[1] For full information on the subject of the ancient water-supply
see Count A. F. Andreossy, _Constantinople et le Bosphore_;
Tchikatchev, _Le Bosphore et Constantinople_ (2nd ed., Paris, 1865);
Forchheimer and Strzygowski, _Die byzantinischen Wasserbehaelter_;
also article AQUEDUCT.
[2] A Turkish lira = 18 shillings (English).
CONSTANTINOPLE, COUNCILS OF. Of the numerous ecclesiastical councils
held at Constantinople the most important are the following:
1. The second ecumenical council, 381, which was in reality only a synod
of bishops from Thrace, Asia and Syria, convened by Theodosius with a
view to uniting the church upon the basis of the Orthodox faith. No
Western bishop was present, nor any Roman legate; from Egypt came only a
few bishops, and these tardily. The first president was Meletius of
Antioch, whom Rome regarded as schismatic. Yet, despite its sectional
character, the council came in time to be regarded as ecumenical alike
in the West and in the East.
The council reaffirmed the Nicene faith and denounced all opposing
doctrines. The so-called "Niceno-Constantinopolitan Creed," which has
almost universally been ascribed to this council, is certainly not the
Nicene creed nor even a recension of it, but most likely a Jerusalem
baptismal formula revised by the interpolation of a few Nicene
test-words. More recently its claim to be called "Constantinopolitan"
has been challenged. It is not found in the earliest records of the acts
of the council, nor was it referred to by the council of Ephesus (431),
nor by the "Robber Synod" (449), although these both confirmed the
Nicene faith. It also lacks the definiteness one would expect in a creed
composed by an anti-Arian, anti-Pneumatomachian council. Harnack
(Herzog-Hauck, _Realencyklopaedie_, 3rd ed., s.v. "Konstantinopolit.
Symbol.") conjectures that it was ascribed to the council of
Constantinople just before the council of Chalcedon in order to prove
the orthodoxy of the Fathers of the second ecumenical council. At all
events, it became the creed of the universal church, and has been
retained without change. Save for the addition of _filioque_.
Of the seven reputed canons of the council only the first four are
unquestionably genuine. The fifth and the sixth probably belong to a
synod of 382, and the seventh is properly not a canon. The most
important enactments of the council were the granting of metropolitan
rights to the bishops of Alexandria, Antioch, Thrace, Pontus and
Ephesus; and according to Constantinople the place of honour after Rome,
against which Rome protested. Not until 150 years later, and then only
under compulsion of the emperor Justinian, did Rome acknowledge the
ecumenicity of the council, and that merely as regarded its doctrinal
decrees.
See Mansi iii. pp. 521-599; Hardouin i. pp. 807-826; Hefele, 2nd ed.,
ii. pp. 1 sqq. (English translation, ii. pp. 340 sqq.); Hort, _Two
Dissertations_ (Cambridge, 1876); and the article Creeds.
2. The council of 553, the fifth ecumenical, grew out of the controversy
of the "Three Chapters," an adequate account of which, up to the time of
the council, may be found in the articles JUSTINIAN and VIGILIUS. The
council convened, in response to the imperial summons, on the 4th of May
553. Of the 165 bishops who subscribed the acts all but the five or six
from Egypt were Oriental; the pope, Vigilius, refused to attend (he had
made his escape from Constantinople, and from his retreat in Chalcedon
sent forth a vain protest against the council). The synod was utterly
subservient to the emperor. The "Three Chapters" were condemned, and
their authors, long dead, anathematized, without, however, derogating
from the authority of the council of Chalcedon, which had given them a
clean bill of orthodoxy. Vigilius was excommunicated, and his name
erased from the diptychs. The Orthodox faith was set forth in fourteen
anathemas. Opinion is divided as to whether Origen was condemned. His
name occurs in the eleventh anathema, but some consider it an
interpolation; Hefele defends the genuineness of the text, but finds no
evidence for a special session against Origen, as some have conjectured.
The council was confirmed by the emperor, and was generally received in
the East. Vigilius was soon coerced into submission, but the West
repudiated his pusillanimous surrender, and rejected the council. A
schism ensued which lasted half a century and was not fully healed until
the synod of Aquileia, about 700. But the ecumenicity of the council was
generally acknowledged by 680.
See Mansi ix. pp. 24-106, 149-658, 712-730; Hardouin iii. pp. 1-328,
331, 414, 524; Hefele, 2nd ed., ii. pp. 798-924 (English translation,
iv. pp. 229-365).
3. The sixth ecumenical council, 680-681, which was convened by the
emperor Constantine Pogonatus to terminate the Monothelitic controversy
(see Monothelites). All the patriarchates were represented,
Constantinople and Antioch by their bishops in person, the others by
legates. The number of bishops present varied from 150 to 300. The
council approved the first five ecumenical councils and reaffirmed the
Nicene and "Niceno-Constantinopolitan" creeds. Monothelitism was
unequivocally condemned; Christ was declared to have had "two natural
wills and two natural operations, without division, conversion,
separation or confusion." Prominent Monothelites, living or dead, were
anathematized, in particular Sergius and his successors in the see of
Constantinople, the former pope, Honorius, and Macarius, the patriarch
of Antioch. An imperial decree confirmed the council, and commanded the
acceptance of its doctrines under pain of severe punishment. The
Monothelites took fright and fled to Syria, where they gradually formed
the sect of the Maronites (q.v.).
The anathematizing of Honorius as heterodox has occasioned no slight
embarrassment to the supporters of the doctrine of papal infallibility.
It is not within the scope of this article to pass judgment upon the
various proposed solutions of the difficulty, e.g. that Honorius was not
really a Monothelite; that in acknowledging one will he was not speaking
_ex cathedra_; that, at the time of condemning him, the council was no
longer ecumenical; &c. One thing is certain, however, he was
anathematized; and the notion of interpolation in the acts of the
council (Baronius) may be dismissed as groundless.
See Mansi xi. pp. 190-922; Hardouin iii. pp. 1043-1644; Hefele, 2nd
ed. iii. pp. 121-313.
4. The "Quinisext Synod" (692), so-called because it was regarded by the
Greeks as supplementing the fifth and sixth ecumenical councils, was
held in the dome of the Imperial Palace ("In Trullo," whence the synod
is called also "Trullan"). Its work was purely legislative and its
decisions were set forth in 102 canons. The sole authoritative standards
of discipline were declared to be the "eighty-five apostolic canons,"
the canons of the first four ecumenical councils and of the synods of
Ancyra, Neo-Caesarea, Antioch, Changra, Laodicea, Sardica and Carthage,
and the canonical writings of some twelve Fathers,--all canons, synods
and Fathers, Eastern with one exception, viz. Cyprian and the synod of
Carthage; the bishops of Rome and the occidental synods were utterly
ignored.
The canons of the second and fourth ecumenical councils respecting the
rank of Constantinople were confirmed; the rank of a see was declared to
follow the civil rank of its city; unenthroned bishops were guaranteed
against diminution of their rights; metropolitans were forbidden to
alienate the property of vacant suffragan sees.
The provisions respecting clerical marriage were avowedly more lenient
than the Roman practice. Ordination was denied to any one who after
baptism had contracted a second marriage, kept a concubine, or married a
widow or a woman of ill-repute. Lectors and cantors might marry after
ordination; presbyters, deacons and sub-deacons, if already married,
should retain their wives; a bishop, however, while not dissolving his
marriage, should keep his wife at a distance, making suitable provision
for her. An illegally married cleric could not perform sacerdotal
functions. Monks and nuns were to be carefully separated, and were not
to leave their houses without permission.
It was forbidden to celebrate baptism or the eucharist in private
oratories; neither might laymen give the elements to themselves, nor
approach the altar, nor teach. Offerings for the dead were authorized,
and the mixed chalice made obligatory. Contrary to the occidental
custom, fasting on Saturday was forbidden. The mutilation of the
Scriptures and the desecration of sacred places were severely condemned;
likewise the use of the lamb as the symbol for Christ (a favourite
symbol in the West).
The synod legislated also concerning marriage, bigamy, adultery, rape,
abortion, seductive arts and obscenity. The theatre, the circus and
gambling were unsparingly denounced, and soothsayers and jugglers, pagan
festivals and customs, and pagan oaths were placed under the ban.
The council was confirmed by the emperor and accepted in the East; but
the pope protested against various canons, chiefly those respecting the
rank of Constantinople, clerical marriage, the Saturday fast, and the
use of the symbol of lamb; and refused, despite express imperial command
and threat, to accept the "Pseudo-Sexta." So that while the synod
adopted a body of legislation that has continued to be authoritative for
the Eastern Church, it did so at the cost of aggravating the irritation
of the West, and by so much hastening the inevitable rupture of the
church.
See Mansi xi. pp. 921-1024; Hardouin iii. pp. 1645-1716; Hefele, 2nd
ed., iii. pp. 328-348.
5. The iconoclastic synods of 754 and 815, both of which promulgated
harsh decrees against images and neither of which is recognized by the
Latin Church, and the synod of 842, which repudiated the synod of 815,
approved the second council of Nicaea, and restored the images, are all
adequately treated in the article Iconoclasts.
See Mansi xii. pp. 575 sqq., xiii. pp. 210 sqq., xiv. pp. 111 sqq.,
787 sqq.; Hardouin iv. pp. 330 sqq., 1045 sqq., 1457 sqq.; Hefele,
2nd ed. iv. pp. 1 sqq., 104 sqq.
6. The synods of 869 and 879, of which the former, regarded by the Latin
Church as the eighth ecumenical council, condemned Photius as an usurper
and restored Ignatius to the see of Constantinople; the latter, which
the Greeks consider to have been the true eighth ecumenical council,
held after the death of Ignatius and the reconciliation of Photius with
the emperor, repudiated the synod of 869, restored Photius, and
condemned all who would not recognize him. (For further details of these
two synods see Photius.)
See Mansi xv. pp. 143-476 et passim, xvi. pp. 1-550, xvii. pp.
66-186, 365-530; Hardouin v. pp. 119-390, 749-1210, et passim, vi.
pp. 19-87, 209-334; Hefele, 2nd ed., iv. pp. 228 sqq., 333 sqq., 435
sqq.; Hergenroether, _Photius_ (Regensburg, 1867-1869). (T. F. C.)
CONSTANTINUS, pope from 708 to 715, was a Syrian by birth and was
consecrated pope in March 708. He was eager to assert the supremacy of
the papal see; at the command of the emperor Justinian II. he visited
Constantinople; and he died on the 9th of April 715.
CONSTANTIUS, FLAVIUS VALERIUS, commonly called CHLORUS (the Pale), an
epithet due to the Byzantine historians, Roman emperor and father of
Constantine the Great, was born about A.D. 250. He was of Illyrian
origin; a fictitious connexion with the family of Claudius Gothicus was
attributed to him by Constantine. Having distinguished himself by his
military ability and his able and gentle rule of Dalmatia, he was, on
the 1st of March 293, adopted and appointed Caesar by Maximian, whose
step-daughter, Flavia Maximiana Theodora, he had married in 289 after
renouncing his wife Helena (the mother of Constantine). In the
distribution of the provinces Gaul and Britain were allotted to
Constantius. In Britain Carausius and subsequently Allectus had declared
themselves independent, and it was not till 296 that, by the defeat of
Allectus, it was re-united with the empire. In 298 Constantius overthrew
the Alamanni in the territory of the Lingones (Langres) and strengthened
the Rhine frontier. During the persecution of the Christians in 303 he
behaved with great humanity. He obtained the title of Augustus on the
1st of May 305, and died the following year shortly before the 25th of
July at Eboracum (York) during an expedition against the Picts and
Scots.
See Aurelius Victor, _De Caesaribus_, 39; Eutropius ix. 14-23;
Zosimus ii. 7.
CONSTANTZA (_Constanta_), formerly known as Kustendji or Kustendje, a
seaport on the Black Sea, and capital of the department of Constantza,
Rumania; 140 m. E. by S. from Bucharest by rail. Pop. (1900) 12,725.
When the Dobrudja was ceded to Rumania in 1878, Constantza was partly
rebuilt. In its clean and broad streets there are many synagogues,
mosques and churches, for half the inhabitants are Roman Catholics,
Moslems, Armenians or Jews; the remainder being Orthodox Rumans and
Greeks. In the vicinity there are mineral springs, and the sea-bathing
also attracts many visitors in summer. The chief local industries are
tanning and the manufacture of petroleum drums. The opening, in 1895, of
the railway to Bucharest, which crosses the Danube by a bridge at Cerna
Voda, brought Constantza a considerable transit trade in grain and
petroleum, which are largely exported; coal and coke head the list of
imports, followed by machinery, iron goods, and cotton and woollen
fabrics. The harbour, protected by breakwaters, with a lighthouse at the
entrance, is well defended from the north winds, but those from the
south, south-east, and south-west prove sometimes highly dangerous. In
1902 it afforded 10 alongside berths for shipping. It had a depth of 22
ft. in the old or inner basin, and of 26 ft. in the new or outer basin,
beside the quays. The railway runs along the quays. A weekly service
between Constantza and Constantinople is conducted by state-owned
steamers, including the fast mail and passenger boats in connexion with
the Ostend and Orient expresses. In 1902, 576 vessels entered at
Constantza, with a net registered tonnage of 641,737. The Black Sea
squadron of the Rumanian fleet is stationed here.
Constantza is the Constantiana which was founded in honour of
Constantia, sister of Constantine the Great (A.D. 274-337). It lies at
the seaward end of the Great Wall of Trajan, and has evidently been
surrounded by fortifications of its own. In spite of damage done by
railway contractors (see Henry C. Barkley, _Between the Danube and the
Black Sea_, 1876) there are considerable remains of ancient
masonry--walls, pillars, &c. A number of inscriptions found in the town
and its vicinity show that close by was Tomi, where the Roman poet Ovid
(43 B.C.-A.D. 17) spent his last eight years in exile. A statue of Ovid
stands in the main square of Constantza.
In regard to the Constantza inscriptions in general, see Allard, _La
Bulgarie orientale_ (Paris, 1866); Desjardins in _Ann. dell' istit.
di corr. arch._ (1868); and a paper on Weickum's collection in
_Sitzungsbericht_ of the Munich Academy (1875).
CONSTELLATION (from the Lat. _constellatus_, studded with stars; _con_,
with, and _stella_, a star), in astronomy, the name given to certain
groupings of stars. The partition of the stellar expanse into areas
characterized by specified stars can be traced back to a very remote
antiquity. It is believed that the ultimate origin of the constellation
figures and names is to be found in the corresponding systems in vogue
among the primitive civilizations of the Euphrates valley--the
Sumerians, Accadians and Babylonians; that these were carried westward
into ancient Greece by the Phoenicians, and to the lands of Asia Minor
by the Hittites, and that Hellenic culture in its turn introduced them
into Arabia, Persia and India. From the earliest times the star-groups
known as constellations, the smaller groups (parts of constellations)
known as asterisms, and also individual stars, have received names
connoting some meteorological phenomena, or symbolizing religious or
mythological beliefs. At one time it was held that the constellation
names and myths were of Greek origin; this view has now been disproved,
and an examination of the Hellenic myths associated with the stars and
star-groups in the light of the records revealed by the decipherment of
Euphratean cuneiforms leads to the conclusion that in many, if not all,
cases the Greek myth has a Euphratean parallel, and so renders it
probable that the Greek constellation system and the cognate legends are
primarily of Semitic or even pre-Semitic origin.
The origin and development of the grouping of the stars into
constellations is more a matter of archaeological than of astronomical
interest. It demands a careful study of the myths and religious thought
of primitive peoples; and the tracing of the names from one language to
another belongs to comparative philology.
The Sumerians and Accadians, the non-Semitic inhabitants of the
Euphrates valley prior to the Babylonians, described the stars
collectively as a "heavenly flock"; the sun was the "old sheep"; the
seven planets were the "old-sheep stars"; the whole of the stars had
certain "shepherds," and _Sibzianna_ (which, according to Sayce and
Bosanquet, is the modern Arcturus, the brightest star in the northern
sky) was the "star of the shepherds of the heavenly herds." The
Accadians bequeathed their system to the Babylonians, and cuneiform
tablets and cylinders, boundary stones, and Euphratean art generally,
point to the existence of a well-defined system of star names in their
early history. From a detailed study of such records, in their nature of
rather speculative value, R. Brown, junr. (_Primitive Constellations_,
1899) has compiled a Euphratean planisphere, which he regards as the
mother of all others. The tablets examined range in date from 3000-500
B.C., and hence the system must be anterior to the earlier date. Of
great importance is the _Creation Legend_, a cuneiform compiled from
older records during the reign of Assur-bani-pal, c. 650 B.C., in which
there occurs a passage interpretable as pointing to the acceptance of 36
constellations: 12 northern, 12 zodiacal and 12 southern. These
constellations were arranged in three concentric annuli, the northern
ones in an inner annulus subdivided into 60 degrees, the zodiacal ones
into a medial annulus of 120 degrees, and the southern ones into an
outer annulus of 240 degrees. Brown has suggested a correlation of the
Euphratean names with those of the Greeks and moderns. His results may
be exhibited in the following form:--the central line gives the modern
equivalents of the names in the Euphratean zodiac; the upper line the
modern equivalents of the northern paranatellons; and the lower line
those of the southern paranatellons. The zodiacal constellations have an
interest peculiarly their own; placed in or about the plane of the
ecliptic, their rising and setting with the sun was observed with
relation to weather changes and the more general subject of chronology,
the twelve subdivisions of the year being correlated with the twelve
divisions of the ecliptic (see Zodiac).
+----------------+---------------+--------------------+
| Northern | Zodiacal | Southern |
+----------------+---------------+--------------------+
| Cassiopeia | Aries | Eridanus |
| Auriga | Taurus | Orion |
| Cepheus | Gemini | Canis major |
| Ursa minor | Cancer | Argo |
| Ursa major | Leo | Hydra Crater |
| Booetes | Virgo | Corvus |
| Serpentarius | Libra | Centaurus |
| Hercules | Scorpio | Lupus |
| Lyra | Sagittarius | Ara |
| Aquila | Capricornus | ? |
| Pegasus | Aquarius | Piscis australis |
| Andromeda | Pisces | Cetus |
+----------------+---------------+--------------------+
The Phoenicians--a race dominated by the spirit of commercial
enterprise--appear to have studied the stars more especially with
respect to their service to navigators; according to Homer "the stars
were sent by Zeus as portents for mariners." But all their truly
astronomical writings are lost, and only by a somewhat speculative
piecing together of scattered evidences can an estimate of their
knowledge be formed. The inter-relations of the Phoenicians with the
early Hellenes were frequent and far-reaching, and in the Greek
presentation of the legends concerning constellations a distinct
Phoenician, and in turn Euphratean, element appears. One of the earliest
examples of Greek literature extant, the _Theogonia_ of Hesiod (c. 800
B.C.), appears to be a curious blending of Hellenic and Phoenician
thought. Although not an astronomical work, several constellation
subjects are introduced. In the same author's _Works and Days_, a
treatise which is a sort of shepherd's calendar, there are distinct
references to the Pleiades, Hyades, Orion, Sirius and Arcturus. It
cannot be argued, however, that these were the only stars and
constellations named in his time; the omission proves nothing. The same
is true of the Homeric epics wherein the Pleiades, Hyades, Ursa major,
Orion and Booetes are mentioned, and also of the stars and constellations
mentioned in Job. Further support is given to the view that, in the
main, the constellations were transmitted to the Greeks by the
Phoenicians from Euphratean sources in the fact that Thales, the
earliest Greek astronomer of any note, was of Phoenician descent.
According to Callimachus he taught the Greeks to steer by Ursa minor
instead of Ursa major; and other astronomical observations are assigned
to him. But his writings are lost, as is also the case with those of
Phocus the Samian, and the history of astronomy by Eudemus, the pupil of
Aristotle; hence the paucity of our knowledge of Thales's astronomical
learning.
From the 6th century B.C. onwards, legends concerning the constellation
subjects were frequently treated by the historians and poets.
Aglaosthenes or Agaosthenes, an early writer, knew Ursa minor as [Greek:
Kynosoura], Cynosura, and recorded the translation of Aquila; Epimenides
the Cretan (c. 600 B.C.) recorded the translation of Capricornus and the
star Capella; Pherecydes of Athens (c. 500-450 B.C.) recorded the legend
of Orion, and stated the astronomical fact that when Orion sets Scorpio
rises; Aeschylus (525-456 B.C.) and Hellanicus of Mytilene (c. 496-411
B.C.) narrate the legend of the seven Pleiades--the daughters of Atlas;
and the latter states that the Hyades are named either from their
orientation, which resembles [upsilon] (upsilon), "or because at their
rising or setting Zeus rains"; and Hecataeus of Miletus (c. 470 B.C.)
treated the legend of the Hydra.
In the 5th century B.C. the Athenian astronomer Euctemon, according to
Geminus of Rhodes, compiled a weather calendar in which Aquarius,
Aquila, Canis major, Corona, Cygnus, Delphinus, Lyra, Orion, Pegasus,
Sagitta and the asterisms Hyades and Pleiades are mentioned, always,
however, in relation to weather changes. The earliest Greek work which
purported to treat the constellations _qua_ constellations, of which we
have certain knowledge, is the [Greek: Phainomena] of Eudoxus of Cnidus
(c. 403-350 B.C.). The original is lost, but a versification by Aratus
(c. 270 B.C.), a poet at the court of Antigonus Gonatas, king of
Macedonia, and an [Greek: Exegesis] or commentary by Hipparchus, are
extant. In the [Greek: Phainomena] of Aratus 44 constellations are
enumerated, viz. 19 northern:--Ursa major, Ursa minor, Booetes, Draco,
Cepheus, Cassiopeia, Andromeda, Perseus, Triangulum, Pegasus, Delphinus,
Auriga, Hercules, Lyra, Cygnus, Aquila, Sagitta, Corona and
Serpentarius; 13 central or zodiacal:--Aries, Taurus, Gemini, Cancer,
Leo, Virgo, Libra, Scorpio, Sagittarius, Capricornus, Aquarius, Pisces
and the Pleiades; and 12 southern:--Orion, Canis, Lepus, Argo, Cetus,
Eridanus, Piscis australis, Ara, Centaurus, Hydra, Crater and Corvus. In
this enumeration Serpens is included in Serpentarius and Lupus in
Centaurus; these two constellations were separated by Hipparchus and,
later, by Ptolemy. On the other hand, Aratus kept the Pleiades distinct
from Taurus, but Hipparchus reduced these stars to an asterism. Aratus
was no astronomer, while Hipparchus was; and from the fact that the
latter adopted, with but trifling exceptions, the constellation system
portrayed by Aratus, it may be concluded that the system was already
familiar in Greek thought. And three hundred years after Hipparchus, the
Alexandrian astronomer Ptolemy adopted a very similar scheme in his
uranometria, which appears in the seventh and eighth books of his
_Almagest_, the catalogue being styled the [Greek: Ekthesis kanonike] or
"accepted version."
The _Almagest_ has a dual interest: first, being the work of one
primarily a commentator, it presents a crystallized epitome of all
earlier knowledge; and secondly, it has served as a basis of subsequent
star-catalogues.[1] The Ptolemaic catalogue embraces only those stars
which were visible at Rhodes in the time of Hipparchus (c. 150 B.C.),
the results being corrected for precession "by increasing the longitudes
by 2 deg. 40', and leaving the latitudes undisturbed" (Francis Baily, _Mem.
R.A.S._, 1843). The names and orientation of the constellations therein
adopted are, with but few exceptions, identical with those used at the
present day; and as it cannot be doubted that Ptolemy made only very few
modifications in the system of Hipparchus, the names were adopted at
least three centuries before the _Almagest_ was compiled. The names in
which Ptolemy differs from modern usage are:--Hercules ([Greek: en
gonasin]), Cygnus ([Greek: Hornis]), Eridanus ([Greek: Potamos]), Lupus
([Greek: Therion]), Pegasus ([Greek: Hippos]), Equuleus ([Greek: Hippou
protome]), Canis minor ([Greek: Prokyon]), and Libra ([Greek: Chelai],
although [Greek: zygos] is used for the same constellation in other
parts of the _Almagest_). The following table gives the names of the
constellations as they occur in (1) modern catalogues; (2) Ptolemy (A.D.
150); (3) Ulugh Beg (1437); (4) Tycho Brahe (1628); the last column
gives the English equivalent of the modern name.
The reverence and authority which was accorded the famous compilation of
the Alexandrian astronomer is well evidenced by the catalogue of the
Tatar Ulugh Beg, the Arabian names there adopted being equivalent to the
Ptolemaic names in nearly every case; this is also shown in the Latin
translations given below. Tycho Brahe, when compiling his catalogue of
stars, was unable to observe Lupus, Ara, Corona australis and Piscis
australis, on account of the latitude of Uranienburg; and hence these
constellations are omitted from his catalogue. He diverged from Ptolemy
when he placed the asterisms Coma Berenices and Antinous upon the level
of formal constellations, Ptolemy having regarded these asterisms as
unformed stars ([Greek: amorphotoi]). The next innovator of moment was
Johann Bayer, a German astronomer, who published a _Uranometria_ in
1603, in which twelve constellations, all in the southern hemisphere,
were added to Ptolemy's forty-eight, viz. Apis (or Musca) (Bee), Avis
Indica (Bird of Paradise), Chameleon, Dorado (Sword-fish), Grus (Crane),
Hydrus (Water-snake), Indus (Indian), Pavo (Peacock), Phoenix, Piscis
volans (Flying fish), Toucan, Triangulum australe. According to W. Lynn
(_Observatory_, 1886, p. 255), Bayer adapted this part of his catalogue
from the observations of the Dutch navigator Petrus Theodori (or Pieter
Dirchsz Keyser), who died in 1596 off Java. The _Coelum stellatum
Christianum_ of Julius Schiller (1627) is noteworthy for the attempt
made to replace the names connoting mythological and pagan ideas by the
names of apostles, saints, popes, bishops, and other dignitaries of the
church, &c. Aries became St Peter; Taurus, St Andrew; Andromeda, the
Holy Sepulchre; Lyra, the Manger; Canis major, David; and so on. This
innovation (with which the introduction of the twelve apostles into the
solar zodiac by the Venerable Bede may be compared) was shortlived.
According to Charles Hutton [_Math. Dict._ i. 328 (1795)] the editions
published in 1654 and 1661 had reverted to the Greek names; on the other
hand, Camille Flammarion (_Popular Astronomy_, p. 375) quotes an
illuminated folio of 1661, which represents "the sky delivered from
pagans and peopled with Christians." A similar confusion was attempted
by E. Weigelius, who sought to introduce a _Coelum heraldicum_, in which
the constellations were figured as the arms or insignia of European
dynasties, and by symbols of commerce.
[Illustration: PLATE I.
CONSTELLATIONS OF THE NORTHERN HEMISPHERE.]
[Illustration: PLATE II.
CONSTELLATIONS OF THE SOUTHERN HEMISPHERE.]