used it also, but only during the stormy
weather, when remaining in the gardens was impracticable. The
festivities were then transferred to the palace, where a garden with the
beauty of springtime was represented by the pattern of the carpet. This
was the Winter Carpet that was called in Persia the Spring of Chosroes.
Its material, which was marvellous and costly, consisted of silk, gold,
silver, and precious stones. On it was represented a beautiful pleasure
ground with brooks and interlacing paths, with trees and flowers of
springtime. On the wide borders surrounding it were represented
flower-beds in which precious stones coloured blue, red, yellow, white,
and green denoted the beauty of the flowers. Gold imitated the
yellow-coloured soil and defined the borders of the brooks, where the
water was represented by crystals. Gravel paths were indicated by stones
of the size of pearls. The stalks of trees were of gold and silver, the
leaves and flowers of silk, the fruits of many-coloured stones.”
As the value of this carpet was estimated at about three quarters of a
million dollars, it was regarded as too precious to fall to the lot of a
single captor, and was accordingly divided into segments to be
distributed as booty among the soldiers. Even if during this period
there was no other fabric so valuable and elaborate, it represented the
importance of the textile art during the dynasty of the Sassanides.
[Illustration: PLATE 15. PERSIAN ANIMAL CARPET IN THE METROPOLITAN
MUSEUM OF ART, NEW YORK]
During the Caliphate (632 to 1258 A. D.) the Moslem rulers, devoted to
luxury, preserved the art treasures of their conquered subjects and
encouraged them to renewed efforts. This is particularly true of the
Caliphs and sultans of Syria and Egypt. A carpet that adorned the
banquet hall of the Caliph Hisham of Egypt, who died 743 A. D., was of
silk interwoven with strands of gold, and had a length of three hundred
feet and a breadth of one hundred and fifty feet. All of the rooms of
the Egyptian palaces, occupied by the sultans, contained carpets of silk
and satin; and the mosques of Syria were similarly furnished. In the
year 1067 A. D. one of the Caliphs was forced to sell his accumulated
treasures, which consisted, besides jewels and works of art, of about
four thousand bales of carpets. Dr. Martin states that a single one of
these bales contained several hundred perfect carpets, which were woven
in silk and gold, and that some of them contained portraits of entire
royal families. One of them, valued at about $300,000, was made for the
Caliph el Mirz li alla in the year 964 A. D. It was of blue silk, on
which were represented the heavens and the earth, seas and rivers, as
well as the holy cities Mecca and Medina. Such was the character of some
of the carpets woven during the days of the Caliphs.
As the imperfect records which have been left us indicate that the
finest carpet collections of this period were in the mosques and palaces
of Syria and Egypt, it has been assumed that they were woven by the
native artisans. To some extent this is doubtless true, as rug weaving
was one of the oldest industries of these countries. But it is more
probable that most of them were made elsewhere and were acquired as
presents or by purchase. Some were made in Armenia, Assyria, and
Turkestan; but the largest number, as well as the most costly and
elaborate, doubtless came from the same hills and towns of Persia where
many of the finest pieces are woven to-day. In several of these towns as
many as three or four hundred looms were constantly at work; and since
the carpets consisted of warp and weft only, it is probable that they
were produced far more rapidly than modern rugs in which knots are tied
to the warp. But if they lacked the richness of deep, heavy pile, they
were elaborately woven with threads of gold and silver, and were often
embellished with precious stones.
ANTIQUE PERSIAN CARPETS
To the tendency of overestimating the age of art objects to which
antiquity adds value, there is no exception in the case of Oriental
rugs, yet there is good reason to believe that a few pieces still exist
that were woven in Persia as early as the XIII or XIV Century. Indeed,
we cannot positively affirm that there may not be religiously preserved
some relic of the Seljukian dynasty, which ruled in Persia till about
1150 A. D., for we have little knowledge of what some of the old mosques
which no Christian has ever entered may contain; but it is more probable
that the oldest remaining pieces belong to the Mongolian period, which
began with the invasion of the armies of Genghis Khan in the first half
of the XIII Century. This conclusion is based partly on the facts that
their archaic patterns indicate a very remote period, and that they
suggest early Mongolian influences. Moreover, as the age of rugs of a
somewhat later period can be determined by the evidence of similarity of
their designs with those of early tiles, metal work, pottery, and
miniatures, of established age, it is possible to infer the relative age
of these older pieces by comparison of patterns showing a progressive
development.
One of the oldest Persian pieces now existing, the property of C. F.
Williams, Esq., of Norristown, Pa., is in the Metropolitan Museum of Art
of New York (Plate 11, opp. Page 64). It is also one of the most
interesting. In it are found Persian, Armenian, Caucasian, and Mongolian
characteristics, which serve to determine the district where it was
woven and to suggest its age. Its Sehna knot, cotton warp and weft, as
well as much of the drawing, are typical of Persia. The tri-cleft leaf
and stem seen in the two lower corners, in the main stripe, and in parts
of the field are found in almost all Armenian rugs. The reciprocal
sawtooth of the outer border stripe and the geometric inner stripe are
Caucasian features. Certain colour tones, the octagonal discs at each
end of the large central palmettes, and more particularly the tendrils
or scrolls of the main stripe of the border which resemble the foliate
forms as they appear in Chinese rugs and porcelains of the late Ming and
Kang-hi periods, are Mongolian. The combination of these characteristics
indicates that it was made in the most northwesterly part of Persia
where in 1258 Hulaku Khan established his capital, and his successors
ruled for over a century. Here undoubtedly the craft of weaving
flourished for a long period, and exercised an important influence on
the surrounding countries. To judge by the colours; the formal character
of the border; the rigid lines of the large palmette motives of the
field, which are not seen in carpets of a much later period; and the
stiff, archaic character of the bushes with foliage and blossoms
arranged mechanically on the thick trunks, it is not unreasonable to
place this piece as early as the middle of the XIV Century, during the
interval between the overthrow of the Seljukian dynasty by the followers
of Genghis Khan and the later invasion of the Timurids. In fact, it
may be even older, since those graceful lines that belong to the highest
art of a subsequent period are entirely lacking. But in the drawing is
strength, and in the colours, a few of which have faded, are beauty and
harmony.
[Illustration: PLATE 16. PERSIAN ANIMAL CARPET IN THE METROPOLITAN
MUSEUM OF ART, NEW YORK]
Such old pieces are very rare, yet a similar one, belonging to Prof. W.
Bode, is in the Kaiser Friedrich Museum at Berlin. Its drawing is more
regular, and the trunks of the trees are broader. These two carpets
represent the art of weaving at a very early period.
Of equal interest and higher artistic merit is another carpet (Plate 12,
opp. Page 68), belonging to C. F. Williams, Esq., and at present in the
Metropolitan Museum of Art but formerly in the possession of J. Böhler
of Munich. It has a length of nearly seventeen feet and a breadth of
nearly twelve. There are about three hundred knots to the square inch.
Though much of that stiffness of drawing found in the earlier pieces
remains, the more pliant branches and less regular setting of the
flowers indicate a later date; so that it is not improbable that it was
woven about the first of the XV Century. Dr. Martin regards this piece
as one of the oldest of the Timurid period if not from the Mongolian,
and says that the trees resemble those in a Mongolian miniature in the
Musée des Arts Decoratifs in Paris, and in a manuscript from the year
1396. At any rate, they display more formal drawing than the trees of
more recent carpets. The character of pattern and the colouring suggest
that it was woven in Northwestern Persia.
The field is skilfully divided into three subfields by beds of flowers,
from which slender trees rise and partly screen from view more stately
cypresses. The subdivisions are further indicated by pairs of palmettes,
of which the upper pair mark a transition between the lower pair and
those more elegant forms commonly seen two centuries later. There are
likewise palmettes of simpler form in the two guard stripes. But the
principal ornamentation of the rich border is the interlacing arabesques
of three different colours, which are decorated with a slender wreath of
leaf and flower. There is, moreover, a particular interest in the
grouping of the arabesques since they form a design which may be the
prototype of the so-called turtle borders so frequently seen in
Feraghans and Gorevans, and is itself derived, according to Dr. Martin,
from a still older form in which branching arabesques extend across the
whole field. It may not be unreasonable to assume that this pattern has
been handed down from that earlier period when a Saracenic influence was
felt in all the weavings.
If the chief interest in this piece is centred in the pattern, its
greatest charm lies in its soft, dainty colours, some of which are
exquisitely beautiful. They are expressed in delicate shades of orange,
ivory, light green, sable brown, and light and dark blue on a
background of pinkish red. This pattern and colouring suggest an
Eastern wood when the first frost of autumn has left its touch on the
leaves. The border contains the same colours as the field but is strong
and effective, since the soft tones are in the narrow guard stripes and
the deeper colours appear in the broad central stripe in larger masses
and in immediate contact.
If this carpet was woven about 1400 A. D., as seems not improbable, the
drawing of the trees, palmettes, and border designs becomes by
comparison an important guide for determining the age of other antique
Persian carpets.
Very different, indeed, from the preceding is a woollen piece (Plate 13,
opp. Page 70), sixteen feet four inches long by eleven feet two inches
wide, that was formerly in the collection of Mr. Vincent Robinson of
London, but is now in the Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York, which
bought it at the Yerkes sale in 1910, for $19,600. It has about six
hundred knots to the square inch, and is woven with warp of cotton and
silk, and with weft of silk. The pile is velvety, and the texture,
drawing, and colouring display a high grade of artistic craftsmanship.
Another of similar character is represented in the Vienna Publication of
Oriental Carpets of 1889, at which time it belonged to the Countess
Clotilde Clam-Gallas of Vienna; and a third belongs to the Palais de
Commerce at Lyons.
In no other rugs from Iran is the effect of Mongolian tradition on
design more noticeable; but that this was due to the Timurid invasion at
the end of the XIV Century is doubtful, and it is not improbable that
more immediate intervention with China determined the motives. Nor is
the Saracenic influence obscured, since in every part of the field and
border is seen the perfect rhythm of graceful arabesques. Such carpets
represent, in fact, the transition from those earlier pieces to the
higher products of Persian looms.
[Illustration: PLATE 17. SO-CALLED POLISH OR POLONAISE CARPET IN THE
METROPOLITAN MUSEUM OF ART, NEW YORK]
One of the simplest ways of studying the pattern is to regard it as
consisting of a number of units formed by a large rounded octagon
encircled by eight heart-shaped escutcheons, and with a smaller
rounded octagon at the centre of the diagonal lines connecting them. On
the large octagons, which are of dark blue crossed by narrow bands of
sable brown, is represented the fight of dragon and phœnix so common
in the ornamentation of the Ming dynasty; and in the smaller octagons,
which are plum colour, are four running lions in red, blue, and green.
The eight escutcheons alternate in crimson and blue, and have arabesques
and Chinese ducks. The large pentagonal-shaped areas of the ivory field
are covered with a most symmetrically drawn tracery of tendrils and
flowers in red, yellow, and blue; and in the smaller hexagonal-shaped
areas are cloud bands of similar colours.
The border shows a marked advance over that of the preceding piece. The
main stripe, which follows a pattern that with slight modification is
adopted in many of the carpets of this and a later period, consists of a
chain-like series of octagons similar to those of the field, separating
elongated panels with crenated edges. The latter are adorned with cloud
bands in yellow interlaced with delicate tendrils supporting flowers in
red, yellow, green, and white, on a dark blue field; and surrounding
them on a red ground is also a delicate tracery of leaves and flowers.
The outer and inner stripes have arabesques and tendrils bearing flowers
in red, green, and blue on a ground of golden yellow. All the colours of
both field and border have mellowed into rich, beautiful hues in which
is the most perfect harmony.
The intricacy and character of design, the delicacy of drawing, and the
tones of colour indicate that this piece was woven near the beginning of
the Safavid dynasty, in the early part of the XVI Century. Mr. Robinson
ascribes its origin to Bagdad; but it seems far more probable that it
came from the northwestern part of Persia, which was an important centre
of textile art only a few years later. This piece and the two others
described on the pages just preceding are among the most interesting
carpets now existing; for they represent not only a very high standard
of the textile craft, but also most important steps in its development.
There is no evidence to indicate how early animal carpets were woven in
Persia. Dr. Martin found a piece with archaic drawing, that from its
resemblance to an old tile of established age, he placed at about the
year 1300 A. D.; but it was about the beginning of the XVI Century that
were woven the first of those masterly pieces which displayed animals
surrounded by a maze of floral life. Lions, leopards, boars, deer, and
hounds were the principal motives. To each of these was ascribed some
principle or quality, so that it has been assumed that the aim of the
weaver was to give expression to some theme of interest.
A number of these carpets represent the chase and are called “Hunting
Carpets.” The best of them are regarded by Dr. Martin as belonging to
the latter half of the XVI Century for reasons indicated in the
following extract from his work: “The manuscript of Nizami, one of the
pearls of the British Museum, which was executed in Tabriz 1539-1542 for
the Shah Tamasp, has the most wonderful designs on the margins. Although
the manuscripts and the miniatures are signed by Persia’s most renowned
masters, there is nothing to give a hint as to who has drawn these
magnificent borders. This manuscript, which at the time it was written,
was considered one of the most remarkable ‘the like of which the eye of
time never beheld,’ plainly proves that the large carpets with hunting
scenes must be relegated to a later time or to about 1560-1570. Both
animals and trees are of a far more stately and earlier character in the
manuscript.”
One of the best of these pieces with animals (Plate 14, opp. Page 72) is
in the Metropolitan Museum of Art, in New York, by which it was
purchased at the Yerkes sale in 1910, for $15,200. It has a length of
ten feet eleven inches with a breadth of five feet ten inches, and an
average of four hundred and eighty knots to the square inch. Both warp
and weft are of silk, and the pile is of wool. As it was confidently
believed by Mr. Edward Stebbing[12] that this piece belonged for a long
time to the Mosque of Ardebil, where Ismael had established his capital,
and from which Tamasp subsequently moved; it is not improbable that it
belongs to the early period, between the closing years of Ismael’s reign
and the first part of the reign of Tamasp.[13] Nor is there anything in
the technique of colour or design to convey a different impression, as
the general colour of the field is a claret red, and that of the border
a dark blue characteristic of this period.
The most noticeable feature of the carpet is the display of animal life
amid the carefully balanced arrangement of floral figures. Four-fifths
of the field can be divided into two perfect squares with sides equal to
the breadth of the field; and the remainder will be equivalent to
one-half of one of these squares. Each quarter of a square contains
animals, probably intended to represent a lion, leopard, and boar, that
are perfectly balanced with those of the adjacent and alternating
quarters. Moreover, the same balance exists in the case of the smaller
animals and floral forms. Thus it appears that each square forms a
perfect unit in which is shown a remarkable relation between all parts.
Such mathematical exactness indicates the highest artistic skill. The
repetition of pattern also accentuates the predominant idea of animal
life, which is rendered even more noticeable by the strong golden yellow
of some of the group. Whoever has studied the early Iranian monuments
remembers with how slight variation some of the drawing has been copied
during subsequent generations; so that it is not surprising that Mr.
Stebbing should call attention to the resemblance of some of the animals
in this carpet to those of the rock-carved sculptures of Tak-i-Bostan
near Kermanshah.
As is the case with most modern Persian rugs, there is no correspondence
between the size of the animals and the flowers. Nevertheless the lack
of harmony is not felt, as the animal and the floral life are intended
to be regarded separately. The principal flowers of the field are
peonies, some of which are woven with silver threads. They also appear
in the border arranged with perfect precision within the folds of
symmetrical cloud-bands and interlacing arabesques. The latter form a
well-executed repetitive figure that suggests an origin for the
reciprocal trefoil or lily pattern, as it is sometimes called, which
received its highest development in the silk rugs of a later century.
On the whole, this piece is not far short of the highest sumptuary
standard of a subsequent period, and is an excellent example of the
artistic development of the earliest part of the Safavid dynasty. In few
other carpets is combined such intricacy of design with richness and
simplicity of colour.
Of still greater interest than the last is the Arbedil Carpet, now in
the South Kensington Museum. It has a length of thirty-four and a half
feet with a breadth of seventeen and a half; the texture shows about
three hundred and twenty-five knots to the square inch; and the pile is
of wool tied to warp and weft of silk. It has been very carefully
studied by Mr. Edward Stebbing, from whose description the following
extracts are taken:
“The body ground is blue, covered with a floral tracery of exquisite
delicacy and freedom of treatment. A central medallion of pale yellow
terminates on its outer edge in sixteen minaret-shaped points from which
spring sixteen cartouches; four green, four red, and eight light cream;
and from two of these again, as it were, suspended and hanging in the
direction of the respective ends of the carpet, two of the sacred lamps
of the mosque.
“Quarter sections of the central medallion also on a pale yellow ground,
relieved by tracery, form the angles; while a broader border completes
the glorious design, a border of the alternate elongated and rounded
cartouches filled with floral and other tracery, the former on a base of
red, the latter on a rich brown ground flanked on the inner side by a
broad band of cream seven inches wide, relieved by a variation of a
so-called cloud pattern, and a narrower band of crimson near the body of
the carpet; and on the outer side by a single broad band, also seven
inches wide, of tawny hue, shading from dark to light, and relieved by a
bold design in blue.”
But however exquisite the tracery, however delicate the colouring, the
greatest interest centres in the fact that in a panel adjoining the
border of the upper end is the following inscription:
“I have no refuge in the world other than thy threshold;
“My head has no protection other than thy porchway;
“The work of the slave of the holy place, Maksoud of Kashan,
in the year 946.”
Here is revealed the age of the carpet, which not only determines the
character of workmanship of a particular period, but affords a standard
for determining by comparison the relative age of other pieces. The year
946 corresponds with our year 1540 A. D., and the position of the date
indicates that it was inscribed a little before the completion of the
fabric. Accordingly, it would not be unreasonable to assume that the
carpet was begun during the closing years of the reign of Ismael, who
died at Ardebil in 1524, and that it was finished during the reign of
Tamasp I.
To infer that at this period were many such carpets would be a mistake;
since this was doubtless woven by the order of the court, and by one of
the most skilled artisans, who may have made it the crowning labour of
his life. It indicates the highest technique acquired in the early part
of the Safavid dynasty.
[Illustration: PLATE 18. SO-CALLED ISPAHAN IN THE METROPOLITAN MUSEUM OF
ART, NEW YORK]
Besides the mosque carpets, other pieces such as small prayer rugs were
used for devotional purposes. When the first of them were made is
unknown, though they existed in the days of the Caliphs, when the
words of the Prophet were still fresh in the memories of his followers;
and they were also used at an early period among Turkomans. The oldest
that remain belong to the early part of the Safavid rule. One that was
formerly in the collection of Stefano Bardini of Florence and is now
owned by Mr. Benjamin Altman, appeared at the exhibit of the
Metropolitan Museum of Art in 1910. It is a woollen piece with a length
of nearly five and a half feet and a breadth of three and a quarter. In
the central field is a prayer arch resembling some of a later period,
with outlines gracefully recurving near the base and broken on each side
by a pentagonal-shaped flower. All parts of each of the two trees that
rise from the bottom of the field are reversely duplicated in the other.
Some of the stiffness of drawing of the earlier carpets remains, but the
blossoms are clustered more naturally and the whole treatment is more
skilful. The effect of the scroll-work on the red ground of the
spandrel; of the suspended lamp with its bright flowers of red, yellow,
and pink; and of the blossoming trees beneath, is most pleasing; but the
chief interest centres in the outer border stripe, where appear features
that are more interesting than harmonious, features derived from Persia,
Assyria, Mongolia, and Arabia. The rounded octagons have Cufic lettering
that recalls early Mesopotamian civilisation; the cartouches at the
bottom with their cloud-bands suggest Mongolian conquests; and the upper
cartouches contain the following verses from the Koran:
“Iman the victorious and expected Mahdi, the Lord of the Age.
Zalsi and Hason; and bless the standing proof.
Oh Lord bless Mohammed the chosen one. Ali, the elect, Fatimeh the
Immaculate.
Jofer Sadik, Mooza Kazin, Ali Riza Mohammed Taki, Mohammed Nakee, Ali.
The two branches Harson and Hussein Bless Ali Zaimulubbad Mohammed
Bak’r.”
These verses, the archaic lamp, and the green of the field, a colour
sacred to Moslems, all indicate the religious character of the carpet.
Similar features also appear in another antique piece of about the same
age, but the Cufic characters of the border are within squares
surrounded by circles that resemble Chinese seals as they appear in
early manuscripts. Both of these pieces were probably woven in
Northwestern Persia about the middle of the XVI Century. Few such prayer
carpets remain, though without doubt they were used by devotees during
succeeding periods, and it is not unusual to see, even in modern
Kermanshahs, prayer arches of the same pattern.
Of totally different character but of about the same age is an animal
rug (Plate 15, opp. Page 76) that belongs to the Metropolitan Museum of
Art. It was bought at the Yerkes sale in 1910, for $5,600, and had
previously belonged to the collection of Vincent Robinson of London. It
has a length of about seven and a half feet with a breadth of about five
and a half, and consists of woollen pile tied to cotton warp crossed by
woollen weft. The weave is not unlike what is seen in many modern
Sarouks; as the knot is Sehna, one thread of warp is doubled under the
other in each knot, and the coloured thread of weft, which crosses
twice, is partly exposed at the back.
Like so many of the old Persian pieces, the ground colour of red appears
in the main field, and is strongly contrasted with the dark blue of the
medallion and dark green of the corners. Red and green also appear in
the border contrasted with yellow. This association of colour is not
usual, nor is the repetitive pattern of the border with its sharp cusps
at many of the angles, nor the trapeziform corners, and the nearly
rectangular medallion. Likewise the mechanically formed bushes with
their quince-like fruit, on which sit birds of disproportionate size,
show a departure from the accepted traditions of the Safavid schools.
Yet these very features awaken new interest, and suggest that it was
probably woven in some part of Northern or Western Persia where the
influence of the court was not paramount. Nevertheless the accurate
balance of the different halves, and the drawing of the palmettes show
that it is distinctly Iranian.
If this last piece be compared with the animal rug (Plate 16, opp. Page
78) that was presented to the Metropolitan Museum of Art by Mr. Cochran,
the wide contrast will at once be noticeable. As the latter has a length
of about eight and two-thirds feet with a breadth of nearly six, the
difference in size and proportions is not great; nor is there any
particular difference in the number of animals; nor in the balanced
relation of upper and lower, right and left halves; nor in the red
ground of the main fields. But here the resemblance ends. Whereas in the
former the animals are one of the most prominent features, in the latter
they are subordinate to the rich assemblage of floral and palmette
forms, that occupy not only the field but also the border. It is,
indeed, a piece that marks a transition from the animal rugs, so
prominent in the early part of the XVI Century but rarely woven later
than its end, to the more elegant pieces, so characteristic of the court
of Ispahan, which belong almost exclusively to the XVII Century. It
accordingly seems not without reason to assign it to about the year
1600.
[Illustration: PLATE 19. ARMENIAN CARPET IN THE METROPOLITAN MUSEUM OF
ART, NEW YORK]
Not only do these different elements that denote a transition add
interest; they also give a most pleasing effect. The main border stripe
of a rich green with its well-drawn palmettes surrounded by vines and
foliated stalks, on which rest naturally drawn birds of handsome
plumage, and the chaste floral designs of the narrow guards, serve as a
tasteful frame to the central picture. Here again the outer field, with
artistic effect, brings into greater relief the central medallion, where
on a ground of greenish yellow, standing and seated amidst blossoming
shrubs in red, blue, and green, as in a garden, are richly dressed human
forms. Apart from these, yet perhaps intended in some way to reflect the
tenor of their thoughts, are four ducks, emblematic of matrimonial
happiness. Whatever may have been the original shade of the central
medallion, it is now slightly out of harmony with the surrounding
colours, and is perhaps the only jarring note in this exquisite piece of
workmanship. Not improbably the present shade is due to the unfriendly
hand of time, since the artistic genius of the weaver is fully displayed
in the masterly arrangement of other colours and in the delicacy and
precision of the drawing of the perfectly balanced floral and animal
forms.
The difficulty of determining the locality where the antique carpets
were woven is often greater than in the case of modern rugs, but this
piece was probably one of the last of those fine old animal carpets that
were woven in the northwestern part of Persia.
Though modern silk rugs fail to awaken the interest of woollen pieces,
the old silk carpets were formerly regarded as the choicest products of
weaving. As a rule, they were the work of the most skilled artists
employed in the imperial factory under the direction and patronage of
the court. It was during the reign of Shah Tamasp that they received
special attention. Following a custom that had been in vogue of sending
carpets as presents to foreign courts, in 1566 he sent to the Sultan of
Constantinople a number of pieces on which flowers, birds, and animals
were woven with silk on threads of gold. But it was doubtless after his
successor Shah Abbas I had begun to embellish his capital at Ispahan,
that were made the famous “Polish” silk or “Polonaise” carpets about
which there has been so much controversy. It is true that Mr. Robinson
in his “Eastern Carpets” claims that they were woven in Poland by
Persians taken there by a Pole named Mersherski; but it seems far more
probable that they were woven under the supervision of the Persian court
and were either sent as presents to European sovereigns or purchased by
wealthy connoisseurs of art.
How many of these pieces may be hidden away in the palaces and mosques
of the far East it is impossible to determine, but two hundred would be
a very conservative estimate of the number owned by the different courts
of Europe and by private collectors of that country and America. One of
them was presented to the Danish court as late as 1639; and it is
believed that all that reached Europe arrived there between the years
1604 and 1650.
Their beauty is exquisite and chaste. To the threads of silver and gold
is tied silken nap that often displays a striking brilliancy. Unlike the
earlier Persian carpets which had more subdued hues, these pieces have
light tones such as salmon, rose, and green, which are arranged with
perfect harmony. Moreover, there is an elegance of design representing
the highest types of Iranian, Saracenic, and Mongolian influences
combined. Here in perfection are dainty floral forms, the rhythmic
tracery of arabesques, and delicate cloud-bands. In them the textile art
of the East reached a perfection that probably has never been surpassed.
One of these (Plate 17, opp. Page 80), that has a length of about nine
feet and a breadth of five and a half, belongs to the Metropolitan
Museum of Art. In many respects it is typical of its class, though
threads of yellow and grey are substituted for the usual gold and silver
of the foundation. On a field of rose are outlined palmettes, leaves,
and scrolls in green, blue, brown, and salmon, that harmonise with the
light blue of the border. All of these colours blend with pleasing
effect and soften lines that in a print seem harsh. Furthermore with all
its complexity of detail, every part of the pattern is arranged with
mathematical precision. That a carpet with such perfect balance of every
part, such intricacy of elaborate detail, such graceful curves of the
heavy foliate leaves should be woven without copying some older pattern
or a carefully executed drawing, seems improbable.
[Illustration: PLATE 20. ASIA MINOR DRAGON AND PHOENIX CARPET IN THE
KAISER FRIEDRICH MUSEUM, BERLIN]
In this piece and in others of the same class can be recognised what is
probably the prototype of more conventionalised and less elegant
designs so often seen in modern Persian pieces, since the palmette with
encircling lancet leaves in its borders is most suggestive of the
borders of modern Herats; and the rhomboidal-shaped figure connecting
four palmettes at the centre is equally suggestive of the Herati or fish
pattern seen in the field of innumerable Feraghans.
It was also during the reign of Shah Abbas[14] and his immediate
successors that most of the so-called Ispahans were woven, though some
of them appeared as early as the XV and some as late as the close of the
XVII Century. As in the case with the Polish silk carpets, within recent
years some difference of opinion has existed regarding the place of
their manufacture. After careful research, Dr. Martin believes that they
came from Herat and with this idea some other authorities concur. It is
true that Herat belonged to the Persian Empire during the reign of the
Safavid dynasty, and that even in the days of Shah Ismael magnificent
carpets were woven there. It is also true that during the time of Tamasp
and Abbas it was as important an art centre as Tabriz, and that the
weaving of carpets was a leading industry there. Furthermore, there has
not been found the same evidence to show that Ispahan was at this period
an equally important centre of weaving. On the other hand, it is well
known that the splendid industrial and art products of this period were
largely due to the direct encouragement and favour of the court, and
that the court was for most of the time at Ispahan. It is also known
that skilled artisans were repeatedly removed from one district to
another at the command of a sovereign, so that carpets of similar
character might be woven contemporaneously in remote parts of Persia. It
accordingly seems not improbable that the original type of these carpets
was evolved at Herat and that many of them at least were made at Herat,
but that others were also made at Ispahan. At any rate they were made to
a great extent under the influence that emanated from Ispahan.
Almost without exception they are pieces of large size and oblong shape.
The ground colour of the field is usually red, the border blue; but blue
is occasionally used in the field and green in the border. Their
distinguishing feature is the use of the palmette, that was probably
derived from the lotus, so frequently associated with the Buddhist cult
of India and China. In the field it generally occurs in pairs that
slightly vary in size. Of almost equal importance are the Chinese
cloud-bands and the scrolls or arabesques. These three designs were
constant motives in almost all the Ispahans; but they were subject to
modifications in size and shape, which appearing in chronological order
furnish some guide to the time when the carpets were woven. For
instance, the palmettes were at first small and distributed plentifully
over the field; later they became larger, until in a few instances they
were a yard in diameter. Dr. Martin says that in the first part of the
XVII Century the palmettes began to be very large and the richness of
the interior design to disappear; until at the end of the XVII Century
only a few were sufficient to cover the ground that one hundred years
before was almost hidden by innumerable designs of small palmettes,
cloud-bands, and scroll work. He also states that towards the middle of
the XVII Century the borders began to lose their importance and that the
palmettes were surrounded by two long, narrow leaves.
Though most of the antique Iranian carpets that remain were woven in the
Northern provinces, it is well known that even from earliest times
carpets of elaborate design and skilful technique were also woven in
Southern Persia. In fact, many of the wonderful pieces that adorned the
palaces and mosques of the Fatimid Caliphs of Egypt came from the
districts of Fars and Kirman. The latter, notwithstanding invasions of
Seljukian Turks, Mongolians, and Afghans, has continued almost
uninterruptedly as a centre of the textile industry; yet comparatively
few pieces exist that were woven there three or four centuries ago.
Their colour scheme harmonises more with that of the carpets of Western
Persia than with the more sombre tones of the old animal carpets and
Ispahans, or with the brighter hues of the so-called Polish. Their
patterns also show a distinction from those of northern textile fabrics.
The fields are often artificially divided, by foliate stalks or
lance-shaped leaves with serrated edges, into rhomboidal figures that
contain mechanically drawn shrubs, palmettes, or flowers. In the main
stripe of the border are generally represented interlacing arabesques
adorned with flowering vines or arabesques and a sub-pattern of vines.
Mongolian designs are rarely seen in any of these pieces, which probably
represent more closely than any other Persian carpets native art
unaffected by foreign influences. Almost all of them are now owned in
Europe.
Of the early rugs, those woven in Armenia are far less known than those
from Persia. Nevertheless, it may reasonably be assumed that the high
culture that was manifested in Bagdad and Ctesiphon during the sway of
the Caliphs was felt among the mountainous districts to the north; and
that the Seljukian rulers, who left such artistic monuments in the old
Armenian capitals, appreciated and encouraged the manufacture of fine
woollen fabrics. In fact, Marco Polo, who travelled through that region
during the latter part of the XIII Century, referred to them as being
remarkably handsome.
Probably the oldest remaining pieces are the so-called Dragon carpets,
which, it is believed, were produced from the XIV to the XVII Century
and possibly even earlier. Not infrequently the length is at least twice
the breadth; the very narrow border occasionally consists of only a
single stripe; and the field is occupied by a trellis-like pattern of
narrow, conventionalised leaves, within which are designs containing
archaic flowers and dragons. The ground colour of the field is generally
some shade of red, that of the border white, and the leaves are yellow,
blue, or green. In the borders of many of them appear an S motive from
which undoubtedly was derived the design so frequently seen in panels of
more recent Asia Minor prayer rugs.
In the Metropolitan Museum of Art of New York is a XV Century carpet
(Plate 19, opp. Page 86), which, though widely differing from these
pieces in general pattern, so closely resembles them in the essential
characteristics of weave and colour that it is unquestionably of the
same class. The field is occupied by concentric diamonds with stepped
sides. The encircling bands, that are mostly red, yellow, and violet,
and the corners, that are white, contain numerous archaic forms,
including palmettes, trees, birds, and animals. There are also numerous
small designs of the tri-cleft leaf so common to the Circassian and
Soumak rugs; and the ray-like edges of the central lozenge, as well as
the four palmettes that rest upon it, suggest the origin of the
effulgent stars of old Daghestans and Kabistans. An effort has been made
to balance similar designs in corresponding parts of the field, though
its centre is at one side of the geometric centre of the diamonds. The
palmettes show distinctly a strong Persian influence and the animal
forms likewise show that it was not woven by a sectarian Sunnite of
Western Asia Minor.
Part of a very unusual carpet (Plate 20, opp. Page 88), from a district
in Eastern Asia Minor, is in the Kaiser Friedrich Museum at Berlin. Its
principal interest lies in the fact that it is very old and that its
approximate age has been determined. In the hospital at Siena, Italy, a
similar rug is represented in a fresco called the “Wedding of the
Foundling,” painted by Domenico di Bartolo about the year 1440, so that
it is reasonable to conclude that this particular piece was woven not
much later. In fact, its character would indicate that it or some other
from which it has been copied was much older. Each of the nearly square
compartments contain octagons, within which on a yellow field are
represented the mythical fight of the dragon and phœnix that was
adopted as the Ming coat of arms. It is interesting to note that the
chain pattern of the brownish-black main border stripe is not unlike
what is seen in modern pieces, but the running latch hooks of the
corners and the small S designs are unusually stiff. This disposition to
formal drawing, which is conspicuous in all parts of the rug, shows an
archaic style noticeable only in the very earliest carpets.
In the celebrated painting of Georg Gyze (Plate 21, opp. Page 92) which
hangs in the Berlin Gallery, is represented a rug of a class so
frequently seen in the paintings of Hans Holbein that they are known as
“Holbein rugs.” Their marked dissimilarity to those previously described
indicates that they were woven under different circumstances if not in
different regions. Neither in the fields nor borders is any trace of
Mongolian or Persian influences; and the absence of all floral, leaf,
and animal forms so usual in most antique carpets is noticeable. Indeed,
the fact that animal forms rarely appear in the art of the Sunni
Mohammedans aids in determining the place of their origin. They came
from Asia Minor or Western Armenia.
It has generally been assumed that they were woven in Western Asia
Minor, because they were purchased there in former centuries and taken
thence to Europe; but they possess many features that indicate they may
have been woven farther to the east, whence many could easily have been
transported westward in caravans. Their borders contain the well-known
pattern derived from Cufic letters which, more conventionalised, appears
in later years only in such rugs as the Kabistans and Daghestans of
Eastern Caucasia. Most of them also contain the small octagonal discs
and larger octagonal figures with Greek crosses at the centre that
suggest forcibly the designs of Southeastern Caucasia. The narrow
stripes of ribbon and chain pattern found in many of them also are
very common in Caucasian rugs; so that it seems not improbable that
these Holbein rugs were made within the boundaries of that greater
Armenia which, embracing the upper Mesopotamian valley, extended over
the eastern part of Asia Minor and the southern part of modern Caucasia.
[Illustration: PLATE 21. PORTRAIT OF GEORG GYZE BY HANS HOLBEIN, SHOWING
A HOLBEIN RUG WITH CUFIC BORDER]
These rugs claim the attention not only because they have borders of
such interesting origin, but by the fact that the age when they were
woven is ascertainable. As Holbein lived between the years 1497 and
1543, and some other rugs of this type appear in the works of early
Flemish and Italian painters, it may reasonably be assumed that some of
them were made before the end of the XV Century.
A very excellent example of this class, owned by Mr. C. F. Williams, is
now in the Metropolitan Museum of Art. It has a length of about five
feet with a breadth of three and a half. The ground colour of the field
is an olive green and that of the main stripe of the border is red. The
prevailing colours of the designs, which are entirely geometric, are
blue, green, and ivory. All of these rugs are small or of moderate size,
and are slightly oblong. Some of them have a ground colour of green; and
yellow is frequently found in the pattern. The weaving is rather loose;
and compared with Persian rugs they have fewer knots to the square inch.
Another carpet from Asia Minor that also belongs to Mr. C. F. Williams
appears in Plate 22, opp. Page 94. It is the only entire rug with this
pattern that is known, though a piece of a similar rug is in the
Victoria and Albert Museum at London. On fields of blue and red are
outlined three large four-pointed stars separated by smaller diamonds.
Within these figures and in the surrounding field is a network of
tracery supporting conventionalised leaf and floral forms. Between the
field and the main stripe of the narrow border is a close co-ordination
of pattern, but the simple ribbon of the inner guard seems alien. It
appears without modification in many later Asia Minor and Caucasian
rugs.
An important feature are the double knots at the corners of the stars,
since they are identical with designs found in a manuscript made for one
of the Shahs in 1435, and thus assist to determine the age of the rug.
For this reason and on account of its general character, it seems not
unreasonable to place it as early as the middle of the XV Century.
Similar carpets were woven during a long period, and it is probable that
in the latter half of the following century they were largely influenced
by the weavers that Solyman the Magnificent, after capturing Tabriz in
1534, transported to his own country. The same general features still
remained, but the detail was more elaborate and ornate. Arabesques,
palmettes, and floral forms, both of field and border, resembled more
nearly the Iranian character. But at a later period, after the beginning
of the general decadence to which every industry and art were subject,
the patterns became much simpler, and the colours were reduced almost
exclusively to red and blue with a little green. At length, both pattern
and colours assumed the type of modern Oushaks, that by a slow process
of devolution originated from these antique pieces.
In Armenia and Asia Minor it is probable that weaving existed before the
Christian era, and that the earliest carpets which remain, though
affected by more eastern influences, are largely the product of an
indigenous art. But in India it was otherwise. It is true that Sir
George Birdwood is authority for the statement that the Saracens
introduced carpet-weaving there; but it is most probable that at the
time of the invasion of the armies of Tamerlane and during the lives of
many of his successors, whatever carpets were woven were very crude.
Even when the Moguls began to build and embellish palaces, they obtained
their carpets from Persia. But at length Shah Akbar established
manufacturies at Lahore about the year 1580, and invited Persian weavers
to settle there. From them the native workmen acquired much of their
knowledge of patterns and technique.
It was during the reign of Shah Jahan (1628-1658), builder of the famous
peacock throne and Taj Mahal, that most of the choicest pieces that now
remain were woven. In delicacy of texture they rival those of any other
country, and it is not unusual to find pieces with nearly eight hundred
knots to the square inch; moreover, all their designs are depicted with
remarkable clearness of definition. One of the most noted of these
carpets is the woollen piece, about eight yards long by two and a half
wide, that was made at the royal factory at Lahore and presented to the
Girdlers Company of London in 1634. The mingling of leaf and floral
forms, as well as the Herati designs of rosette and crumpled leaf, on a
field of red, shows unmistakably its relation to Persian carpets. At the
same period were woven large numbers of others with fields covered
with an imposing display of superbly drawn flowers, of which every
part from root to leaf tips was represented with astonishing realism.
Another class included the animal or hunting carpets, which unlike their
Persian prototypes seem intended not so much to portray symbolically
some historic event or abstract idea, as to convey a correct impression
of an actual event.
[Illustration: PLATE 22. OUSHAK CARPET
Loaned by C. F. Williams, Esq., to the Metropolitan Museum of Art, New
York]
One of these, a woollen piece with a length of eight and a quarter feet
and a breadth of five and a quarter, is in the Boston Museum of Fine
Arts. The inspiration was from some old Persian piece, but the rendering
is peculiarly Indian. In this representation of an Oriental jungle is a
strange mingling of the real and unreal. The struggle of a monster bird
with a winged beast, half lion, half elephant, and the demoniac faces of
the border suggest the inspiration of early pagan mythology; but the
movements of the running gazelles and the stealthily creeping tiger, the
attitude of the driver of the cart and his attendant, are most natural.
The drawing as a whole is exceedingly delicate. The ground colour of the
field is the red of most Ispahans and Herats of this period, but the
border is a cream colour, a combination not in accord with Persian
tradition. The other colours are fawn, blue, pink, grey and brown. It is
probably the only Indian hunting carpet of its kind.
Few strictly antique carpets from other countries of the Orient are
known. Of the innumerable pieces that were surely woven in Caucasia and
Western Turkestan before the end of the XVII Century, scarcely a vestige
can be found. Nor are there many from the looms of Syria, though in the
days of the Caliphs every mosque was adorned with magnificent carpets.
It is true a few sterling pieces of Saracenic character, that have been
ascribed to the region about Damascus, still exist. There are also a few
rare and beautiful pieces that have come to light in China.[15] But of
the countless thousands that in almost every country of the Orient once
covered floors of palaces and mosques, representing one of the most
refined arts, now nearly lost, only an insignificant fraction remains.
[Illustration: CHART INDICATING PERIODS WHEN ANTIQUE CARPETS WERE MADE]