[1] Varieties.
[2] 1 metre = 3.28 ft.
CLOUDBERRY, _Rubus Chamaemorus_, a low-growing creeping herbaceous
plant, with stem not prickly, and with simple obtusely lobed leaves and
solitary white flowers, resembling those of the blackberry, but
larger--one inch across,--and with stamens and pistils on different
plants. The orange-yellow fruit is about half an inch long and consists
of a few large drupes with a pleasant flavour. The plant occurs in the
mountainous parts of Great Britain, and is widely distributed through
the more northerly portions of both hemispheres. In northern Denmark and
Sweden the fruit is gathered in large quantities and sold in the
markets.
CLOUD-BURST, a sudden and violent storm of rain. The name probably
originated from the idea that the clouds were solid masses full of water
that occasionally burst with disastrous results. A whirlwind passing
over the sea sometimes carries the water upwards in a whirling vortex;
passing over the land its motion is checked and a deluge of water falls.
Occasionally on high lands far from the sea violent storms occur, with
rain that seems to descend in sheets, sweeping away bridges and culverts
and tearing up roads and streets, being due to great and rapid
condensation and vortical whirling of the resulting heavy clouds (see
METEOROLOGY).
CLOUDED LEOPARD (_Felis nebulosa_ or _macroscelis_), a large arboreal
cat from the forests of south-east Asia, Sumatra, Java, Borneo and
Formosa. This cat, often called the clouded tiger, is beautifully
marked, and has an elongated head and body, long tail and rather short
limbs. The canine teeth are proportionately longer than in any other
living cat. Little is known of the habits of the clouded leopard, but it
preys on small mammals and birds, and rarely comes to the ground. The
native Malay name is _Arimaudahan_ ("tree-tiger"). The species is nearly
related to the small Indian marbled cat (_F. marmorata_), and Fontaniers
cat (_F. tristis_) of Central Asia. (R. L.*)
CLOUET, FRANCOIS (d. 1572), French miniature painter. The earliest
reference to him is the document dated December 1541 (see CLOUET, JEAN),
in which the king renounces for the benefit of the artist his father's
estate which had escheated to the crown as the estate of a foreigner. In
it the younger Janet is said to have "followed his father very closely
in the science of his art." Like his father, he held the office of groom
of the chamber and painter in ordinary to the king, and so far as salary
is concerned, he started where his father left off. A long list of
drawings contains those which are attributed to this artist, but we
still lack perfect certainty about his works. There is, however, more to
go upon than there was in the case of his father, as the praises of
Francois Clouet were sung by the writers of the day, his name was
carefully preserved from reign to reign, and there is an ancient and
unbroken tradition in the attribution of many of his pictures. There are
not, however, any original attestations of his works, nor are any
documents known which would guarantee the ascriptions usually accepted.
To him are attributed the portraits of Francis I. at the Uffizi and at
the Louvre, and various drawings relating to them. He probably also
painted the portrait of Catherine de' Medici at Versailles and other
works, and in all probability a large number of the drawings ascribed to
him were from his hand. One of his most remarkable portraits is that of
Mary, queen of Scots, a drawing in chalks in the Bibliotheque Nationale,
and of similar character are the two portraits of Charles IX. and the
one at Chantilly of Marguerite of France. Perhaps his masterpiece is the
portrait of Elizabeth of Austria in the Louvre.
He resided in Paris in the rue de Ste Avoye in the Temple quarter, close
to the Hotel de Guise, and in 1568 is known to have been under the
patronage of Claude Gouffier de Boisy, Seigneur d'Oiron, and his wife
Claude de Baune. Another ascertained fact concerning Francois Clouet is
that in 1571 he was "summoned to the office of the Court of the Mint,"
and his opinion was taken on the likeness to the king of a portrait
struck by the mint. He prepared the death-mask of Henry II., as in 1547
he had taken a similar mask of the face and hands of Francis I., in
order that the effigy to be used at the funeral might be prepared from
his drawings; and on each of these occasions he executed the painting to
be used in the decorations of the church and the banners for the great
ceremony.
Several miniatures are believed to be his work, one very remarkable
portrait being the half-length figure of Henry II. in the collection of
Mr J. Pierpont Morgan. Another of his portraits is that of the duc
d'Alencon in the Jones collection at South Kensington, and certain
representations of members of the royal family which were in the
Hamilton Palace collection and the Magniac sale are usually ascribed to
him. He died on the 22nd of December 1572, shortly after the massacre of
St Bartholomew, and his will, mentioning his sister and his two
illegitimate daughters, and dealing with the disposition of a
considerable amount of property, is still in existence. His daughters
subsequently became nuns.
His work is remarkable for the extreme accuracy of the drawing, the
elaborate finish of all the details, and the exquisite completeness of
the whole portrait. He must have been a man of high intelligence, and of
great penetration, intensely interested in his work, and with
considerable ability to represent the character of his sitter in his
portraits. His colouring is perhaps not specially remarkable, nor from
the point of style can his pictures be considered specially beautiful,
but in perfection of drawing he has hardly any equal.
To Monsieur Louis Dimier, the leading authority upon his works, and to
his volume on _French Painting in the Sixteenth Century_, as well as
to the works of MM. Bouchot, La Borde and Maulde-La Claviere, the
present writer is indebted for the information contained in this
article. (G. C. W.)
CLOUET, JEAN (d. c. 1541). French miniature painter, generally known as
JANET. The authentic presence of this artist at the French court is
first to be noted in 1516, the second year of the reign of Francis I. By
a deed of gift made by the king to the artist's son of his father's
estate, which had escheated to the crown, we learn that he was not
actually a Frenchman, and never even naturalized. He is supposed to have
been a native of the Low Countries, and probably his real name was
Clowet. His position was that of groom of the chamber to the king, and
he received a stipend at first of 180 livres and later of 240. He lived
several years in Tours, and there it was he met his wife, who was the
daughter of a jeweller. He is recorded as living in Tours in 1522, and
there is a reference to his wife's residence in the same town in 1523,
but in 1529 they were both settled in Paris, probably in the
neighbourhood of the parish of Ste Innocent, in the cemetery of which
they were buried. He stood godfather at a christening on the 8th of July
1540, but was no longer living in December 1541, and therefore died
between those two dates.
His brother, known as CLOUET DE NAVARRE, was in the service of
Marguerite d'Angouleme, sister of Francis I., and is referred to in a
letter written by Marguerite about 1529. Jean Clouet had two children,
Francois and Catherine, who married Abel Foulon, and left one son, who
continued the profession of Francois Clouet after his decease. Jean
Clouet was undoubtedly a very skilful portrait painter, but it must be
acknowledged without hesitation that there is no work in existence which
has been proved to be his. There is no doubt that he painted a portrait
of the mathematician, Oronce Fine, in 1530, when Fine was thirty-six
years old, but the portrait is now known only by a print. Janet is
generally believed, however, to have been responsible for a very large
number of the wonderful portrait drawings now preserved at Chantilly,
and at the Bibliotheque Nationale, and to him is attributed the portrait
of an unknown man at Hampton Court, that of the dauphin Francis, son of
Francis I. at Antwerp, and one other portrait, that of Francis I. in the
Louvre.
Seven miniature portraits in the _Manuscript of the Gallic War_ in the
Bibliotheque Nationale (13,429) are attributed to Janet with very strong
probability, and to these may be added an eighth in the collection of Mr
J. Pierpont Morgan, and representing Charles de Cosse, Marechal de
Brissac, identical in its characteristics with the seven already known.
There are other miniatures in the collection of Mr Morgan, which may be
attributed to Jean Clouet with some strong degree of probability,
inasmuch as they closely resemble the portrait drawings at Chantilly and
in Paris which are taken to be his work. In his oil paintings the
execution is delicate and smooth, the outlines hard, the texture pure,
and the whole work elaborately and very highly finished in rich, limpid
colour. The chalk drawings are of remarkable excellence, the medium
being used by the artist with perfect ease and absolute sureness, and
the mingling of colour being in exquisite taste, the modelling
exceedingly subtle, and the drawing careful, tender and emphatic. The
collection of drawings preserved in France, and attributed to this
artist and his school, comprises portraits of all the important persons
of the time of Francis I. In one album of drawings the portraits are
annotated by the king himself, and his merry reflections, stinging
taunts or biting satires, add very largely to a proper understanding of
the life of his time and court. Definite evidence, however, is still
lacking to establish the attribution of the best of these drawings and
of certain oil paintings to the Jean Clouet who was groom of the
chambers to the king.
The chief authority in France on the work of this artist is Monsieur
Louis Dimier, and to his works, and to information derived direct from
him, the present writer is indebted for almost all the information
given in this article. (G. C. W.)
CLOUGH, ANNE JEMIMA (1820-1892), English educationalist, was born at
Liverpool on the 20th of January 1820, the daughter of a cotton
merchant. She was the sister of Arthur Hugh Clough, the poet. When two
years old she was taken with the rest of the family to Charleston, South
Carolina. It was not till 1836 that she returned to England, and though
her ambition was to write, she was occupied for the most part in
teaching. Her father's failure in business led her to open a school in
1841. This was carried on until 1846. In 1852, after making some
technical studies in London and working at the Borough Road and the Home
and Colonial schools, she opened another small school of her own at
Ambleside in Westmorland. Giving this up some ten years later, she lived
for a time with the widow of her brother Arthur Hugh Clough--who had
died in 1861--in order that she might educate his children. Keenly
interested in the education of women, she made friends with Miss Emily
Davies, Madame Bodichon, Miss Buss and others. After helping to found
the North of England council for promoting the higher education of
women, she acted as its secretary from 1867 to 1870 and as its president
from 1873 to 1874. When it was decided to open a house for the residence
of women students at Cambridge, Miss Clough was chosen as its first
principal. This hostel, started in Regent Street, Cambridge, in 1871
with five students, and continued at Merton Hall in 1872, led to the
building of Newnham Hall, opened in 1875, and to the erection of Newnham
College on its present basis in 1880. Miss Clough's personal charm and
high aims, together with the development of Newnham College under her
care, led her to be regarded as one of the foremost leaders of the
women's educational movement. She died at Cambridge on the 27th of
February 1892. Two portraits of Miss Clough are at Newnham College, one
by Sir W. B. Richmond, the other by J. J. Shannon.
See _Memoir of Anne Jemima Clough_, by Blanche Athena Clough (1897).
CLOUGH, ARTHUR HUGH (1819-1861), English poet, was born at Liverpool on
the 1st of January 1819. He came of a good Welsh stock by his father,
James Butler Clough, and of a Yorkshire one by his mother, Anne Perfect.
In 1822 his father, a cotton merchant, moved to the United States, and
Clough's childhood was spent mainly at Charleston, South Carolina, much
under the influence of his mother, a cultivated woman, full of moral and
imaginative enthusiasm. In 1828 the family paid a visit to England, and
Clough was left at school at Chester, whence he passed in 1829 to Rugby,
then under the sway of Dr Thomas Arnold, whose strenuous views on life
and education he accepted to the full. Cut off to a large degree from
home relations, he passed a somewhat reserved and solitary boyhood,
devoted to the well-being of the school and to early literary efforts in
the _Rugby Magazine_. In 1836 his parents returned to Liverpool, and in
1837 he went with a scholarship to Balliol College, Oxford. Here his
contemporaries included Benjamin Jowett, A. P. Stanley, J. C. Shairp, W.
G. Ward, Frederick Temple and Matthew Arnold.
Oxford, in 1837, was in the full swirl of the High Church movement led
by J. H. Newman. Clough was for a time carried away by the flood, and,
although he recovered his equilibrium, it was not without an amount of
mental disturbance and an expenditure of academic time, which perhaps
accounted for his failure to obtain more than a second class in his
final examination. He missed a Balliol fellowship, but obtained one at
Oriel, with a tutorship, and lived the Oxford life of study,
speculation, lectures and reading-parties for some years longer.
Gradually, however, certain sceptical tendencies with regard to the
current religious and social order grew upon him to such an extent as to
render his position as an orthodox teacher of youth irksome, and in 1848
he resigned it. The immediate feeling of relief showed itself in
buoyant, if thoughtful, literature, and he published poems both new and
old. Then he travelled, seeing Paris in revolution and Rome in siege,
and in the autumn of 1849 took up new duties as principal of University
Hall, a hostel for students at University College, London. He soon found
that he disliked London, in spite of the friendship of the Carlyles, nor
did the atmosphere of Unitarianism prove any more congenial than that of
Anglicanism to his critical and at bottom conservative temper. A
prospect of a post in Sydney led him to engage himself to Miss Blanche
Mary Shore Smith, and when it disappeared he left England in 1852, and
went, encouraged by Emerson, to Cambridge, Massachusetts. Here he
remained some months, lecturing and translating Plutarch for the
book-sellers, until in 1853 the offer of an examinership in the
Education Office brought him to London once more. He married, and
pursued a steady official career, diversified only by an appointment in
1856 as secretary to a commission sent to study certain aspects of
foreign military education. At this, as at every period of his life, he
enjoyed the warm respect and admiration of a small circle of friends,
who learnt to look to him alike for unselfish sympathy and for spiritual
and practical wisdom. In 1860 his health began to fail. He visited first
Malvern and Freshwater, and then the East, France and Switzerland, in
search of recovery, and finally came to Florence, where he was struck
down by malaria and paralysis, and died on the 13th of November 1861.
Matthew Arnold wrote upon him the exquisite lament of _Thyrsis_.
Shortly before he left Oxford, in the stress of the Irish potato-famine,
Clough wrote an ethical pamphlet addressed to the undergraduates, with
the title, _A Consideration of Objections against the Retrenchment
Association at Oxford_ (1847). His Homeric pastoral _The Bothie of
Toper-na-Fuosich_, afterwards rechristened _Tober-na-Vuolich_ (1848),
was inspired by a long vacation after he had given up his tutorship, and
is full of socialism, reading-party humours and Scottish scenery.
_Ambarvalia_ (1849), published jointly with his friend Thomas Burbidge,
contains shorter poems of various dates from 1840, or earlier, onwards.
_Amours de Voyage_, a novel in verse, was written at Rome in 1849;
_Dipsychus_, a rather amorphous satire, at Venice in 1850; and the
idylls which make up _Mari Magno, or Tales on Board_, in 1861. A few
lyric and elegiac pieces, later in date than the _Ambarvalia_, complete
the tale of Clough's poetry. His only considerable enterprise in prose
was a revision of the 17th century translation of Plutarch by Dryden and
others, which occupied him from 1852, and was published as _Plutarch's
Lives_ (1859).
No part of Clough's life was wholly given up to poetry, and he probably
had not the gift of detachment necessary to produce great literature in
the intervals of other occupations. He wrote but little, and even of
that little there is a good deal which does not aim at the highest
seriousness. He never became a great craftsman. A few of his best lyrics
have a strength of melody to match their depth of thought, but much of
what he left consists of rich ore too imperfectly fused to make a
splendid or permanent possession. Nevertheless, he is rightly regarded,
like his friend Matthew Arnold, as one of the most typical English poets
of the middle of the 19th century. His critical instincts and strong
ethical temper brought him athwart the popular ideals of his day both in
conduct and religion. His verse has upon it the melancholy and the
perplexity of an age of transition. He is a sceptic who by nature should
have been with the believers. He stands between two worlds, watching one
crumble behind him, and only able to look forward by the sternest
exercise of faith to the reconstruction that lies ahead in the other. On
the technical side, Clough's work is interesting to students of metre,
owing to the experiments which he made, in the _Bothie_ and elsewhere,
with English hexameters and other types of verse formed upon classical
models.
Clough's _Poems_ were collected, with a short memoir by F. T.
Palgrave, in 1862; and his _Letters and Remains_, with a longer
memoir, were privately printed in 1865. Both volumes were published
together in 1869 and have been more than once reprinted. Another
memoir is _Arthur Hugh Clough: A Monograph_ (1883), by S. Waddington.
Selections from the poems were made by Mrs Clough for the Golden
Treasury series in 1894, and by E. Rhys in 1896. (E. K. C.)
CLOUTING, the technical name given to a light plain cloth used for
covering butter and farmers' baskets, and for dish and pudding cloths.
The same term is often given to light cloths of the nursery diaper
pattern.
CLOVELLY, a fishing village in the Barnstaple parliamentary division of
Devonshire, England, 11 m. W.S.W. of Bideford. Pop. (1901) 621. It is a
cluster of old-fashioned cottages in a unique position on the sides of a
rocky cleft in the north coast; its main street resembles a staircase
which descends 400 ft. to the pier, too steeply to allow of any wheeled
traffic. Thick woods shelter it on three sides, and render the climate
so mild that fuchsias and other delicate plants flourish in midwinter.
All Saints' church, restored in 1866, is late Norman, containing several
monuments to the Carys, lords of the manor for 600 years. The
surrounding scenery is famous for its richness of colour, especially in
the grounds of Cary Court, and along "The Hobby," a road cut through the
woods and overlooking the sea. Clovelly is described by Dickens in A
Message from the Sea.
CLOVER, in botany, the English name for plants of the genus _Trifolium_,
from Lat. _tres_, three, and _folium_, a leaf, so called from the
characteristic form of the leaf, which has three leaflets (trifoliate),
hence the popular name trefoil. It is a member of the family
_Leguminosae_, and contains about three hundred species, found chiefly
in north temperate regions, but also, like other north temperate genera,
on the mountains in the tropics. The plants are small annual or
perennial herbs with trifoliate (rarely 5- or 7-foliate) leaves, with
stipules adnate to the leaf-stalk, and heads or dense spikes of small
red, purple, white, or rarely yellow flowers; the small, few-seeded pods
are enclosed in the calyx. Eighteen species are native in Britain, and
several are extensively cultivated as fodder-plants. _T. pratense_, red
or purple clover, is the most widely cultivated.
This plant, either sown alone or in mixture with rye-grass, has for a
long time formed the staple crop for soiling; and so long as it grew
freely, its power of shooting up again after repeated mowings, the bulk
of crop thus obtained, its palatableness to stock and feeding qualities,
the great range of soils and climate in which it grows, and its fitness
either for pasturage or soiling, well entitled it to this preference.
Except on certain rich calcareous clay soils, it has now, however,
become an exceedingly precarious crop. The seed, when genuine, which
unfortunately is very often not the case, germinates as freely as ever,
and no greater difficulty than heretofore is experienced in having a
full plant during autumn and the greater part of winter; but over most
part of the country, the farmer, after having his hopes raised by seeing
a thick cover of vigorous-looking clover plants over his field, finds to
his dismay, by March or April, that they have either entirely
disappeared, or are found only in capricious patches here and there over
the field. No satisfactory explanation of this "clover-sickness" has yet
been given, nor any certain remedy, of a kind to be applied to the soil,
discovered. One important fact is, however, now well established, viz.
that when the cropping of the land is so managed that clover does not
recur at shorter intervals than eight years, it grows with much of its
pristine vigour. The knowledge of this fact now determines many farmers
in varying their rotation so as to secure this important end. At one
time there was a somewhat prevalent belief that the introduction of
beans into the rotation had a specific influence of a beneficial kind on
the clover when it came next to be sown; but the true explanation seems
to be that the beans operate favourably only by the incidental
circumstance of almost necessarily lengthening the interval betwixt the
recurrences of clover.
When the four-course rotation is followed, no better plan of managing
this process has been yet suggested than to sow beans, pease, potatoes
or tares, instead of clover, for one round, making the rotation one of
eight years instead of four. The mechanical condition of the soil seems
to have something to do with the success or failure of the clover crop.
We have often noticed that headlands, or the converging line of
wheel-tracks near a gateway at which the preceding root crop had been
carted from a field, have had a good take of clover, when on the field
generally it had failed. In the same way a field that has been much
poached by sheep while consuming turnips upon it, and which has
afterwards been ploughed up in an unkindly state, will have the clover
prosper upon it, when it fails in other cases where the soil appears in
far better condition. If red clover can be again made a safe crop, it
will be a boon indeed to agriculture. Its seeds are usually sown along
with a grain crop, any time from the 1st of February to May, at the rate
of 12 lb to 20 lb per acre when not combined with other clovers or
grasses.
Italian rye-grass and red clover are now frequently sown in mixture for
soiling, and succeed admirably. It is, however, a wiser course to sow
them separately, as by substituting the Italian rye-grass for clover,
for a single rotation, the farmer not only gets a crop of forage as
valuable in all respects, but is enabled, if he choose, to prolong the
interval betwixt the sowings of clover to twelve years, by sowing, as
already recommended, pulse the first round, Italian rye-grass the
second, and clover the third.
These two crops, then, are those on which the arable-land farmer mainly
relies for green forage. To have them good, he must be prepared to make
a liberal application of manure. Good farm-yard dung may be applied with
advantage either in autumn or spring, taking care to cart it upon the
land only when it is dry enough to admit of this being done without
injury. It must also be spread very evenly so soon as emptied from the
carts. But it is usually more expedient to use either guano, nitrate of
soda, or soot for this purpose, at the rates respectively of 2 cwt., 1
cwt. and 20 bushels. If two or more of these substances are used, the
quantities of each will be altered in proportion. They are best also to
be applied in two or three portions at intervals of fourteen to twenty
days, beginning towards the end of December, and only when rain seems
imminent or has just fallen.
When manure is broadcast over a young clover field, and presently after
washed in by rain, the effect is identical with that of first dissolving
it in water, and then distributing the dilution over the surface, with
this difference, namely, that the first plan costs only the price of the
guano, &c, and is available at any time and to every one, whereas the
latter implies the construction of tanks and costly machinery.
_T. incarnatum_, crimson or Italian clover, though not hardy enough to
withstand the climate of Scotland in ordinary winters, is a most
valuable forage crop in England. It is sown as quickly as possible after
the removal of a grain crop at the rate of 18 lb to 20 lb per acre. It
is found to succeed better when only the surface of the soil is stirred
by the scarifier and harrow than when a ploughing is given. It grows
rapidly in spring, and yields an abundant crop of green food, peculiarly
palatable to live stock. It is also suitable for making into hay. Only
one cutting, however, can be obtained, as it does not shoot again after
being mown.
_T. repens_, white or Dutch clover, is a perennial abundant in meadows
and good pastures. The flowers are white or pinkish, becoming brown and
deflexed as the corolla fades. _T. hybridum_, Alsike or Swedish clover,
is a perennial which was introduced early in the 19th century and has
now become naturalized in Britain. The flowers are white or rosy, and
resemble those of the last species. _T. medium_, meadow or zigzag
clover, a perennial with straggling flexuous stems and rose-purple
flowers, is of little agricultural value. Other British species are: _T.
arvense_, hare's-foot trefoil, found in fields and dry pastures, a soft
hairy plant with minute white or pale pink flowers and feathery sepals;
_T. fragiferum_, strawberry clover, with densely-flowered, globose,
rose-purple heads and swollen calyxes; _T. procumbens_, hop trefoil, on
dry pastures and roadsides, the heads of pale yellow flowers suggesting
miniature hops; and the somewhat similar T. minus, common in pastures
and roadsides, with smaller heads and small yellow flowers turning dark
brown. The last named is the true shamrock. Specimens of shamrock and
other clovers are not infrequently found with four leaflets, and, like
other rarities, are considered lucky. Calvary clover is a member of the
closely allied genus _Medicago_--_M. Echinus_, so called from the curled
spiny pod; it has small heads of yellow clover-like flowers, and is a
native of the south of France.
CLOVES, the dried, unexpanded flower-buds of _Eugenia caryophyllata_, a
tree belonging to the natural order Myrtaceae. They are so named from
the French word _clou_, on account of their resemblance to a nail. The
clove tree is a beautiful evergreen which grows to a height of from 30
to 40 ft., having large oval leaves and crimson flowers in numerous
groups of terminal clusters. The flower-buds are at first of a pale
colour and gradually become green, after which they develop into a
bright red, when they are ready for collecting. Cloves are rather more
than half an inch in length, and consist of a long cylindrical calyx,
terminating in four spreading sepals, and four unopened petals which
form a small ball in the centre. The tree is a native of the small group
of islands in the Indian Archipelago called the Moluccas, or Spice
Islands; but it was long cultivated by the Dutch in Amboyna and two or
three small neighbouring islands. Cloves were one of the principal
Oriental spices that early excited the cupidity of Western commercial
communities, having been the basis of a rich and lucrative trade from an
early part of the Christian era. The Portuguese, by doubling the Cape of
Good Hope, obtained possession of the principal portion of the clove
trade, which they continued to hold for nearly a century, when, in 1605,
they were expelled from the Moluccas by the Dutch. That power exerted
great and inhuman efforts to obtain a complete monopoly of the trade,
attempting to extirpate all the clove trees growing in their native
islands, and to concentrate the whole production in the Amboyna Islands.
With great difficulty the French succeeded in introducing the clove tree
into Mauritius in the year 1770; subsequently the cultivation was
introduced into Guiana, Brazil, most of the West Indian Islands and
Zanzibar. The chief commercial sources of supply are now Zanzibar and
its neighbouring island Pemba on the East African coast, and Amboyna.
Cloves are also grown in Java, Sumatra, Reunion, Guiana and the West
India Islands.
Cloves as they come into the market have a deep brown colour, a
powerfully fragrant odour, and a taste too hot and acrid to be pleasant.
When pressed with the nail they exude a volatile oil with which they are
charged to the unusual proportion of about 18%. The oil is obtained as a
commercial product by submitting the cloves with water to repeated
distillation. It is, when new and properly prepared, a pale yellow or
almost colourless fluid, becoming after some time of a brown colour; and
it possesses the odour and taste peculiar to cloves. The essential oil
of cloves--the _Oleum Caryophylli_ of the British Pharmacopoeia--is a
mixture of two substances, one of which is oxidized, whilst the other is
not. _Eugenol_, or eugenic acid, C10H12O2, is the chief constituent. It
is capable of forming definite salts. The other constituent is a
hydrocarbon C15H24, of which the distilling point differs from that of
eugenol, and which solidifies only with intense cold. Oil of cloves is
readily soluble in alcohol and ether, and has a specific gravity of
about 1.055. Its dose is 1/2-3 minims. Besides this oil, cloves also
contain two neutral bodies, eugenin and caryophyllin, the latter of
which is an isomer of camphor. They are of no practical importance. The
British Pharmacopoeia contains an infusion of cloves (_Infusum
Caryophylli_), of which the strength is 1 part in 40 of boiling water
and the dose 1/2-1 oz. Cloves are employed principally as a condiment in
culinary operations, in confectionery, and in the preparation of
_liqueurs_. In medicine they are tonic and carminative, but they are
little used except as adjuncts to other substances on account of their
flavour, or with purgatives to prevent nausea and griping. The essential
oil forms a convenient medium for using cloves for flavouring purposes,
it possesses the medicinal properties characteristic of a volatile oil,
and it is frequently employed to relieve toothache. Oil of cloves is
regarded by many dental surgeons as the most effective local anaesthetic
they possess in cases where it is desired, before cutting a sensitive
tooth for the purpose of filling it, to lower the sensibility of the
dentine. For this purpose the cavity must be exposed to cotton wool
saturated with the oil for about ten days.
CLOVIO, GIORGIO GIULIO (1498-1578), Italian painter, by birth a Croat
and by profession a priest, is said to have learned the elements of
design in his own country, and to have studied afterwards with intense
diligence at Rome under Giulio Romano, and at Verona under Girolamo de'
Libri. He excelled in historical pieces and portraits, painting as for
microscopical examination, and yet contriving to handle his subjects
with great force and precision. His book of twenty-six pictures
representing the procession of Corpus Domini, in Rome, was the work of
nine years, and the covers were executed by Benvenuto Cellini. The
British Museum has his twelve miniatures of the victories of the emperor
Charles V. In the Vatican library is preserved a manuscript life of
Frederick, duke of Urbino, superbly illustrated by Clovio, who is
_facile princeps_ among Italian miniaturists. He was called Macedo, or
Macedone, to connect him with his supposed Macedonian ancestry.
CLOVIS [_Chlodovech_] (c. 466-511), king of the Salian Franks, son of
Childeric I., whom he succeeded in 481 at the age of fifteen. At that
date the Salian Franks had advanced as far as the river Somme, and the
centre of their power was at Tournai. On the history of Clovis between
the years 481 and 486 the records are silent. In 486 he attacked
Syagrius, a Roman general who, after the fall of the western empire in
476, had carved out for himself a principality south of the Somme, and
is called by Gregory of Tours "rex Romanorum." After being defeated by
Clovis at the battle of Soissons, Syagrius sought refuge with the
Visigothic king Alaric II., who handed him over to the conqueror.
Henceforth Clovis fixed his residence at Soissons, which was in the
midst of public lands, e.g. Berny-Riviere, Juvigny, &c. The episode of
the vase of Soissons[1] has a legendary character, and all that it
proves is the deference shown by the pagan king to the orthodox clergy.
Clovis undoubtedly extended his dominion over the whole of Belgica
Secunda, of which Reims was the capital, and conquered the neighbouring
cities in detail. Little is known of the history of these conquests. It
appears that St Genevieve defended the town of Paris against Clovis for
a long period, and that Verdun-sur-Meuse, after a brave stand, accepted
an honourable capitulation thanks to St Euspitius. In 491 some barbarian
troops in the service of Rome, Arboruchi ([Greek: Armornchoi]),
Thuringians, and even Roman soldiers who could not return to Rome, went
over to Clovis and swelled the ranks of his army.
In 493 Clovis married a Burgundian princess, Clotilda, niece of
Gundobald and Godegesil, joint kings of Burgundy. This princess was a
Christian, and earnestly desired the conversion of her husband. Although
Clovis allowed his children to be baptized, he remained a pagan himself
until the war against the Alemanni, who at that time occupied the
country between the Vosges, and the Rhine and the neighbourhood of Lake
Constance. By pushing their incursions westward they came into collision
with Clovis, who marched against them and defeated them in the plain of
the Rhine. The legend runs that, in the thickest of the fight, Clovis
swore that he would be converted to the God of Clotilda if her God would
grant him the victory. After subduing a part of the Alemanni, Clovis
went to Reims, where he was baptized by St Remigius on Christmas day
496, together with three thousand Franks. The story of the phial of holy
oil (the _Sainte Ampoule_) brought from heaven by a white dove for the
baptism of Clovis was invented by Archbishop Hincmar of Reims three
centuries after the event.
The baptism of Clovis was an event of very great importance. From that
time the orthodox Christians in the kingdom of the Burgundians and
Visigoths looked to Clovis to deliver them from their Arian kings.
Clovis seems to have failed in the case of Burgundy, which was at that
time torn by the rivalry between Godegesil and his brother Gundobald.
Godegesil appealed for help to Clovis, who defeated Gundobald on the
banks of the Ouche near Dijon, and advanced as far as Avignon (500), but
had to retire without being able to retain any of his conquests.
Immediately after his departure Gundobald slew Godegesil at Vienne, and
seized the whole of the Burgundian kingdom. Clovis was more fortunate in
his war against the Visigoths. Having completed the subjugation of the
Alemanni in 506, he marched against the Visigothic king Alaric II. in
the following year, in spite of the efforts of Theodoric, king of the
Ostrogoths, to prevent the war. After a decisive victory at Vouille near
Poitiers, in which Clovis slew Alaric with his own hand, the whole of
the kingdom of the Visigoths as far as the Pyrenees was added to the
Frankish empire, with the exception of Septimania, which, together with
Spain, remained in possession of Alaric's grandson Amalaric, and
Provence, which was seized by Theodoric and annexed to Italy. In 508
Clovis received at Tours the insignia of the consulship from the eastern
emperor, Anastasius, but the title was purely honorific. The last years
of his life Clovis spent in Paris, which he made the capital of his
kingdom, and where he built the church of the Holy Apostles, known later
as the church of St Genevieve. By murdering the petty Frankish kings
who reigned at Cambrai, Cologne and other residences, he became sole
king of all the Frankish tribes. He died in 511.
Clovis was the true founder of the Frankish monarchy. He reigned over
the Salian Franks by hereditary right; over the other Frankish tribes by
reason of his kinship with their kings and by the choice of the
warriors, who raised him on the shield; and he governed the Gallo-Romans
by right of conquest. He had the Salic law drawn up, doubtless between
the years 486 and 507; and seems to have been represented in the cities
by a new functionary, the _graf_, _comes_, or count. He owed his success
in great measure to his alliance with the church. He took the property
of the church under his protection, and in 511 convoked a council at
Orleans, the canons of which have come down to us. But while protecting
the church, he maintained his authority over it. He intervened in the
nomination of bishops, and at the council of Orleans it was decided that
no one, save a son of a priest, could be ordained clerk without the
king's order or the permission of the count.
The chief source for the life of Clovis is the _Historia Francorum_
(bk. ii.) of Gregory of Tours, but it must be used with caution. Among
modern works, see W. Junghans, _Die Geschichte der frankischen Konige
Childerich und Clodovech_ (Gottingen, 1857); F. Dahn, _Urgeschichte
der germanischen und romanischen Volker_, vol. iii. (Berlin, 1883); W.
Schultze, _Deutsche Geschichte v. d. Urzeit bis zu den Karolingern_,
vol. ii. (Stuttgart, 1896); G. Kurth, _Clovis_ (2nd ed., Paris, 1901).
(C. PF.)