FOOTNOTE:

[1] The story is as follows. The vase had been taken from a church by

a Frankish soldier after the battle of Soissons, and the bishop had

requested Clovis that it might be restored. But the soldier who had

taken it refused to give it up, and broke it into fragments with his

_francisca_, or battle-axe. Some time afterwards, when Clovis was

reviewing his troops, he singled out the soldier who had broken the

vase, upbraided him for the neglect of his arms, and dashed his

_francisca_ to the ground. As the man stooped to pick it up, the king

clove his skull with the words: "Thus didst thou serve the vase of

Soissons."

CLOWN (derived by Fuller, in his _Worthies_, from Lat. _colonus_, a

husbandman; but apparently connected with "clod" and with similar forms

in Teutonic and Scandinavian languages), a rustic, boorish person; the

comic character in English pantomime, always dressed in baggy costume,

with face whitened and eccentrically painted, and a tufted wig. The

character probably descends from representations of the devil in

medieval miracle-plays, developed partly through the stage rustics and

partly through the fools or jesters (also called clowns) of the

Elizabethan drama. The whitened face and baggy costume indicate a

connexion also with the continental Pierrot. The prominence of the clown

in pantomime (q.v.) is a comparatively modern development as compared

with that of Harlequin.

CLOYNE, a small market town of Co. Cork, Ireland, in the east

parliamentary division, 15 m. E.S.E. of the city of Cork. Pop. (1901)

827. It gives its name to a Roman Catholic diocese, the cathedral of

which is at Queenstown. Cloyne was the seat of a Protestant diocese

until 1835, when it was united to that of Cork. It was originally a

foundation of the 6th century. The cathedral church, dedicated to its

founder St Colman, a disciple of St Finbar of Cork, is a plain cruciform

building mainly of the 14th century, with an earlier oratory in the

churchyard. It contains a few handsome monuments to its former bishops,

but until 1890, when a monument was erected, had nothing to preserve the

memory of the illustrious Dr George Berkeley, who held the see from 1734

to 1753. Opposite the cathedral is a very fine round tower 100 ft. in

height, though the conical roof has long been destroyed. The Roman

Catholic church is a spacious building of the early 19th century. The

town was several times plundered by the Danes in the 9th century; it was

laid waste by Dermot O'Brien in 1071, and was burned in 1137. In 1430

the bishopric was united to that of Cork; in 1638 it again became

independent, and in 1660 it was again united to Cork and Ross. In 1678

it was once more declared independent, and so continued till 1835. The

name, _Cluain-Uamha_, signifies "the meadow of the cave," from the

curious limestone caves in the vicinity. The Pipe Roll of Cloyne,

compiled by Bishop Swaffham in 1364, is a remarkable record embracing a

full account of the feudal tenures of the see, the nature of the

impositions, and the duties the _puri homines Sancti Colmani_ were bound

to perform at a very early period. The roll is preserved in the record

office, Dublin. It was edited by Richard Caulfield in 1859.

CLUB (connected with "clump"), (1) a thick stick, used as a weapon, or

heavy implement for athletic exercises ("Indian club," &c.); (2) one of

the four suits of playing-cards,--the translation of the Spanish

_basto_--represented by a black trefoil (taken from the French, in

which language it is _trefle_); (3) a term given to a particular form of

association of persons. It is to this third sense that this article is

devoted.

By the term "club," the most general word for which is in Gr. [Greek:

hetairia], in Lat. _sodalitas_, is here meant an association within the

state of persons not united together by any natural ties of kinship,

real or supposed. Modern clubs are dealt with below, and we begin with

an account of Greek and Roman clubs. Such clubs are found in all ancient

states of which we have any detailed knowledge, and seem to have dated

in one form or another from a very early period. It is not unreasonable

to suppose, in the absense of certain information, that the rigid system

of groups of kin, i.e. family, _gens_, _phratria_, &c., affording no

principle of association beyond the maintenance of society as it then

existed, may itself have suggested the formation of groups of a more

elastic and expansive nature; in other words, that clubs were an

expedient for the deliverance of society from a too rigid and

conservative principle of crystallization.

_Greek._--The most comprehensive statement we possess as to the various

kinds of clubs which might exist in a single Greek state is contained in

a law of Solon quoted incidentally in the Digest of Justinian (47.22),

which guaranteed the administrative independence of these associations

provided they kept within the bounds of the law. Those mentioned (apart

from demes and phratries, which were not clubs as here understood) are

associations for religious purposes, for burial, for trade, for,

privateering ([Greek: epi leian]), and for the enjoyment of common

meals. Of these by far the most important are the religious clubs, about

which we have a great deal of information, chiefly from inscriptions;

and these may be taken as covering those for burial purposes and for

common meals, for there can be no doubt that all such unions had

originally a religious object of some kind. But we have to add to

Solon's list the political [Greek: hetairiai] which we meet with in

Athenian history, which do not seem to have always had a religious

object, whatever their origin may have been; and it may be convenient to

clear the ground by considering these first.

In the period between the Persian and Peloponnesian wars we hear of

hetairies within the two political parties, oligarchic and democratic;

Themistocles is said (Plut. _Aristides_, 2) to have belonged to one,

Pericles' supporters seem to have been thus organized (Plut. Per. 7 and

13), and Cimon had a hundred _hetairoi_ devoted to him (Plut. _Cim._

17). These associations were used, like the _collegia sodalicia_ at Rome

(see below), for securing certain results at elections and in the

law-courts (Thuc. viii. 54), and were not regarded as harmful or

illegal. But the bitterness of party struggles in Greece during the

Peloponnesian War changed them in many states into political engines

dangerous to the constitution, and especially to democratic

institutions; Aristotle mentions (_Politics_, p. 1310a) a secret oath

taken by the members of oligarchic clubs, containing the promise, "I

will be an enemy to the people, and will devise all the harm I can

against them." At Athens in 413 b.c. the conspiracy against the

democracy was engineered by means of these clubs, which existed not only

there but in the other cities of the empire (Thuc. viii. 48 and 54), and

had now become secret conspiracies ([Greek: synomosiai]) of a wholly

unconstitutional kind. On this subject see Grote, _Hist. of Greece_, v.

360; A.H.J. Greenidge, _Handbook of Greek Constitutional History_, 208

foll.

Passing over the clubs for trade or plunder mentioned in Solon's law, of

which we have no detailed knowledge, we come to the religious

associations. These were known by several names, especially _thiasi_,

_eranoi_ and _orgeones_, and it is not possible to distinguish these

from each other in historical times, though they may have had different

origins. They had the common object of sacrifice to a particular deity;

the _thiasi_ and _orgeones_ seem to be connected more especially with

foreign deities whose rites were of an orgiastic character. The

organization of these societies is the subject of an excellent treatise

by Paul Foucart (_Les Associations religieuses chez les Grecs_, Paris,

1873), still indispensable, from which the following particulars are

chiefly drawn. For the greater part of them the evidence consists of

inscriptions from various parts of Greece, many of which were published

for the first time by Foucart, and will be found at the end of his book.

The first striking point is that the object of all these associations is

to maintain the worship of some _foreign_ deity, i.e. of some deity who

was not one of those admitted and guaranteed by the state--the divine

inhabitants of the city, as they may be called. For all these the state

made provision of priests, temples, sacrifices, &c.; but for all others

these necessaries had to be looked after by private individuals

associated for the purpose. The state, as we see from the law of Solon

quoted above, made no difficulty about the introduction of foreign

worships, provided they did not infringe the law and were not morally

unwholesome, and regarded these associations as having all the rights of

legal corporations. So we find the cult of deities such as Sabazius,

Mater Magna (see GREAT MOTHER OF THE GODS) and Attis, Adonis, Isis,

Serapis, M[=e]n Tyrannos, carried on in Greek states, and especially in

seaports like the Peiraeus, Rhodes, Smyrna, without protest, but almost

certainly without moral benefit to the worshippers. The famous passage

in Demosthenes (_de Corona_, sect. 259 foll.) shows, however, that the

initiation at an early age in the rites of Sabazius did not gain credit

for Aeschines in the eyes of the best men. We are not surprised to find

that, in accordance with the foreign character of the cults thus

maintained, the members of the associations are rarely citizens by

birth, but women, freedmen, foreigners and even slaves. Thus in an

inscription found by Sir C. Newton at Cnidus, which contains a mutilated

list of members of a _thiasos_, one only out of twelve appears to be a

Cnidian citizen, four are slaves, seven are probably foreigners. Hence

we may conclude that these associations were of importance, whether for

good or for evil, in organizing and encouraging the foreign population

in the cities of Greece.

The next striking fact is that these associations were organized, as we

shall also find them at Rome, in imitation of the constitution of the

city itself. Each had its law, its assembly, its magistrates or officers

(i.e. secretary, treasurer) as well as priests or priestesses, and its

finance. The law regulated the conditions of admission, which involved

an entrance fee and an examination ([Greek: dokimasia]) as to character;

the contributions, which had to be paid by the month, and the steps to

be taken to enforce payment, e.g. exclusion in case of persistent

neglect of this duty; the use to be made of the revenues, such as the

building or maintenance of temple or club-house, and the cost of crowns

or other honours voted by the assembly to its officers. This assembly,

in accordance with the law, elected its officers once a year, and these,

like those of the state itself, took an oath on entering office, and

gave an account of their stewardship at the end of the year. Further

details on these points of internal government will be found in

Foucart's work (pp. 20 foll.), chiefly derived from inscriptions of the

orgeones engaged in the cult of the Mother of the Gods at the Peiraeus.

The important question whether these religious associations were in any

sense benefit clubs, or relieved the sick and needy, is answered by him

emphatically in the negative.

As might naturally be supposed, the religious clubs increased rather

than diminished in number and importance in the later periods of Greek

history, and a large proportion of the inscriptions relating to them

belong to the Macedonian and Roman empires. One of the most interesting,

found in 1868, belongs to the 2nd century A.D., viz. that which reveals

the worship of M[=e]n Tyrannos at Laurium (Foucart, pp. 119 foll.). This

Phrygian deity was introduced into Attica by a Lycian slave, employed by

a Roman in working the mines at Laurium. He founded the cult and the

_eranos_ which was to maintain it, and seems also to have drawn up the

law regulating its ritual and government. This may help us to understand

the way in which similar associations of an earlier age were instituted.

_Roman._--At Rome the principle of private association was recognized

very early by the state; _sodalitates_ for religious purposes are

mentioned in the XII. Tables (Gaius in _Digest_, 47. 22. 4), and

_collegia opificum_, or trade gilds, were believed to have been

instituted by Numa, which probably means that they were regulated by the

_jus divinum_ as being associated with particular worships. It is

difficult to distinguish between the two words _collegium_ and

_sodalitas_; but _collegium_ is the wider of the two in meaning, and may

be used for associations of all kinds, public and private, while

_sodalitas_ is more especially a union for the purpose of maintaining a

cult. Both words indicate the permanence of the object undertaken by the

association, while a _societas_ is a temporary combination without

strictly permanent duties. With the _societates publicanorum_ and other

contracting bodies of which money-making was the main object, we are not

here concerned.

The _collegia opificum_ ascribed to Numa (Plut. _Numa_, 17) include

gilds of weavers, fullers, dyers, shoemakers, doctors, teachers,

painters, &c., as we learn from Ovid, _Fasti_, iii. 819 foll., where

they are described as associated with the cult of Minerva, the deity of

handiwork; Plutarch also mentions flute-players, who were connected with

the cult of Jupiter on the Capitol, and smiths, goldsmiths, tanners, &c.

It would seem that, though these gilds may not have had a religious

origin as some have thought, they were from the beginning, like all

early institutions, associated with some cult; and in most cases this

was the cult of Minerva. In her temple on the Aventine almost all these

collegia had at once their religious centre and their business

headquarters. When during the Second Punic War a gild of poets was

instituted, this too had its meeting-place in the same temple. The

object of the gild in each case was no doubt to protect and advance the

interests of the trade, but on this point we have no sufficient

evidence, and can only follow the analogy of similar institutions in

other countries and ages. We lose sight of them almost entirely until

the age of Cicero, when they reappear in the form of political clubs

(_collegia sodalicia_ or _compitalicia_) chiefly with the object of

securing the election of candidates for magistracies by fair or foul

means--usually the latter (see esp. Cic. _pro Plancio, passim_). These

were suppressed by a _senatusconsultum_ in 64 B.C., revived by Clodius

six years later, and finally abolished by Julius Caesar, as dangerous to

public order. Probably the old trade gilds had been swamped in the vast

and growing population of the city, and these, inferior and degraded

both in personnel and objects, had taken their place. But the principle

of the trade gild reasserts itself under the Empire, and is found at

work in Rome and in every municipal town, attested abundantly by the

evidence of inscriptions. Though the right of permitting such

associations belonged to the government alone, these trade gilds were

recognized by the state as being instituted "_ut necessariam operam

publicis utilitatibus exhiberent_" (_Digest_, 50. 6. 6). Every kind of

trade and business throughout the Empire seems to have had its

_collegium_, as is shown by the inscriptions in the _Corpus_ from any

Roman municipal town; and the life and work of the lower orders of the

municipales are shadowed forth in these interesting survivals. The

primary object was no doubt still to protect the trade; but as time went

on they tended to become associations for feasting and enjoyment, and

more and more to depend on the munificence of patrons elected with the

object of eliciting it. Fuller information about them will be found in

G. Boissier, _La Religion romaine d'Auguste aux Antonins_, ii. 286

foll., and S. Dill, _Roman Society from Nero to Marcus Aurelius_, pp.

264 foll. How far they formed a basis or example for the gilds of the

early middle ages is a difficult question which cannot be answered here

(see GILDS); it is, however, probable that they gradually lost their

original business character, and became more and more associations for

procuring the individual, lost as he was in the vast desert of the

empire, some little society and enjoyment in life, and the certainty of

funeral rites and a permanent memorial after death.

We may now return to the associations formed for the maintenance of

cults, which were usually called _sodalitates_, though the word

_collegium_ was also used for them, as in the case of the college of the

Arval Brothers (q.v.). Of the ancient Sodales Titii nothing is known

until they were revived by Augustus; but it seems probable that when a

gens or family charged with the maintenance of a particular cult had

died out, its place was supplied by a _sodalitas_ (Marquardt,

_Staatsverwaltung_, iii. 134). The introduction of new cults also led to

the institution of new associations; thus in 495 B.C. when the worship

of Minerva was introduced, a _collegium mercatorum_ was founded to

maintain it, which held its feast on the _dies natalis_ (dedication day)

of the temple (Liv. ii. 27. 5); and in 387 the _ludi Capitolini_ were

placed under the care of a similar association of dwellers on the

Capitoline hill. In 204 B.C. when the Mater Magna was introduced from

Pessinus (see GREAT MOTHER OF THE GODS) a _sodalitas_ (or _sodalitates_)

was instituted which, as Cicero tells us (_de Senect._ 13. 45) used to

feast together during the _ludi Megalenses_. All such associations were

duly licensed by the state, which at all times was vigilant in

forbidding the maintenance of any which it deemed dangerous for

religious or political reasons; thus in 186 B.C. the senate, by a decree

of which part is preserved (_C.I.L._ i. 43), made all combination for

promoting the Bacchic religious rites strictly illegal. But legalized

_sodalitates_ are frequent later; the temple of Venus Genetrix, begun by

Julius and finished by Augustus, had its _collegium_ (Pliny, _N.H._ ii.

93), and _sodalitates_ were instituted for the cult of the deified

emperors Augustus, Claudius, &c.

We thus arrive by a second channel at the _collegia_ of the empire. Both

the history of the trade gilds and that of the religious _collegia_ or

_sodalitates_ conduct us by a course of natural development to that

extraordinary system of private association with which the empire was

honeycombed.

As has been already said of the trade gilds, the main objects of

association seem to have been to make life more enjoyable and to secure a

permanent burial-place; and of these the latter was probably the primary

or original one. It was a natural instinct in the classical as in the

pre-classical world to wish to rest securely after death, to escape

neglect and oblivion. This is not the place to explain the difficulties

which the poorer classes in the Roman empire had to face in satisfying

this instinct; but since the publication of the _Corpus Inscriptionum_

has made us familiar with the conditions of the life of these classes,

there can be no doubt that this was always a leading motive in their

passion for association. In the year A.D. 133 under Hadrian this instinct

was recognized by law, i.e. by a _senatusconsultum_ which has fortunately

come down to us. It was engraved at the head of their own regulations by

a _collegium_ instituted for the worship of Diana and Antinous at

Lanuvium, and runs thus: _"Qui stipem menstruam conferre volent in

funera, in id collegium coeant, neque sub specie ejus collegii nisi semel

in mense coeant conferendi causa unde defuncti sepeliantur"_ (_C.I.L._

xiv. 2112). From the _Digest_, 47. 22. 1, the _locus classicus_ on this

subject, we learn that this was a general law allowing the founding of

funerary associations, provided that the law against illicit _collegia_

were complied with, and it was natural that from that time onwards such

_collegia_ should spring up in every direction. The inscription of

Lanuvium, together with many others (for which see the works of Boissier

and Dill already cited), has given us a clear idea of the constitution of

these colleges. Their members were as a rule of the humblest classes of

society, and often included slaves; from each was due an entrance fee and

a monthly subscription, and a funeral grant was made to the heir of each

member at his death in order to bury him in the burying-place of the

college, or if they were too poor to construct one of their own, to

secure burial in a public _columbarium_. The instinct of the Roman for

organization is well illustrated in the government of these colleges.

They were organized on exactly the same lines as the municipal towns of

the empire; their officers were elected, usually for a year, or in the

case of honorary distinctions, for life; as in a municipal town, they

were called quinquennales, _curatores_, _praefecti_, &c., and quaestors

superintended the finances of the association. Their place of meeting, if

they were rich enough to have one, was called _schola_ and answered the

purpose of a club-house; the site or the building was often given them by

some rich patron, who was pleased to see his name engraved over its

doorway. Here we come upon one of those defects in the society of the

empire which seem gradually to have sapped the virility of the

population--the desire to get others to do for you what you are unwilling

or unable to do for yourself. The _patroni_ increased in number, and more

and more the colleges acquired the habit of depending on their

benefactions, while at the same time it would seem that the primary

object of burial became subordinate to the claims of the common weal. It

may also be asserted with confidence, as of the Greek clubs, that these

_collegia_ rarely or never did the work of our benefit clubs, by

assisting sick or infirm members; such objects at any rate do not appear

in the inscriptions. The only exceptions seem to be the military

_collegia_, which, though strictly forbidden as dangerous to discipline,

continued to increase in number in spite of the law. The great legionary

camps of the Roman province of Africa (Cagnat, _L'Armee romaine_, 457

foll.) have left us inscriptions which show not only the existence of

these clubs, but the way in which their funds were spent; and it appears

that they were applied to useful purposes in the life of a member as well

as for his burial, e.g. to travelling expenses, or to his support after

his discharge (see especially _C.I.L._ viii. 2552 foll.).

As the Roman empire became gradually impoverished and depopulated, and

as the difficulty of defending its frontiers increased, these

associations must have been slowly extinguished, and the living and the

dead citizen alike ceased to be the object of care and contribution. The

sudden invasion of Dacia by barbarians in A.D. 166 was followed by the

extinction of one _collegium_ which has left a record of the fact, and

probably by many others. The master of the college of Jupiter Cernenius,

with the two quaestors and seven witnesses, attest the fact that the

college has ceased to exist. "The accounts have been wound up, and no

balance is left in the chest. For a long time no member has attended on

the days fixed for meetings, and no subscriptions have been paid" (Dill,

op. cit. p. 285). The record of similar extinctions in the centuries

that followed, were they extant, would show us how this interesting form

of crystallization, in which the well-drilled people of the empire

displayed an unusual spontaneity, gradually melted away and disappeared

(see further GILDS and CHARITY AND CHARITIES).

Besides the works already cited may be mentioned Mommsen, _de

Collegiis et Sodaliciis_ (1843), which laid the foundation of all

subsequent study of the subject; Marquardt, _Staatsverwaltung_, iii.

134 foll.; de Marchi, _Il Culto privato di Roma antica_, ii. 75 foll.;

Kornemann, s.v. "Collegium" in Pauly-Wissowa, _Realencyclopadie_.

(W. W. F.*)

_Modern Clubs._--The word "club," in its modern sense of an association

to promote good-fellowship and social intercourse, is not very old, only

becoming common in England at the time of _The Tatler_ and _The

Spectator_ (1709-1712). It is doubtful whether its use originated in its

meaning of a knot of people, or from the fact that the members "clubbed"

together to pay the expenses of their meetings. The oldest English clubs

were merely informal periodic gatherings of friends for the purpose of

dining or drinking together. Thomas Occleve (temp. Henry IV.) mentions

such a club called _La Court de Bone Compaignie_, of which he was a

member. John Aubrey (writing in 1659) says: "We now use the word

_clubbe_ for a sodality in a tavern." Of these early clubs the most

famous was the Bread Street or Friday Street Club, originated by Sir

Walter Raleigh, and meeting at the Mermaid Tavern. Shakespeare,

Beaumont, Fletcher, Selden and Donne were among the members. Another

such club was that which met at the Devil Tavern near Temple Bar; and of

this Ben Jonson is supposed to have been the founder.

With the introduction of coffee-drinking in the middle of the 17th

century, clubs entered on a more permanent phase. The coffee-houses of

the later Stuart period are the real originals of the modern club-house.

The clubs of the late 17th and early 18th century type resembled their

Tudor forerunners in being oftenest associations solely for conviviality

or literary coteries. But many were confessedly political, e.g. The

Rota, or Coffee Club (1659), a debating society for the spread of

republican ideas, broken up at the Restoration, the Calves Head Club (c.

1693) and the Green Ribbon Club (1675) (q.v.). The characteristics of

all these clubs were: (1) no permanent financial bond between the

members, each man's liability ending for the time being when he had paid

his "score" after the meal; (2) no permanent club-house, though each

clique tended to make some special coffee-house or tavern their

headquarters. These coffee-house clubs soon became hotbeds of political

scandal-mongering and intriguing, and in 1675 Charles II. issued a

proclamation which ran, "His Majesty hath thought fit and necessary that

coffee houses be (for the future) put down and suppressed," owing to the

fact "that in such houses divers false, malitious and scandalous reports

are devised and spread abroad to the Defamation of his Majesty's

Government and to the Disturbance of Peace and Quiet of the Realm." So

unpopular was this proclamation that it was almost instantly found

necessary to withdraw it, and by Anne's reign the coffee-house club was

a feature of England's social life.

From the 18th-century clubs two types have been evolved. (1) The social

and dining clubs, permanent institutions with fixed club-house. The

London coffee-house clubs in increasing their members absorbed the whole

accommodation of the coffee-house or tavern where they held their

meetings, and this became the club-house, often retaining the name of

the original keeper, e.g. White's, Brooks's, Arthur's, Boodle's. The

modern club, sometimes proprietary, i.e. owned by an individual or

private syndicate, but more frequently owned by the members who delegate

to a committee the management of its affairs, first reached its highest

development in London, where the district of St James's has long been

known as "Clubland"; but the institution has spread all over the

English-speaking world. (2) Those clubs which have but occasional or

periodic meetings and often possess no club-house, but exist primarily

for some specific object. Such are the many purely athletic, sports and

pastimes clubs, the Jockey Club, the Alpine, chess, yacht and motor

clubs. Then there are literary clubs, musical and art clubs, publishing

clubs; and the name of "club" has been annexed by a large group of

associations which fall between the club proper and mere friendly

societies, of a purely periodic and temporary nature, such as slate,

goose and Christmas clubs, which are not required to be registered under

the Friendly Societies Act.

Thus it is seen that the modern club has little in common with its

prototypes in the 18th century. Of those which survive in London the

following may be mentioned: White's, originally established in 1698 as

White's Chocolate House, became the headquarters of the Tory party, but

is to-day no longer political. Brooks's (1764), originally the resort of

the Whigs, is no longer strictly associated with Liberalism. Boodle's

(1762) had a tradition of being the resort of country gentlemen, and

especially of masters of foxhounds. Arthur's (1765), originally an

offshoot of White's, has always been purely social. The Cocoa Tree

(1746) also survives as a social resort. Social clubs, without

club-houses, are represented by the Literary Club ("The Club"), founded

in 1764 by Sir Joshua Reynolds and Dr Johnson, and such recent

institutions as the Johnson Club, Ye Sette of Odd Volumes (founded by

Bernard Quaritch) and many others.

The number of regularly established clubs in London is now upwards of a

hundred. Of these the more important, with the dates of their

establishment, are: Army and Navy (1837); Athenaeum (1824), founded by

Sir Walter Scott and Thomas Moore "for the association of individuals

known for their scientific or literary attainments, artists of eminence

in any class of the fine arts, and noblemen and gentlemen distinguished

as liberal patrons of science, literature or the arts"; Bachelors'

(1881); Carlton (1832), the chief Conservative club; City Carlton

(1868); Conservative (1840); Constitutional (1883); Devonshire (1875);

East India United Service (1849); Garrick (1831), "for the general

patronage of the drama, for bringing together the supporters of the

drama, and for the formation of a theatrical library with works on

costume"; Guards (1813); Junior Athenaeum (1864); Junior Carlton (1864);

Marlborough (1869); National Liberal (1882); Oriental (1824); Oxford and

Cambridge (1830); Reform (1837), formerly the Liberal headquarters;

Savage (1857); St James's (1857), diplomatic; Travellers' (1819), for

which a candidate must have "travelled out of the British Islands to a

distance of at least 500 m. from London in a direct line"; Turf (1868);

Union (1822); United Service (1815); Wellington (1885); Windham (1828).

Almost every interest, rank and profession has its club. Thus there is a

Press Club, a Fly-Fishers' Club, a Gun Club, an Authors', a Farmers', a

Lawyers' (the Eldon) and a Bath Club. Of the purely women's clubs the

most important are the Alexandra (1884), the Empress (1897), Lyceum

(1904) and Ladies' Army & Navy (1904); while the Albemarle and the

Sesame have a leading place among clubs for men and women. Of political

clubs having no club-house, the best known are the Cobden (Free Trade,

1866); the Eighty (Liberal, 1880) and the United (Unionist, 1886). There

are clubs in all important provincial towns, and at Edinburgh the New

Club (1787), and in Dublin the Kildare Street (1790), rival those of

London.

The mode of election of members varies. In some clubs the committee

alone have the power of choosing new members. In others the election is

by ballot of the whole club, one black ball in ten ordinarily excluding.

In the Athenaeum, whilst the principle of election by ballot of the

whole club obtains, the duty is also cast upon the committee of annually

selecting nine members who are to be "of distinguished eminence in

science, literature or the arts, or for public services," and the rule

makes stringent provision for the conduct of these elections. On the

committee of the same club is likewise conferred power to elect without

ballot princes of the blood royal, cabinet ministers, bishops, the

speaker of the House of Commons, judges, &c.

The affairs of clubs are managed by committees constituted of the

trustees, who are usually permanent members, and of ordinarily

twenty-four other members, chosen by the club at large, one-third of

whom go out of office annually. These committees have plenary powers to

deal with the affairs of the club committed to their charge, assembling

weekly to transact current business and audit the accounts. Once a year

a meeting of the whole club is held, before which a report is laid, and

any action taken thereupon which may be necessary. (See J. Wertheimer,

_The Law relating to Clubs_, 1903; and Sir E. Carson on Club law, in

vol. iii. of _The Laws of England_, 1909.)

Previous to 1902 clubs in England had not come within the purview of the

licensing system. The Licensing Act of 1902, however, remedied that

defect, and although it was passed principally to check the abuse of

"clubs" being formed solely to sell intoxicating liquors free from the

restrictions of the licensing acts, it applied to _all_ clubs in England

and Wales, of whatever kind, from the humblest to the most exalted Pall

Mall club. The act required the registration of every club which

occupied any premises habitually used for the purposes of a club and in

which intoxicating liquor was supplied to members or their guests. The

secretary of every club was required to furnish to the clerk to the

justices of the petty sessional division a return giving (a) the name

and objects of the club; (b) the address of the club; (c) the name of

the secretary; (d) the number of members; (e) the rules of the club

relating to (i.) the election of members and the admission of temporary

and honorary members and of guests; (ii.) the terms of subscription and

entrance fee, if any; (iii.) the cessation of membership; (iv.) the

hours of opening and closing; and (v.) the mode of altering the rules.

The same particulars must be furnished by a secretary before the opening

of a new club. The act imposed heavy penalties for supplying and keeping

liquor in an unregistered club. The act gave power to a court of summary

jurisdiction to strike a club off the register on complaint in writing

by any person on any of various grounds, e.g. if its members numbered

less than twenty-five; if there was frequent drunkenness on the

premises; if persons were habitually admitted as members without

forty-eight hours' interval between nomination and admission; if the

supply of liquor was not under the control of the members or the

committee, &c. The Licensing (Scotland) Act 1903 made Scottish clubs

liable to registration in a similar manner.

In no other country did club-life attain such an early perfection as in

England. The earliest clubs on the European continent were of a

political nature. These in 1848 were repressed in Austria and Germany,

and the modern clubs of Berlin and Vienna are mere replicas of their

English prototypes. In France, where the term _cercle_ is most usual,

the first was Le Club Politique (1782), and during the Revolution such

associations proved important political forces (see JACOBINS,

FEUILLANTS, CORDELIERS). Of the modern purely social clubs in Paris the

most notable are The Jockey Club (1833) and the Cercle de la Rue Royale.

In the United States clubs were first established after the War of

Independence. One of the first in date was the Hoboken Turtle Club

(1797), which still survives. Of the modern clubs in New York the Union

(1836) is the earliest, and other important ones are the Century (1847),

Union League (1863), University (1865), Knickerbocker (1871), Lotus

(1870), Manhattan (1865), and Metropolitan (1891). But club-life in

American cities has grown to enormous proportions; the number of

excellent clubs is now legion, and their hospitality has become

proverbial. The chief clubs in each city are referred to in the

topographical articles.

Walter Arnold, _Life and Death of the Sublime Society of Beefsteaks_

(1871); John Aubrey, _Letters of Eminent Persons_ (2 vols.); C. Marsh,

_Clubs of London, with Anecdotes of their Members, Sketches of

Character and Conversation_ (2 vols., 1832); _Notes and Queries_, 3rd

series, vols. 1, 9, 10; W. H. Pyne, _Wine and Walnuts_ (2 vols.,

1823); Admiral Smyth, _Sketch of the Use and Progress of the Royal

Society Club_ (1860); John Timbs, _Club Life of London, with Anecdotes

of Clubs, Coffee-Houses and Taverns_ (2 vols., 1866), and _History of

Clubs and Club Life_ (1872); Th. Walker, _The Original_, fifth

edition, by W. A. Guy (1875); _The Secret History of Clubs of all

Descriptions_ by Ned Ward (1709); _Complete and Humourous Account of

all the Remarkable Clubs and Societies in the Cities of London and

Westminster_, by Ned Ward (7th edition, 1756); _The London Clubs;

their Anecdotes, History, Private Rules and Regulations_ (12mo, 1853);

Rev. A. Hume, _Learned Societies and Printing Clubs_ (1847); J.

Strang, _Glasgow and its Clubs_ (1857); A. F. Leach, _Club Cases_

(1879); Col. G. J. Ivey, _Clubs of the World_ (1880); J. Wertheimer,

_Law relating to Clubs_ (1885); L. Fagan, _The Reform Club_ (1887); F.

G. Waugh, _Members of the Athenaeum Club_ (privately printed 1888).

CLUB-FOOT (_talipes_), the name given to deformities of the foot, some

of which are congenital, others acquired--the latter being chiefly due

to infantile paralysis. _Talipes equinus_ is that form in which the heel

does not touch the ground, the child resting on the toes. In _talipes

varus_ the foot is turned inwards and shortened, the inner edge of the

foot is raised, and the child walks on the outer edge. These two

conditions are often combined, the heel being drawn up and the foot

twisted inward; the name given to the twofold deformity is _talipes

equino-varus_. It is the most usual congenital form. In _talipes

calcaneus_ the toes are pointed upwards and the foot rests on the heel.

This is always an acquired (paralytic) deformity.

The treatment of congenital club-foot, which is almost invariably

_varus_ or _equino-varus_, should be begun as soon as ever the abnormal

condition of the foot is recognized. The nurse should be shown how to

twist and coax the foot into the improved position, and should so hold

it in her hand many times a day. And thus by daily, or, one might almost

say, hourly manipulations, much good may be accomplished without

distress to the infant. If after weeks or months of these measures

insufficient progress has been made, the subcutaneous division of a

tendon or two, or of some tendons and ligaments may be necessary, the

foot being subsequently fixed up in the improved position in plaster of

Paris. If these subcutaneous operations also prove disappointing, or if

after their apparently successful employment the foot constantly

relapses into the old position, a more radical procedure will be

required. Of the many procedures which have been adopted there is,

probably, none equal to that of free transverse incision introduced by

the late Dr A. M. Phelps of New York. By this "open method" the surgeon

sees exactly what structures are at fault and in need of division--skin,

fasciae tendons, ligaments; everything, in short, which prevented the

easy rectification of the deformity. After the operation, the foot is

fixed, without any strain, in an over-corrected position, between

plaster of Paris splints. By the adoption of this method the old

instrument of torture known as "Scarpa's shoe" has become obsolete, as

have also some of those operations which effected improvement of the

foot by the removal of portions of the bony arch. Phelps's operation

removes the deformity by increasing the length of the concave border of

the foot rather than by shortening the convex borders as in cuneiform

osteotomy; it is a levelling up, not a levelling down.

_Talipes valgus_ is very rare as a congenital defect, but is common

enough as a result of infantile paralysis and as such is apt to be

combined with the calcanean variety. "Flat-foot" is sometimes spoken of

as _spurious talipes valgus_; it is due to the bony arches of the foot

being called upon to support a weight beyond their power. The giving way

of the arches may be due to weakness of the muscles, tendons or

ligaments--probably of all three. It is often met with in feeble and

flabby children, and in nurses, waiters, policemen and others whose feet

grow tired from much standing. Exercises on tip-toe, especially with a

skipping rope, massage, rest and tonic treatment will give relief, and

shoes or boots may be supplied with the heel and sole thickened along

the inner borders so that the weight may be received along the strong

outer border of the foot. When the flat-footed individual stands it

should be upon the outer borders of his feet, or better still, when

convenient, on tip-toe, as this posture strengthens those muscles of the

leg which run into the sole of the foot and hold up the bony arches. In

certain extreme cases the surgeon wrenches the splay feet into an

inverted position and fixes them in plaster of Paris, taking off the

casing every day for the purpose of massage and exercises.

Flat-foot is often associated with knock-knee in children and young

adults who are the subject of rickets.

_Morton's Disease._--In some cases of flat-foot the life of the

individual is made miserable by neuralgia at the root of the toes, which

comes on after much standing or walking, the distress being so great

that, almost regardless of propriety, he is compelled to take off his

boot. The condition is known as Morton's disease or _metatarsalgia_. The

pain is due to the nerves of the toes (which come from the sole of the

foot) being pressed upon by the rounded ends of the long bones of the

foot near the web of the toes. It does not generally yield to palliative

measures (though rest of the foot and a change to broad-toed, easy boots

may be helpful), and the only effectual remedy is resection of the head

of one of the metatarsal bones, after which relief is complete and

permanent.

For paralytic club-foot, in which distressing corns have been developed

over the unnatural prominences upon which the sufferer has been

accustomed to walk, the adoption of the most promising conservative

measures are usually disappointing, and relief and happiness may be

obtainable only after the performance of Syme's amputation through the

ankle-joint.

CLUE, or CLEW (O. Eng. _cluwe_), originally a ball of thread or wool,

the thread of life, which, according to the fable, the Fates spin for

every man. The ordinary figurative meaning, a piece of evidence leading

to discovery, or a sign pointing to the right track, is derived from the

story of Theseus, who was guided through the labyrinth by the ball of

thread held by Ariadne.

CLUENTIUS HABITUS, AULUS, of Larinum in Samnium, the hero of a Roman

_cause celebre_. In 74 B.C. he accused his stepfather Statius Albius

Oppianicus of an attempt to poison him; had it been successful, the

property of Cluentius would have fallen to his mother Sassia. Oppianicus

and two others were condemned, and some years later Oppianicus died in

exile. But the verdict was looked upon with suspicion, and it was known

for a fact that one of the jurymen had received a large sum of money for

distribution amongst his colleagues. The result was the degradation of

Cluentius himself and several of the jurymen. In 66, Sassia induced her

stepson Oppianicus to charge Cluentius with having caused the elder

Oppianicus to be poisoned while in exile. On this occasion the defence

was undertaken by Cicero in the extant speech _Pro Cluentio_. In the end

Cluentius was acquitted. Cicero afterwards boasted openly that he had

thrown dust in the eyes of the jury (Quintilian, _Instit._ ii. 17. 21,

who quotes this speech more than any other). His efforts are chiefly

devoted to proving that the condemnation of the elder Oppianicus was

just and in no way the result of the jury having been bribed by

Cluentius; only a small portion of the end of the speech deals with the

specific charge. It was generally believed that the verdict in the

former trial was an unfair one; and this opinion was most prejudicial to

Cluentius. But even if it could be shown that Cluentius had bribed the

jurymen, this did not prove that he had poisoned Oppianicus, although it

supplied a sufficient reason for wishing to get him out of the way. The

speech delivered by Cicero on this occasion is considered one of his

best.

Editions of the speech by W. Y. Fausset (1887), W. Ramsay (1883); see

also H. Nettleship, _Lectures and Essays_ (1885).

CLUMP, a word common to Teutonic languages, meaning a mass, lump, group

or cluster of indefinite form, as a clump of grass or trees. The word is

used of a wooden and clumsy shoe, made out of one piece of wood, worn by

German peasants, and by transference is applied to the thick extra sole

added to heavy boots for rough wear. Shoemakers speak of "clumping" a

boot when it is mended by having a new sole fastened by nails and not

sewn by hand to the old sole.

CLUNES, a borough of Talbot county, Victoria, Australia, 97-1/2 m. by rail

N.W. of Melbourne. Pop. (1901) 2426. It is the centre of an

agricultural, pastoral and mining district, in which gold was first

discovered in 1851. It lies in a healthy and picturesque situation at an

elevation of 1081 ft. An annual agricultural exhibition and large weekly

cattle sales are held in the town.

CLUNY, or CLUGNY, a town of east central France, in the department of

Saone-et-Loire, on the left bank of the Grosne, 14 m. N.W. of Macon by

road. Pop. (1906) 3105. The interest of the town lies in its specimens

of medieval architecture, which include, besides its celebrated abbey,

the Gothic church of Notre-Dame, the church of St Marcel with its

beautiful Romanesque spire, portions of the ancient fortifications, and

a number of picturesque houses belonging to the Romanesque, Gothic and

Renaissance periods. The chief remains of the abbey (see ABBEY) are the

ruins of the basilica of St Peter and the abbot's palace. The church was

a Romanesque building, completed early in the 12th century, and until

the erection of St Peter at Rome was the largest ecclesiastical building

in Europe. It was in great part demolished under the First Empire, but

the south transept, a high octagonal tower, the chapel of Bourbon (15th

century), and the ruins of the apse still remain. In 1750 the abbey

buildings were largely rebuilt and now contain a technical school. Part

of the site of the church is given up to the stabling of a government

stud. The abbot's palace, which belongs to the end of the 15th century,

serves as hotel-de-ville, library and museum. The town has quarries of

limestone and building-stone, and manufactures pottery, leather and

paper.

A mere village at the time when the abbey was founded (910), Cluny

gradually increased in importance with the development of the religious

fraternity, and in 1090 received a communal charter from the abbot St

Hugh. In 1471 the town was taken by the troops of Louis XI. In 1529 the

abbey was given "in commendam" to the family of Guise, four members of

which held the office of abbot during the next hundred years. The town

and abbey suffered during the Wars of Religion of the 16th century, and

the abbey was closed in 1790. The residence erected in Paris at the end

of the 15th century by the abbots Jean de Bourbon and Jacques d'Amboise,

and known as the Hotel de Cluny (see HOUSE, Plate I., fig. 6), is

occupied by the du Sommerard collection; but the College de Cluny

founded in 1269 by the abbot Yves de Vergy, as a theological school for

the order, is no longer in existence.

_The Order of Cluniac Benedictines._--The Monastery of Cluny was founded

in 910 by William I. the Pious, count of Auvergne and duke of Guienne

(Aquitaine). The first abbot was Berno, who had under his rule two

monasteries in the neighbourhood. Before his death in 927 two or three

more came under his control, so that he bequeathed to his successor the

government of a little group of five or six houses, which became the

nucleus of the order of Cluny. Berno's successor was Odo: armed with

papal privileges he set to work to make Cluny the centre of a revival

and reform among the monasteries of France; he also journeyed to Italy,

and induced some of the great Benedictine houses, and among them St

Benedict's own monasteries of Subiaco and Monte Cassino, to receive the

reform and adopt the Cluny manner of life. The process of extension,

partly by founding new houses, partly by incorporating old ones, went on

under Odo's successors, so that by the middle of the 12th century Cluny

had become the centre and head of a great order embracing 314

monasteries--the number 2000, sometimes given, is an exaggeration--in

all parts of Europe, in France, Italy, the Empire, Lorraine, Spain,

England, Scotland, Poland, and even in the Holy Land. And the influence

of Cluny extended far beyond the actual order: many monasteries besides

Monte Cassino and Subiaco adopted its customs and manner of life without

subjecting themselves to its sway; and of these, many in turn became the

centres of reforms which extended Cluny ideas and influences over still

wider circles: Fleury and Hirsau may be mentioned as conspicuous

examples. The gradual stages in the growth of the Cluny sphere of

influence is exhibited in a map [VI. C.] in Heussi and Mulert's

_Handatlas zur Kirchengeschichte_, 1905.

When we turn to the inner life of Cluny, we find that the decrees of

Aix-la-Chapelle, which summed up the Carolingian movement for reform

(see BENEDICTINES), were taken as the basis of the observance. Field

work and manual labour were given up; and in compensation the tendency

initiated by Benedict of Aniane, to prolong and multiply the church

services far beyond the canonical office contemplated by St Benedict,

was carried to still greater extremes, so that the services came to

occupy nearly the whole day. The lessons at the night office became so

lengthy that, e.g., the Book of Genesis was read through in a week; and

the daily psalmody, between canonical office and extra devotions,

exceeded a hundred psalms (see Edm. Bishop, _Origin of the Primer_,

Early English Text Soc., Original Series, No. 109).

If its influence on the subsequent history of monastic and religious

life and organization be considered, the most noteworthy feature of the

Cluny system was its external polity, which constituted it a veritable

"order" in the modern sense of the word, the first that had existed

since that of Pachomius (see MONASTICISM). All the houses that belonged,

either by foundation or incorporation, to the Cluny system were

absolutely subject to Cluny and its abbot, who was "general" in the same

sense as the general of the Jesuits or Dominicans, the practically

absolute ruler of the whole system. The superiors of all the subject

houses (usually priors, not abbots) were his nominees; every member of

the order was professed by his permission, and had to pass some of the

early years of his monastic life at Cluny itself; the abbot of Cluny had

entire control over every one of the monks--some 10,000, it is said; it

even came about that he had the practical appointment of his successor.

For a description and criticism of the system, see F. A. Gasquet,

_Sketch of Monastic Constitutional History_, pp. xxxii-xxxv (the

Introduction to 2nd ed. (1895) of the English trans. of the _Monks of

the West_); here it must suffice to say that it is the very antithesis

of the Benedictine polity (see BENEDICTINES).

The greatness of Cluny is really the greatness of its early abbots. If

the short reign of the unworthy Pontius be excepted, Cluny was ruled

during a period of about 250 years (910-1157) by a succession of seven

great abbots, who combined those high qualities of character, ability

and religion that were necessary for so commanding a position; they were

Berno, Odo, Aymard, Majolus (Maieul), Odilo, Hugh, Peter the Venerable.

Sprung from noble families of the neighbourhood; educated to the highest

level of the culture of those times; endowed with conspicuous ability

and prudence in the conduct of affairs; enjoying the consideration and

confidence of popes and sovereigns; employed again and again as papal

legates and imperial ambassadors; taking part in all great movements of

ecclesiastical and temporal politics; refusing the first sees in Western

Christendom, the cardinalate, and the papacy itself: they ever remained

true to their state as monks, without loss of piety or religion. Four of

them, indeed, Odo, Maieul, Odilo and Hugh, are venerated as saints.

In the movement associated with the name of Hildebrand the influence of

Cluny was thrown strongly on the side of religious and ecclesiastical

reform, as in the suppression of simony and the enforcing of clerical

celibacy; but in the struggle between the Papacy and the Empire the

abbots of Cluny seem to have steered a middle course between Guelfs and

Ghibellines, and to have exercised a moderating influence; St Hugh

maintained relations with Henry IV. after his excommunication, and

probably influenced him to go to Canossa. Hildebrand himself, though

probably not a monk of Cluny, was a monk of a Cluniac monastery in Rome;

his successor, Urban II., was actually a Cluny monk, as was Paschal II.

It may safely be said that from the middle of the 10th century until the

middle of the 12th, Cluny was the chief centre of religious influence

throughout Western Europe, and the abbot of Cluny, next to the pope, the

most important and powerful ecclesiastic in the Latin Church.

Everything at Cluny was on a scale worthy of so great a position. The

basilica, begun 1089 and dedicated 1131, was, until the building of the

present St Peter's, the largest church in Christendom, and was both in

structure and ornamentation of unparalleled magnificence. The monastic

buildings were gigantic.

During the abbacy of Peter the Venerable (1122-1157) it became clear

that, after a lapse of two centuries, a renewal of the framework of the

life and a revival of its spirit had become necessary. Accordingly he

summoned a great chapter of the whole order whereat the priors and

representatives of the subject houses attended in such numbers that,

along with the Cluny community, the assembly consisted of 1200 monks.

This chapter drew up the 76 statutes associated with Peter's name,

regulating the whole range of claustral life, and solemnly promulgated

as binding on the whole Cluniac obedience. But these measures did not

succeed in saving Cluny from a rapid decline that set in immediately

after Peter's death. The monarchical status of the abbot was gradually

curtailed by the holding of general chapters at fixed periods and the

appointment of a board of definitors, elected by the chapter, as a

permanent council for the abbot. Owing to these restrictions and still

more to the fact that the later abbots were not of the same calibre as

the early ones, their power and influence waned, until in 1528 (if not

in 1456) the abbey fell into "commendam." The rise of the Cistercians

and the mendicant orders were contributory causes, and also the

difficulties experienced in keeping houses in other countries subject to

a French superior. And so the great system gradually became a mere

congregation of French houses. Of the commendatory abbots the most

remarkable were Cardinals Richelieu and Mazarin, who both initiated

attempts to introduce reforms into the Cluny congregation, the former

trying to amalgamate it with the reformed congregation of St Maur, but

without effect. Martene tells us that in the early years of the 18th

century in the monastery of Baume, one of Berno's original group of

Cluny houses--indeed the parent house of Cluny itself--no one was

admitted as a monk who had not sixteen quarterings in his coat of arms.

A reform movement took root in the Cluny congregation, and during the

last century of its existence the monks were divided into two groups,

the Reformed and the Unreformed, living according to different laws and

rules, with different superiors, and sometimes independent, and even

rival, general chapters. This most unhappy arrangement hopelessly

impaired the vitality and work of the congregation, which was finally

dissolved and suppressed in 1790, the church being deliberately

destroyed.

Cluniac houses were introduced into England under the Conqueror. The

first foundation was at Barnstaple; the second at Lewes by William de

Warenne, in 1077, and it counted as one of the "Five Daughters of

Cluny." In quick succession followed Thetford, Montacute, Wenlock,

Bermondsey, and in Scotland, Paisley; a number of lesser foundations

were made, and offshoots from the English houses; so that the English

Cluniac dependencies in the 13th century amounted to 40. It is said that

in the reign of Edward III. they transmitted to Cluny annually the sum

of L2000, equivalent to L60,000 of our money. Such a drain on the

country was naturally looked on with disfavour, especially during the

French wars; and so it came about that as "alien priories" they were

frequently sequestered by the crown. As the communities came to be

composed more and more of English subjects, they tended to grow

impatient of their subjection to a foreign house, and began to petition

parliament to be naturalized and to become denizen. In 1351 Lewes was

actually naturalized, but a century later the prior of Lewes appears

still as the abbot of Cluny's vicar in England. Though the bonds with

Cluny seem to have been much relaxed if not wholly broken, the Cluniac

houses continued as a separate group up to the dissolution, never taking

part in the chapters of the English Benedictines. At the end there were

eight greater and nearly thirty lesser Cluniac houses: for list see

Table in F. A. Gasquet's _English Monastic Life_; and _Catholic

Dictionary_, art. "Cluny."

The history of Cluny up to the death of Peter the Venerable may be

extracted out of Mabillon's _Annales_ by means of the Index; the story

is told in Helyot, _Hist. des ordres religieux_ (1792), v. cc. 18, 19.

Abridged accounts, with references to the most recent literature, may

be found in Max Heimbucher, _Orden und Kongregationen_ (1896), i. S

20; Herzog-Hauck, _Realencyklopadie_ (ed. 3), art. "Cluni"

(Grutzmacher); and Wetzer und Welte, _Kirchenlexikon_ (ed. 2), art.

"Clugny" (Hefele). The best modern monograph is by E. Sackur, _Die

Cluniacenser_ (1891-1894). In English a good account is given in

Maitland, _Dark Ages_, SS xviii.-xxvi.; the Introduction to G. F.

Duckett's _Charters and Records of Cluni_ (1890) contains, besides

general information, a description of the church and the buildings,

and a list of the chief Cluniac houses in all countries. The story of

the English houses is briefly sketched in the second chapter of F. A.

Gasquet's _Henry VIII. and the English Monasteries_ (the larger ed.,

1886). (E. C. B.)

CLUSERET, GUSTAVE PAUL (1823-1900), French soldier and politician, was

born at Paris. He was an officer in the _garde mobile_ during the

revolution of 1848. He took part in several expeditions in Algeria,

joined Garibaldi's volunteers in 1860, and in 1861 resigned his

commission to take part in the Civil War in America. He served under

Fremont and McClellan, and rose to the rank of general. Then, joining a

band of Irish adventurers, he went secretly to Ireland, and participated

in the Fenian insurrection (1866-67). He escaped arrest on the collapse

of the movement, but was condemned to death in his absence. On his

return to France he proclaimed himself a Socialist, opposed militarism,

and became a member of the _Association Internationale des

travailleurs_, a cosmopolitan Socialist organization, known as the

"_Internationale_." On the proclamation of the Third Republic in 1871 he

set to work to organize the social revolution, first at Lyons and

afterwards at Marseilles. His energy, his oratorical gifts, and his

military experience gave him great influence among the working classes.

On the news of the communist rising of the 18th of March 1871 he

hastened to Paris, and on the 16th of April was elected a member of the

commune. Disagreements with the other communist leaders led to his

arrest on the 1st of May, on a false charge of betraying the cause. On

the 24th of the same month the occupation of Paris by the Versailles

troops restored him to liberty, and he succeeded in escaping from

France. He did not return to the country till 1884. In 1888 and 1889 he

was returned as a deputy to the chamber by Toulon. He died in 1900.

Cluseret published his _Memoires_ (of the Commune) at Paris in

1887-1888.

CLUSIUM (mod. _Chiusi_, q.v.), an ancient town of Italy, one of the

twelve cities of Etruria, situated on an isolated hill at the S. end of

the valley of the Clanis (China). It was according to Roman tradition

one of the oldest cities of Etruria and indeed of all Italy, and, if

Camars (the original name of the town, according to Livy) is rightly

connected with the Camertes Umbri, its foundation would go back to

pre-Etruscan times. It first appears in Roman history at the end of the

7th century B.C., when it joined the other Etruscan towns against

Tarquinius Priscus, and at the end of the 6th century B.C. it placed

itself, under its king Lars Porsena, at the head of the attempt to

re-establish the Tarquins in Rome. At the time of the invasion of the

Gauls in 391 B.C., on the other hand, Clusium was on friendly terms with

Rome; indeed, it was the action of the Roman envoys who had come to

intercede for the people of Clusium with the Gauls, and then, contrary

to international law, took part in the battle which followed, which

determined the Gauls to march on Rome. Near Clusium too, according to

Livy (according to Polybius ii. 19. 5, [Greek: en te Kamertion chora],

i.e. in Umbria near Camerinum), a battle occurred in 296 B.C. between

the Gauls and Samnites combined, and the Romans; a little later the

united forces of Clusium and Perusia were defeated by the Romans. The

precise period at which Clusium came under Roman supremacy is, however,

uncertain, though this must have happened before 225 B.C., when the

Gauls advanced as far as Clusium. In 205 B.C. in the Second Punic War we

hear that they promised ship timber and corn to Scipio. The Via Cassia,

constructed after 187 B.C., passed just below the town. In the first

civil war, Papirius Carbo took up his position here, and two battles

occurred in the neighbourhood. Sulla appears to have increased the

number of colonists, and a statue was certainly erected in his honour

here. In imperial times we hear little of it, though its grain and

grapes were famous. Christianity found its way into Clusium as early as

the 3rd century, and the tombstone of a bishop of A.D. 322 exists. In

A.D. 540 it is named as a strong place to which Vitiges sent a garrison

of a thousand men.

Of pre-Roman or Roman buildings in the town itself there are few

remains, except for some fragments of the Etruscan town walls composed

of rather small rectangular blocks of travertine, built into the

medieval fortifications. Under it, however, extends an elaborate system

of rock-cut passages, probably drains. The chief interest of the place

lies in its extensive necropolis, which surrounds the city on all sides.

The earliest tombs (_tombe a pozzo_, shaft tombs) are previous to the

beginning of Greek importation. Of _tombe a fosso_ there are none, and

the next stage is marked by the so-called _tombe a ziro_, in which the

cinerary urn (often with a human head) is placed in a large clay jar

(_ziro_, Lat. _dolium_). These belong to the 7th century B.C., and are

followed by the _tombe a camera_, in which the tomb is a chamber hewn in

the rock, and which can be traced back to the beginning of the 6th

century B.C. From one of the earliest of these came the famous Francois

vase; another is the tomb of Poggio Renzo, or della Scimmia (the

monkey), with several chambers decorated with archaic paintings. The

most remarkable group of tombs is, however, that of Poggio Gaiella, 3 m.

to the N., where the hill is honeycombed with chambers in three storeys

(now, however, much ruined and inaccessible), partly connected by a

system of passages, and supported at the base by a stone wall which

forms a circle and not a square--a fact which renders impossible its

identification with the tomb of Porsena, the description of which Pliny

(_Hist. Nat._ xxxvi. 91) has copied from Varro. Other noteworthy tombs

are those of the Granduca, with a single subterranean chamber carefully

constructed in travertine, and containing eight sarcophagi of the same

material; of Vigna Grande, very similar to this; of Colle Casuccini (the

ancient stone door of which is still in working order), with two

chambers, containing paintings representing funeral rites; of Poggio

Moro and Valdacqua, in the former of which the paintings are almost

destroyed, while the latter is now inaccessible.

A conception of the size of the whole necropolis may be gathered from

the fact that nearly three thousand Etruscan inscriptions have come to

light from Clusium and its district alone, while the part of Etruria

north of it as far as the Arno has produced barely five hundred. Among

the later tombs bilingual inscriptions are by no means rare, and both

Etruscan and Latin inscriptions are often found in the same cemeteries,

showing that the use of the Etruscan language only died out gradually. A

large number of the inscriptions are painted upon the tiles which closed

the niches containing the cinerary urns. The urns themselves are small,

often of terra-cotta, originally painted, though the majority of them

have lost their colour, and rectangular in shape. This style of burial

seems peculiar to a district which E. Bormann (_Corp. Inscr. Lat._ xi.,

Berlin, 1887, p. 373) defines as a triangle formed by the Clanis (with

the lakes of Chiusi and Montepulciano, both small, shallow and

fever-breeding), on the E., the villages of Cetona, Sarteano,

Castelluccio and Monticchiello on the W., and Montepulciano and

Acquaviva on the N. In Roman times the territory of Clusium seems to

have extended as far as Lake Trasimene. The local museum contains a

valuable and important collection of objects from the necropolis,

including some specially fine _bucchero_, sepulchral urns of travertine,

alabaster and terra-cotta, painted vases, stone _cippi_ with reliefs,

&c.

Two Christian catacombs have been found near Clusium, one in the hill of

S. Caterina near the railway station, the inscriptions of which seem to

go back to the 3rd century, another 1 m. to the E. in a hill on which a

church and monastery of S. Mustiola stood, which goes back to the 4th

century, including among its inscriptions one bearing the date A.D. 303,

and the tombstone of L. Petronius Dexter, bishop of Clusium, who died in

A.D. 322. The total number of inscriptions known in Clusium is nearly

3000 Etruscan (_Corp. Inscr. Etrusc._, Berlin, 475-3306) and 500 Latin

(_Corp. Inscr. Lat._ xi. 2090-2593). To the W. and N.W. of Chiusi--at

Cetona, Sarteano, Chianciano and Montepulciano--Etruscan cemeteries have

been discovered; the objects from them formed, in the latter half of the

19th century, interesting local collections described by Dennis, which

have since mostly passed to larger museums or been dispersed.

See G. Dennis, _Cities and Cemeteries of Etruria_ (London,1883), ii.

290 seq.; L. Giometti, _Guida di Chiusi_ (Poggibonsi, 1904).

(T. AS.)

CLUWER (CLUVER, CLUVIER, CLUVERIUS), PHILIP (1580-1623), German

geographer and historian, was born at Danzig in 1580. After travelling

in Germany and Poland (where he learnt Polish), he began the study of

law at Leiden, but he soon turned his attention to history and

geography, which were then taught there by Joseph Scaliger. After

campaigning in Bohemia and Hungary, suffering imprisonment, and

travelling in England, Scotland and France, he finally settled in

Holland, where (after 1616) he received a regular pension from Leiden

Academy. In 1611 he began to publish his works. He died at Leiden in

1623. His principal writings are: _Germania Antiqua_ (1616), _Siciliae

Antiquae libri duo, Sardinia et Corsica Antiqua_ (1619), and the

posthumous _Italia Antiqua_ (1624) and _Introductio in Universam

Geographiam_ (1629).

CLYDE, COLIN CAMPBELL, BARON (1792-1863), British soldier, was born at

Glasgow on the 20th of October 1792. He received his education at the

Glasgow high school, and when only sixteen years of age obtained an

ensigncy in the 9th foot, through the influence of Colonel Campbell, his

maternal uncle. The youthful officer had an early opportunity of

engaging in active service. He fought under Sir Arthur Wellesley at

Vimiera, took part in the retreat of Sir John Moore, and was present at

the battle of Corunna. He shared in all the fighting of the Peninsular

campaigns, and was severely wounded while leading a storming-party at

the attack on San Sebastian. He was again wounded at the passage of the

Bidassoa, and compelled to return to England, when his conspicuous

gallantry was rewarded by promotion without purchase. Campbell held a

command in the American expedition of 1814; and after the peace of the

following year he devoted himself to studying the theoretical branches

of his profession. In 1823 he quelled the negro insurrection in

Demerara, and two years later obtained his majority by purchase, In 1832

he became lieutenant-colonel of the 98th foot, and with that regiment

rendered distinguished service in the Chinese War of 1842. Campbell was

next employed in the Sikh War of 1848-49, under Lord Gough. At

Chillianwalla, where he was wounded, and at the decisive victory of

Gujrat, his skill and valour largely contributed to the success of the

British arms; and his "steady coolness and military precision" were

highly praised in official despatches. He was made a K.C.B. in 1849, and

specially named in the thanks of parliament.

After rendering important services in India Sir Colin Campbell returned

home in 1853. Next year the Crimean War broke out, and he accepted the

command of the Highland brigade, which formed part of the duke of

Cambridge's division. The brigade and its leader distinguished

themselves very greatly at the Alma; and with his "thin red line" of

Highlanders he repulsed the Russian attack on Balaklava. At the close of

the war Sir Colin was promoted to be knight grand cross of the Bath, and

elected honorary D.C.L. of Oxford. His military services, however, had

as yet met with tardy recognition; but, when the crisis came, his true

worth was appreciated. The outbreak of the Indian Mutiny (q.v.) called

for a general of tried experience; and on the 11th of July 1857 the

command was offered to him by Lord Palmerston. On being asked when he

would be ready to set out, the veteran replied, "Within twenty-four

hours." He was as good as his word; he left England the next evening,

and reached Calcutta on the 13th of August. After spending upwards of

two months in the capital to organize his resources, he started for the

front on the 27th of October, and on the 17th of November relieved

Lucknow for the second time. Sir Colin, however, considered Lucknow a

false position, and once more abandoned it to the rebels, retaking it in

March 1858. He continued in charge of the operations in Oudh until the

embers of the revolt had died away. For these services he was raised to

the peerage, in 1858, as Lord Clyde; and, returning to England in the

next year, he received the thanks of both Houses of Parliament and a

pension of L2000 a year. He died on the 14th of August 1863.

Though not a great general, and lacking in the dash which won England so

many victories in India, Lord Clyde was at once a brave soldier and a

careful and prudent leader. The soldiers whom he led were devotedly

attached to him; and his courteous demeanour and manly independence of

character won him unvarying respect.

See Sir Owen Tudor Burne, _Clyde and Strathnairn_ ("Rulers of India"

series, 1891); and L. Shadwell, _Life of Colin Campbell, Lord Clyde_

(1881).

CLYDE (Welsh, _Clwyd_, "far heard," "strong," the _Glotta_ of Tacitus),

the principal river of Lanarkshire, Scotland. It is also the name of the

estuary which forms the largest and finest firth on the west coast.

1. _The River._--Daer Water, rising in Gana Hill (2190 ft.) on the

borders of Lanarkshire and Dumfriesshire, after a course of 10-1/2 m., and

Potrail Water, rising 3 m. farther W. in the same hilly country (1928

ft.), after running N.N.E. for 7 m., unite 3-1/2 m. S. of Elvanfoot to form

the Clyde, of which they are the principal headstreams, though many

mountain burns in these upland regions are also contributory. The old

rhyme that "Annan, Tweed and Clyde rise a' out o' ae hillside" is not

true, for Little Clyde Burn here referred to, rising in Clyde Law (2190

ft.), is only an affluent and not a parent stream. From the junction of

the Daer and Potrail the river pursues a direction mainly northwards for

several miles, winding eastwards around Tinto Hill, somewhat

north-westerly to near Carstairs, where it follows a serpentine course

westwards and then southwards. From Harperfield, a point about 4 m.

above Lanark, it assumes a north-westerly direction, which, roughly, it

maintains for the rest of its course as a river, which is generally held

to end at Dumbarton, where it merges in the Firth. Its principal

tributaries on the right are the Medwin (16 m. long), entering near

Carnwath, the Mouse (15 m.), joining it at Lanark, the South Calder (16

m.) above Bothwell, the North Calder (12 m.) below Uddingston, the

Kelvin (21 m.) at Glasgow, and the Leven (7 m.) at Dumbarton. The chief

left-hand affluents are the Elvan (8 m.), entering at Elvanfoot, the

Duneaton (19 m.), joining a few miles above Roberton, the Garf (6-1/2 m.)

below Lamington, the Douglas (20 m.) above Bonnington, the Nethan (12

m.) at Crossford, the Avon (28 m.) at Hamilton, the Rotten Calder (10

m.) near Newton, and the Cart (1 m.), formed by the junction of the

Black Cart (9 m.) and the White Cart (19 m.), below Renfrew.

The total length of the Clyde from the head of the Daer to Dumbarton is

106 m., and it drains an area estimated at 1481 sq. m. It is thus the

third longest river in Scotland (being exceeded by the Spey and Tay),

but in respect of the industries on its lower banks, and its sea-borne

commerce, it is one of the most important rivers in the world. Near

Lanark it is broken by the celebrated Falls, four in number, which are

all found within a distance of 3-3/4 m. Bonnington Linn, the most graceful,

2 m. above Lanark, is divided into two parts by a mass of tree-clad

rocks in mid-stream, and has a height of 30 ft. From this spot the river

runs for half a mile through a rugged, red sandstone gorge till it

reaches Corra Linn, the grandest of the Falls, where in three leaps,

giving it the aspect of a splendid cascade, it makes a descent of 84

ft., which, however, it accomplishes during flood at a single bound.

Almost 3/4 m. below Corra Linn, Dundaff Linn is reached, a fall of only 10

ft. Farther down, 1-3/4 m. below Lanark, at Stonebyres Linn, reproducing

the characteristic features of Corra Linn, the river descends in

ordinary water in three leaps, and in flood in one bold drop of 80 ft.

Within this space of 3-3/4 m. the river effects a total fall of 230 ft., or

61-1/3 ft. in the mile. From Stonebyres Linn to the sea the fall is

practically 4 ft. in every mile. The chief villages and towns on or

close to the river between its source and Glasgow are Crawford,

Lamington, New Lanark, Lanark, Hamilton, Bothwell, Blantyre and

Uddingston. At Bowling (pop. 1018)--the point of transhipment for the

Forth and Clyde Canal--the river widens decidedly, the fairway being

indicated by a stone wall continued seawards as far as Dumbarton.

Dunglass Point, near Bowling, is the western terminus of the wall of

Antoninus, or Grim's Dyke; and in the grounds of Dunglass Castle, now a

picturesque fragment, stands an obelisk to Henry Bell (1767-1830), the

pioneer of steam navigation in Europe.

As far down as the falls the Clyde remains a pure fishing stream, but

from the point at which it begins to receive the varied tribute of

industry, its water grows more and more contaminated, and at Glasgow the

work of pollution is completed. Towards the end of the 18th century the

river was yet fordable at the Broomielaw in the heart of Glasgow, but

since that period, by unexampled enterprise and unstinted expenditure of

money, the stream has been converted into a waterway deep enough to

allow liners and battleships to anchor in the harbour (see GLASGOW).

Clydesdale, as the valley of the upper Clyde is called, begins in the

district watered by headstreams of the river, the course of which in

effect it follows as far as Bothwell, a distance of 50 m. It is renowned

for its breed of cart-horses (specifically known as Clydesdales), its

orchards, fruit fields and market gardens, its coal and iron mines.

2. _The Firth._--From Dumbarton, where the firth is commonly considered

to begin, to Ailsa Craig, where it ends, the fairway measures 64 m. Its

width varies from 1 m. at Dumbarton to 37 m. from Girvan to the Mull of

Kintyre. The depth varies from a low-tide minimum of 22 ft. in the

navigable channel at Dumbarton to nearly 100 fathoms in the Sound of

Bute and at other points. The Cumbraes, Bute and Arran are the principal

islands in its waters. The sea lochs all lie on the Highland shore, and

comprise Gare Loch, Loch Long, Loch Goil, Holy Loch, Loch Striven, Loch

Riddon and Loch Fyne. The only rivers of any importance feeding the

Firth are the Ayrshire streams, of which the chief are the Garnock,

Irvine, Ayr, Doon and Girvan. The tide ascends above Glasgow, where its

farther rise is barred by a weir. The head-ports are Glasgow, Port

Glasgow, Greenock, Ardrossan, Irvine, Troon, Ayr and Campbeltown. In

addition to harbour lights, beacons on rocks, and light-ships, there are

lighthouses on Ailsa Craig, Sanda, Davaar, Pladda, Holy Isle, and Little

Cumbrae, and at Turnberry Point, Cloch Point and Toward Point. The

health and holiday resorts on the lochs, islands and mainland coast are

numerous.

CLYDEBANK, a police burgh of Dumbartonshire, Scotland, on the right bank

of the Clyde, 6 m. from Glasgow. Pop. (1891) 10,014; (1901) 21,591.

There are stations at Yoker, Clydebank, Kilbowie and Dalmuir, all

comprised within the burgh since 1886, served by both the North British

and the Caledonian railways. In 1875 the district was almost purely

rural, but since that date flourishing industries have been planted in

the different parts. At Clydebank are large shipbuilding yards and

engineering works; at Yoker there is some shipbuilding and a distillery;

at Kilbowie the Singer Manufacturing Company have an immense factory,

covering nearly 50 acres and giving employment to many thousands of

operatives; at Dalmuir are the building and repairing yards of the Clyde

Navigation Trust. The important Rothesay Dock, under this trust, was

opened by the prince and princess of Wales in April 1907. The

municipality owns a fine town hall and buildings. Part of the parish

extends across the Clyde into the shire of Renfrew.

CNIDUS (mod. _Tekir_), an ancient city of Caria in Asia Minor, situated

at the extremity of the long peninsula that forms the southern side of

the Sinus Ceramicus or Gulf of Cos. It was built partly on the mainland

and partly on the Island of Triopion or Cape Krio, which anciently

communicated with the continent by a causeway and bridge, and now by a

narrow sandy isthmus. By means of the causeway the channel between

island and mainland was formed into two harbours, of which the larger,

or southern, now known as Port Freano, was further enclosed by two

strongly-built moles that are still in good part entire. The extreme

length of the city was little less than a mile, and the whole intramural

area is still thickly strewn with architectural remains. The walls, both

insular and continental, can be traced throughout their whole circuit;

and in many places, especially round the acropolis, at the N.E. corner

of the city, they are remarkably perfect. Our knowledge of the site is

largely due to the mission of the Dilettanti Society in 1812, and the

excavations executed by C. T. Newton in 1857-1858; but of recent years

it has become a frequent calling station of touring steamers, which can

still lie safely in the southern harbour. The agora, the theatre, an

odeum, a temple of Dionysus, a temple of the Muses, a temple of

Aphrodite and a great number of minor buildings have been identified,

and the general plan of the city has been very clearly made out. The

most famous statue by the elder Praxiteles, the Aphrodite, was made for

Cnidus. It has perished, but late copies exist, of which the most

faithful is in the Vatican gallery. In a temple-enclosure C. T. Newton

discovered a fine seated statue of Demeter, which now adorns the British

Museum; and about 3 m. south-east of the city he came upon the ruins of

a splendid tomb, and a colossal figure of a lion carved out of one block

of Pentelic marble, 10 ft. in length and 6 in height, which has been

supposed to commemorate the great naval victory of Conon over the

Lacedaemonians in 394 B.C. Among the minor antiquities obtained from the

city itself, or the great necropolis to the east, perhaps the most

interesting are the leaden [Greek: katadesmoi], or imprecationary

tablets, found in the temple of Demeter, and copied in facsimile in the

appendix to the second volume of Newton's work. Peasants still find

numerous antiquities, and the site would certainly repay more thorough

excavation.

Cnidus was a city of high antiquity and probably of Lacedaemonian

colonization. Along with Halicarnassus and Cos, and the Rhodian cities

of Lindus, Camirus and Ialysus it formed the Dorian Hexapolis, which

held its confederate assemblies on the Triopian headland, and there

celebrated games in honour of Apollo, Poseidon and the nymphs. The city

was at first governed by an oligarchic senate, composed of sixty

members, known as [Greek: amnemones], and presided over by a magistrate

called an [Greek: areoter]; but, though it is proved by inscriptions

that the old names continued to a very late period, the constitution

underwent a popular transformation. The situation of the city was

favourable for commerce, and the Cnidians acquired considerable wealth,

and were able to colonize the island of Lipara, and founded the city of

Corcyra Nigra in the Adriatic. They ultimately submitted to Cyrus, and

from the battle of Eurymedon to the latter part of the Peloponnesian War

they were subject to Athens. In 394 B.C. Conon fought off the port the

battle which destroyed Spartan hegemony. The Romans easily obtained

their allegiance, and rewarded them for help given against Antiochus by

leaving them the freedom of their city. During the Byzantine period

there must still have been a considerable population; for the ruins

contain a large number of buildings belonging to the Byzantine style,

and Christian sepulchres are common in the neighbourhood. Eudoxus, the

astronomer, Ctesias, the writer on Persian history, and Sostratus, the

builder of the celebrated Pharos at Alexandria, are the most remarkable

of the Cnidians mentioned in history.

See C. T. Newton and R. P. Pullen, _Hist. of Discoveries at

Halicarnassus, Cnidus, &c._ (1863).

CNOSSUS, KNOSSOS, or GNOSSUS, an ancient city of Crete, on the left bank

of the Caeratus, a small stream which falls into the sea on the north

side of the island. The city was situated about 3 m. from the coast,

and, according to the old traditions, was founded by Minos, king of

Crete. The locality was associated with a number of the most interesting

legends of Greek mythology, particularly with those which related to

Jupiter, who was said to have been born, to have been married, and to

have been buried in the vicinity. Cnossus was also assigned as the site

of the labyrinth in which the Minotaur was confined. The truth behind

these legends has been revealed in recent years by the excavations of Dr

Evans. As the historical city was peopled by Dorians, the manners,

customs and political institutions of its inhabitants were all Dorian.

Along with Gortyna and Cydonia, it held for many years the supremacy

over the whole of Crete; and it always took a prominent part in the

civil wars which from time to time desolated the island. When the rest

of Crete fell under the Roman dominion, Cnossus shared the same fate,

and became a Roman colony. Aenesidemus, the sceptic philosopher, and

Chersiphron, the architect of the temple of Diana at Ephesus, were

natives of Cnossus.

_The Site._--As the excavations at Cnossus are discussed at length in

the article CRETE, it must suffice here briefly to enumerate the more

important. The chief building is the Great Palace, the so-called "House

of Minos," the excavation of which by Arthur Evans dates from 1900: a

number of rooms lying round the central paved court, oriented north and

south, have been identified, among them being the throne-room with some

well-preserved wall paintings and a small bathroom attached, in the

north-west quarter a larger bathroom and a shrine, and residential

chambers in the south and east. The latter part of the palace is

composed of a number of private rooms and halls, and is especially

remarkable for its skilful drainage and water-supply systems.

In 1907 excavations on the south side of the palace showed that the plan

was still incomplete, and a southern cryptoporticus, and outside it a

large south-west building, probably an official residence, were

discovered. Of special interest was a huge circular cavity under the

southern porch into which the sub-structures of the palace had been

sunk. This cavity was filled with rubbish, sherds, &c., the latest of

which was found to date as far back as the beginning of the Middle

Minoan age, and the later work of 1908 only proved (by means of a small

shaft sunk through the debris) that the rock floor was 52 ft. below the

surface. The first attempt to reach the floor by a cutting in the

hill-side proved abortive, but the operations of 1910 led to a

successful result. The cavity proved to be a great reservoir approached

by a rock-cut staircase and of Early Minoan date.

In 1904-1905 a paved way running due west from the middle of the palace

was excavated, and found to lead to another building described as the

"Little Palace" largely buried under an olive grove. The first

excavations showed that this building was on the same general plan and

belonged to the same period as the "House of Minos," though somewhat

later in actual date (17th century B.C.). Large halls, which had

subsequently been broken up into smaller apartments, were found, and

among a great number of other artistic remains one seal-impression of

special interest showing a one-masted ship carrying a thorough-bred

horse--perhaps representing the first importation of horses into Crete.

A remarkable shrine with fetish idols was also discovered. The sacred

Double-Axe symbol is prominent, as in the greater palace. By the end of

1910 the excavation of this smaller palace was practically completed. It

was found to cover an area of more than 9400 ft. with a frontage of more

than 130 ft., and had five stone staircases. One object of special

interest found in the course of excavation is a black steatite vessel

in the form of a bull's head. The modelling is of a very high order, and

the one eye which remains perfect is cut out of rock crystal, with the

pupil and iris marked by colours applied to the lower face of the

crystal.

The work of excavation in the palace has been complicated by the

necessity of propping up walls, floors and staircases. In some instances

it has been found necessary to replace the original wooden pillars by

pillars of stone. Again in the "Queen's Megaron" in the east wing of the

Great Palace it was found that the exposure of the remains to the

violent extremes of Cretan weather must soon prove fatal to them. It was

therefore decided to restore the columns and part of the wall, and to

roof over the whole area.

For recent excavations see R. M. Burrows, _The Discoveries in Crete_

(1907); A. Mosso, _The Palaces of Crete_ (1907); Lagrange, _La Crete

ancienne_ (1908); Dr. Evans's reports in _The Times_, Oct. 31, 1905,

July 15, 1907, Aug. 27, 1908, and 1909 (Index); D. Mackenzie, _Cretan

Palaces_.

COACH (through the Fr. _coche_, originally from the Magyar _kocsi_, an

adjective from the Hungarian place named Kocs, between Raab and Buda,

i.e. the sort of vehicle used there in the 15th century), a large kind

of carriage for passengers (see CARRIAGE). As a general term it is used

(as in "coach-building") for all carriages, and also in combination with

qualifying attributes for particular forms (stage-coach, mail-coach,

mourning-coach, hackney-coach, &c.); but the typical coach involves four

wheels, springs and a roof. The stage-coach, with seats outside and in,

was a public conveyance which was known in England from the 16th

century, and before railways the stage-coaches had regular routes

(stages) all over the country; through their carrying the mails (from

1784) the term "mail-coach" arose. Similar vehicles were used in America

and on the European continent. The _diligence_, though not invariably

with four horses, was the Continental analogue for public conveyance,

with other minor varieties such as the _Stellwagen_ and _Eilwagen_.

The driving of coaches with four horses was a task in which a

considerable amount of skill was required,[1] and English literature is

full of the difficulties and humours of "the road" in old days. A form

of sport thus arose for enterprising members of the nobility and gentry,

and after the introduction of railways made the mail-coach obsolete as a

matter of necessity, the old sport of coaching for pleasure still

survived, though only to a limited extent. The Four-in-hand Club was

started in England in 1856 and the Coaching Club in 1870, as the

successors of the old Bensington Driving Club (1807-1852), and

Four-Horse Club (1808-1829); and in America the New York Coaching Club

was founded in 1875. But coaching remains the sport of the wealthier

classes, although in various parts of England (e.g. London to Brighton,

and in the Lake district), in America, and in Europe, public coaches

still have their regular times and routes for those who enjoy this form

of travel. The earliest railway vehicles for passengers were merely the

road coaches of the period adapted to run on rails, and the expression

"coaching traffic" is still used in England to denote traffic carried in

passenger trains.

Of coaches possessing a history the two best known in the United Kingdom

are the king's state coach, and that of the lord mayor of London. The

latter is the oldest, having been built, or at least first used, for the

procession of Sir Charles Asgil, lord mayor elect, in November 1757. The

body of this vehicle is not supported by springs, but hung on leather

straps; and the whole structure is very richly loaded with ornamental

carving, gilding and paint-work. The different panels and the doors

contain various allegorical groups of figures representing suitable

subjects, and heraldic devices painted in a spirited manner. The royal

state coach, which is described as "the most superb carriage ever

built," was designed by Sir William Chambers, the paintings on it were

executed by Cipriani, and the work was completed in 1761. During the

later part of Queen Victoria's reign it was hardly ever seen, but on the

accession of Edward VII. the coach was once more put in order for use on

state occasions. The following is an official description of this famous

coach:--

"The whole of the carriage and body is richly ornamented with laurel

and carved work, beautifully gilt. The length, 24 ft.; width, 8 ft. 3

in.; height, 12 ft.; length of pole, 12 ft. 4 in.; weight, 4 tons. The

carriage and body of the coach is composed as follows:--Of four large

tritons, who support the body by four braces, covered with red morocco

leather, and ornamented with gilt buckles, the two figures placed in

front of the carriage bear the driver, and are represented in the

action of drawing by cables extending round their shoulders, and the

cranes and sounding shells to announce the approach of the monarch of

the ocean; and those at the back carry the imperial fasces, topped

with tridents. The driver's foot-board is a large scallop shell,

ornamented with bunches of reeds and other marine plants. The pole

represents a bundle of lances; the splinter bar is composed of a rich

moulding, issuing from beneath a voluted shell, and each end

terminating in the head of a dolphin; and the wheels are imitated from

those of the ancient triumphal chariot. The body of the coach is

composed of eight palm-trees, which, branching out at the top, sustain

the roof; and four angular trees are loaded with trophies allusive to

the victories obtained by Great Britain during the late glorious war,

supported by four lions' heads. On the centre of the roof stand three

boys, representing the genii of England, Scotland and Ireland,

supporting the imperial crown of Great Britain, and holding in their

hands the sceptre, sword of state, and ensigns of knighthood; their

bodies are adorned with festoons of laurel, which fall from thence

towards the four corners. The panels and doors are painted with

appropriate emblematical devices, and the linings are of scarlet

velvet richly embossed with national emblems."

See the Badminton _Driving_, by the duke of Beaufort (1888); Rogers's

_Manual of Driving_ (Philadelphia, 1900); and "Nimrod's" _Essays on

the Road_ (1876).