British Occupation of Manila
In 1761 King George III. had just succeeded to the throne of England,
and the protracted contentions with France had been suspended for
a while. It was soon evident, however, that efforts were being made
to extinguish the power and prestige of Great Britain, and with this
object a convention had been entered into between France and Spain
known as the "Family Compact." It was so called because it was an
alliance made by the three branches of the House of Bourbon, namely,
Louis XV. of France, Charles III. of Spain, and his son Ferdinand, who,
in accordance with the Treaty of Vienna, had ascended the throne of
Naples. Spain engaged to unite her forces with those of France against
England on May 1, 1762, if the war still lasted, in which case France
would restore Minorca to Spain. Pitt was convinced of the necessity of
meeting the coalition by force of arms, but he was unable to secure
the support of his Ministry to declare war, and he therefore retired
from the premiership. The succeeding Cabinet were, nevertheless,
compelled to adopt his policy, and after having lost many advantages
by delaying their decision, war was declared against France and Spain.
The British were successful everywhere. In the West Indies the
Caribbean Islands and Havana were captured with great booty by Rodney
and Monckton, whilst a British Fleet was despatched to the Philippine
Islands with orders to take Manila.
On September 14, 1762, a British vessel arrived in the Bay of Manila,
refused to admit Spanish officers on board, and after taking soundings
she sailed again out of the harbour.
In the evening of September 22 the British squadron, composed of 13
ships, under the command of Admiral Cornish, entered the bay, and the
next day two British officers were deputed to demand the surrender
of the Citadel, which was refused. Brigadier-General Draper thereupon
disembarked his troops, and again called upon the city to yield. This
citation being defied, the bombardment commenced the next day. The
fleet anchored in front of a powder-magazine, took possession of the
churches of Malate, Ermita, San Juan de Bagumbayan, and Santiago. Two
picket-guards made an unsuccessful sortie against them. The whole force
in Manila, at the time, was the King's regiment, which mustered about
600 men and 80 pieces of artillery. The British forces consisted of
1,500 European troops (one regiment of infantry and two companies
of artillery), 3,000 seamen, 800 Sepoy fusileers, and 1,400 Sepoy
prisoners, making a total of 6,830 men, including officers. [38]
There was no Gov.-General in the Philippines at the time, and the
only person with whom the British Commander could treat was the
acting-Governor, the Archbishop Manuel Antonio Rojo, who was willing to
yield. His authority was, however, set aside by a rebellious war party,
who placed themselves under the leadership of a magistrate of the
Supreme Court, named Simon de Anda y Salazar. This individual, instead
of leading them to battle, fled to the Province of Bulacan the day
before the capture of Manila in a prahu with a few natives, carrying
with him some money and half a ream of official stamped paper. [39]
He knew perfectly well that he was defying the legal authority of
the acting-Governor, and was, in fact, in open rebellion against his
mandate. It was necessary, therefore, to give an official colour to
his acts by issuing his orders and proclamations on Government-stamped
paper, so that their validity might be recognized if he subsequently
succeeded in justifying his action at Court.
On September 24 the Spanish batteries of San Diego and San Andres
opened fire, but with little effect. A richly laden galleon--the
_Philipino_--was known to be on her way from Mexico to Manila, but the
British ships which were sent in quest of her fell in with another
galleon--the _Trinidad_--and brought their prize to Manila. Her
treasure amounted to about P2,500,000. [40]
A Frenchman resident in Manila, Monsieur Faller, made an attack on
the British, who forced him to retire, and he was then accused by the
Spaniards of treason. Artillery fire was kept up on both sides. The
Archbishop's nephew was taken prisoner, and an officer was sent with
him to hand him over to his uncle. However, a party of natives fell
upon them and murdered them. The officer's head having been cut off,
it was demanded by General Draper. Excuses were made for not giving
it up, and the General determined thenceforth to continue the warfare
with vigour and punish this atrocity. The artillery was increased by
another battery of three mortars, placed behind the church of Santiago,
and the bombardment continued.
Five thousand native recruits arrived from the provinces, and out of
this number 2,000 Pampangos were selected. They were divided into
three columns, in order to advance by different routes and attack
respectively the churches of Santiago, Malate, and Ermita, and the
troops on the beach. At each place they were driven back. The leader of
the attack on Malate and Ermita--Don Santiago Orendain--was declared
a traitor. The two first columns were dispersed with great confusion
and loss. The third column retreated before they had sustained or
inflicted any loss. The natives fled to their villages in dismay,
and on October 5 the British entered the walled city. After a couple
of hours' bombardment, the forts of San Andres and San Eugenio were
demolished, the artillery overturned, and the defenders' fusileers
and sappers were killed.
A council of war was now held by the Spaniards. General Draper
sustained the authority of the Archbishop against the war party,
composed chiefly of civilians determined to continue the defence
in spite of the opinion of the military men, who argued that a
capitulation was inevitable. But matters were brought to a crisis
by the natives, who refused to repair the fortifications, and the
Europeans were unable to perform such hard labour. Great confusion
reigned in the city--the clergy fled through the Puerta del Parian,
where there was still a native guard. According to Zuniga, the British
spent 20,000 cannon balls and 5,000 shells in the bombardment of
the city.
Major Fell entered Manila (Oct. 6) at the head of his troops, and
General Draper followed, leading his column unopposed, with two
field-pieces in the van, whilst a constant musketry fire cleared the
Calle Real (the central thoroughfare) as they advanced. The people
fled before the enemy. The gates being closed, they scrambled up the
walls and got into boats or swam off.
Colonel Monson was sent by Draper to the Archbishop-Governor to
say that he expected immediate surrender. This requisition was
disputed by the Archbishop, who presented a paper purporting to be
terms of capitulation. The Colonel refused to take it, and demanded
an unconditional surrender. Then the Archbishop, a Colonel of the
Spanish troops, and Colonel Monson went to interview the General,
whose quarters were in the Palace. The Archbishop, offering himself
as a prisoner, presented the terms of capitulation, which provided
for the free exercise of their religion; security of private
property; free trade to all the inhabitants of the Islands, and the
continuation of the powers of the Supreme Court to keep order amongst
the ill-disposed. These terms were granted, but General Draper, on his
part, stipulated for an indemnity of four millions of pesos, and it
was agreed to pay one half of this sum in specie and valuables and the
other half in Treasury bills on Madrid. The capitulation, with these
modifications, was signed by Draper and the Archbishop-Governor. The
Spanish Colonel took the document to the Fort to have it countersigned
by the magistrates, which was at once done; the Fort was delivered
up to the British, and the magistrates repaired to the Palace to pay
their respects to the conquerors.
When the British flag was seen floating over the Fort of Santiago
there was great cheering from the British Fleet. The Archbishop
stated that when Draper reviewed the troops, more than 1,000 men
were missing, including sixteen officers. Among these officers were
a Major fatally wounded by an arrow on the first day of the assault,
and the Vice-Admiral, who was drowned whilst coming ashore in a boat.
The natives who had been brought from the provinces to Manila were
plundering and committing excesses in the city, so Draper had them
all driven out. Guards were placed at the doors of the nunneries and
convents to prevent outrages on the women, and then the city was given
up to the victorious troops for pillage during three hours. Zuniga,
however, remarks that the European troops were moderate, but that the
Indian contingents were insatiable. They are said to have committed
many atrocities, and, revelling in bloodshed, even murdered the
inhabitants. They ransacked the suburbs of Santa Cruz and Binondo, and,
acting like savage victorious tribes, they ravished women, and even
went into the highways to murder and rob those who fled. The three
hours having expired, the troops were called in, but the following
day a similar scene was permitted. The Archbishop thereupon besought
the General to put a stop to it, and have compassion on the city. The
General complied with this request, and immediately restored order
under pain of death for disobedience. Some Chinese were in consequence
hanged. General Draper himself killed one whom he found in the act of
stealing, and he ordered that all Church property should be restored,
but only some priests' vestments were recovered.
Draper demanded the surrender of Cavite, which was agreed to by the
Archbishop and magistrates, but the Commanding Officer refused to
comply. The Major of that garrison was sent with a message to the
Commander, but on the way he talked with such freedom about the
surrender to the British, that the natives quitted their posts and
plundered the Arsenal. The Commander, rather than face humiliation,
retired to a ship, and left all further responsibility to the Major.
Measures were now taken to pay the agreed indemnity. However,
the consequent heavy contributions levied upon the inhabitants,
together with the silver from the pious establishments, church
ornaments, plate, the Archbishop's rings and breast-cross, only
amounted to P546,000. The British then proposed to accept one
million at once and draw the rest from the cargo of the galleon
_Philipino_, should it result that she had not been seized by the
British previous to the day the capitulation was signed--but the one
million was not forthcoming. The day before the capture of Manila a
royal messenger had been sent off with P111,000, with orders to hide
them in some place in the Laguna de Bay. The Archbishop now ordered
their return to Manila, and issued a requisition to that effect,
but the Franciscan friars were insubordinate, and armed the natives,
whom they virtually ruled, and the treasure was secreted in Majayjay
Convent (Tayabas Province). Thence, on receipt of the Archbishop's
message, it was carried across country to a place in North Pampanga,
bordering on Cagayan and Pangasinan. The British, convinced that
they were being duped, insisted on their claim. Thomas Backhouse,
commanding the troops stationed at Pasig, went up to the Laguna de
Bay with 80 mixed troops, to intercept the bringing of the _Philipino_
treasure. He attacked Tunasan, Vinan and Santa Rosa, and embarked for
Pagsanjan, which was then the capital of the Laguna Province. The
inhabitants, after firing the convent and church, fled. Backhouse
returned to Calamba, entered the Province of Batangas, overran it,
and made several Austin friars prisoners. In Lipa he seized P3,000,
and established his quarters there, expecting that the _Philipino_
treasure would be carried that way; but on learning that it had been
transported by sea to a Pampanga coast town, Backhouse returned to
his post at Pasig.
In the capitulation, the whole of the Archipelago was surrendered to
the British, but the magistrate Simon de Anda determined to appeal to
arms. Draper used stratagem, and issued a proclamation commiserating
the fate of the natives who paid tribute to Spaniards, and assuring
them that the King of England would not exact it. The Archbishop, as
Governor, became Draper's tool, sent messages to the Spanish families,
persuading them to return, and appointed an Englishman, married in the
country, to be Alderman of Tondo. Despite the strenuous opposition
of the Supreme Court, the Archbishop, at the instance of Draper,
convened a council of native headmen and representative families,
and proposed to them the cession of all the Islands to the King of
England. Draper clearly saw that the ruling powers in the Colony,
judging from their energy and effective measures, were the friars,
so he treated them with great respect. The Frenchman Faller, who
unsuccessfully opposed the British assault, was offered troops to
go and take possession of Zamboanga and assume the government there,
but he refused, as did also a Spaniard named Sandoval.
Draper returned to Europe; Major Fell was left in command of the
troops, whilst Drake assumed the military government of the city, with
Smith and Brock as council, and Brereton in charge of Cavite. Draper,
on leaving, gave orders for two frigates to go in search of the
_Philipino_ treasure. The ships got as far as Capul Island and put into
harbour. They were detained there by a ruse on the part of a half-caste
pilot, and in the meantime the treasure was stealthily carried away.
Simon de Anda, from his provincial retreat, proclaimed himself
Gov.-General. He declared that the Archbishop and the magistrates,
as prisoners of war, were dead in the eye of the law; and that
his assumption of authority was based upon old laws. None of his
countrymen disputed his authority, and he established himself in
Bacolor. The British Council then convened a meeting of the chief
inhabitants, at which Anda was declared a seditious person and
deserving of capital punishment, together with the Marquis of Monte
Castro, who had violated his _parole d'honneur_, and the Provincial
of the Austin Friars, who had joined the rebel party. All the Austin
friars were declared traitors for having broken their allegiance to
the Archbishop's authority. The British still pressed for the payment
of the one million, whilst the Spaniards declared they possessed no
more. The Austin friars were ordered to keep the natives peaceable
if they did not wish to provoke hostilities against themselves. At
length, the British, convinced of the futility of decrees, determined
to sally out with their forces, and 500 men under Thomas Backhouse
went up the Pasig River to secure a free passage for supplies to the
camp. Whilst opposite to Maybonga, a Spaniard, named Bustos, and his
Cagayan troops fired on them. The British returned the fire, and Bustos
fled to Mariquina. The British passed the river, and sent an officer
with a white flag of truce to demand surrender. Bustos was insolent,
and threatened to hang the officer if he returned. Backhouse's troops
then opened fire and placed two field-pieces, which completely scared
the natives, who fled in such great confusion that many were drowned
in the river. Thence the British drove their enemy before them like a
flock of goats, and reached the Bamban River, where the Sultan of Sulu
[41] resided with his family. The Sultan, after a feigned resistance,
surrendered to the British, who fortified his dwelling, and occupied it
during the whole of the operations. There were subsequent skirmishes
on the Pasig River banks with the armed insurgents, who were driven
as far as the Antipolo Mountains.
Meanwhile, Anda collected troops; and Bustos, as his
Lieutenant-General, vaunted the power of his chief through the Bulacan
and Pampanga Provinces. A Franciscan and an Austin friar, having led
troops to Masilo, about seven miles from Manila, the British went out
to dislodge them, but on their approach most of the natives feigned
they were dead, and the British returned without any loss in arms
or men.
The British, believing that the Austin friars were conspiring against
them in connivance with those inside the city, placed these friars
in confinement, and subsequently shipped away eleven of them to
Europe. For the same reason they at last determined to enter the
Saint Augustine Convent, and on ransacking it, they found that the
priests had been lying to them all the time. Six thousand pesos
in coin were found hidden in the garden, and large quantities of
wrought silver elsewhere. The whole premises were then searched,
and all the valuables were seized. A British expedition went
out to Bulacan, sailing across the Bay and up the Hagonoy River,
where they disembarked at Malolos on January 19, 1763. The troops,
under Captain Eslay, of the Grenadiers, numbered 600 men, many of
whom were Chinese volunteers. As they advanced from Malolos, the
natives and Spaniards fled. On the way to Bulacan, Bustos came out
to meet them, but retreated into ambush on seeing they were superior
in numbers. Bulacan Convent was defended by three small cannons. As
soon as the troops came in sight of the convent, a desultory fire
of case-shot made great havoc in the ranks of the resident Chinese
volunteers forming the British vanguard. At length the British brought
their field-pieces into action, and pointing at the enemy's cannon, the
first discharge carried off the head of their artilleryman Ybarra. The
panic-stricken natives decamped; the convent was taken by assault;
there was an indiscriminate fight and general slaughter. The _Alcalde_
and a Franciscan friar fell in action; one Austin friar escaped,
and another was seized and killed to avenge the death of the British
soldiers. The invading forces occupied the convent, and some of the
troops were shortly sent back to Manila. Bustos reappeared near the
Bulacan Convent with 8,000 native troops, of whom 600 were cavalry,
but they dared not attack the British. Bustos then manoeuvred in the
neighbourhood and made occasional alarms. Small parties were sent
out against him, with so little effect that the British Commander
headed a body in person, and put the whole of Bustos' troops to
flight like mosquitoes before a gust of wind, for Bustos feared they
would be pursued into Pampanga. After clearing away the underwood,
which served as a covert for the natives, the British reoccupied the
convent; but Bustos returned to his position, and was a second time
as disgracefully routed by the British, who then withdrew to Manila.
At this time it was alleged that a conspiracy was being organized
amongst the Chinese resident in the Province of Pampanga with the
object of assassinating Anda and his Spanish followers. The Chinese
cut trenches and raised fortifications, avowing that their bellicose
preparations were only to defend themselves against the possible attack
of the British; whilst the Spaniards saw in all this a connivance
with the invaders. The latter no doubt conjectured rightly. Anda,
acting upon the views of his party, precipitated matters by appearing
with 14 Spanish soldiers and a crowd of native bowmen to commence the
slaughter in the town of Guagua. The Chinese assembled there in great
numbers, and Anda endeavoured in vain to induce them to surrender to
him. He then sent a Spaniard, named Miguel Garces, with a message,
offering them pardon in the name of the King of Spain if they would
lay down their arms; but they killed the emissary, and Anda therefore
commenced the attack. The result was favourable for Anda's party,
and great numbers of the Chinese were slain. Many fled to the fields,
where they were pursued by the troops, whilst those who were captured
were hanged. Such was the inveterate hatred which Anda entertained
for the Chinese, that he issued a general decree declaring all the
Chinese traitors to the Spanish flag, and ordered them to be hanged
wherever they might be found in the provinces. Thus thousands of
Chinese were executed who had taken no part whatever in the events
of this little war.
Admiral Cornish having decided to return to Europe, again urged for the
payment of the two millions of pesos instalment of the indemnity. The
Archbishop was in great straits; he was willing to do anything,
but his colleagues opposed him, and Cornish was at length obliged to
content himself with a bill on the Madrid Treasury. Anda appointed
Bustos _Alcalde_ of Bulacan, and ordered him to recruit and train
troops, as he still nurtured the hope of confining the British to
Manila--perhaps even of driving them out of the Colony.
The British in the city were compelled to adopt the most rigorous
precautions against the rising of the population within the walls,
and several Spanish residents were arrested for intriguing against
them in concert with those outside.
Several French prisoners from Pondicherry deserted from the British;
and some Spanish regular troops, who had been taken prisoners, effected
their escape. The Fiscal of the Supreme Court and a Senor Villa Corta
were found conspiring. The latter was caught in the act of sending
a letter to Anda, and was sentenced to be hanged and quartered--the
quarters to be exhibited in public places. The Archbishop, however,
obtained pardon for Villa Corta on the condition that Anda should
evacuate the Pampanga Province: Villa Corta wrote to Anda, begging him
to accede to this, but Anda absolutely refused to make any sacrifice
to save his friend's life, and at the same time he wrote a disgraceful
letter to the Archbishop, couched in such insulting terms that the
British Commander burnt it without letting the Archbishop see it. Villa
Corta's life was saved by the payment of P3,000.
The treasure brought by the _Philipino_ served Anda to organize
a respectable force of recruits. Spaniards who were living in the
provinces in misery, and a crowd of natives always ready for pay,
enlisted. These forces, under Lieut.-General Bustos, encamped at
Malinta, about five miles from Manila. The officers lodged in a house
belonging to the Austin friars, around which the troops pitched their
tents--the whole being defended by redoubts and palisades raised
under the direction of a French deserter, who led a company. From
this place Bustos constantly caused alarm to the British troops, who
once had to retreat before a picket-guard sent to carry off the church
bells of Quiapo. The British, in fact, were much molested by Bustos'
Malinta troops, who forced the invaders to withdraw to Manila and
reduce the extension of their outposts. This measure was followed
up by a proclamation, dated January 23, 1763, in which the British
Commander alluded to Bustos' troops as "canaille and robbers," and
offered a reward of P5,000 for Anda's head, declaring him and his
party rebels and traitors to their Majesties the Kings of Spain and
England. Anda, chafing at his impotence to combat the invading party
by force of arms, gave vent to his feelings of rage and disappointment
by issuing a decree, dated from Bacolor (Pampanga), May 19, 1763,
of which the translated text reads as follows, viz.:--
"Royal Government Tribunal of these Islands for His Catholic
Majesty:--Whereas the Royal Government Tribunal, Supreme Government
and Captain-Generalship of His Catholic Majesty in these Islands
are gravely offended at the audacity and blindness of those men,
who, forgetting all humanity, have condemned as rebellious and
disobedient to both their Majesties, him, who as a faithful
vassal of His Catholic Majesty, and in conformity with the law,
holds the Royal Tribunal, Government and Captain-Generalship; and
having suffered by a reward being offered by order of the British
Governor in council to whomsoever shall deliver me alive or dead;
and by their having placed the arms captured in Bulacan at the
foot of the gallows--seeing that instead of their punishing and
censuring such execrable proceedings, the spirit of haughtiness
and pride is increasing, as shown in the proclamation published
in Manila on the 17th instant, in which the troops of His Majesty
are infamously calumniated--treating them as blackguards and
disaffected to their service--charging them with plotting to
assassinate the English officers and soldiers, and with having
fled when attacked--the whole of these accusations being false:
Now therefore by these presents, be it known to all Spaniards and
true Englishmen, that Messrs. Drake, Smith and Brock who signed the
proclamation referred to, must not be considered as vassals of His
Britannic Majesty, but as tyrants and common enemies unworthy of
human society, and therefore, I order that they be apprehended as
such, and I offer ten thousand pesos for each one of them alive or
dead. At the same time, I withdraw the order to treat the vassals
of His Britannic Majesty with all the humanity which the rights
of war will permit, as has been practised hitherto with respect
to the prisoners and deserters."
Anda had by this time received the consent of his King to occupy the
position which he had usurped, and the British Commander was thus
enabled to communicate officially with him, if occasion required it:
Drake therefore replied to this proclamation, recommending Anda to
carry on the war with greater moderation and humanity.
On June 27, 1763, the British made a sortie from the city to dislodge
Bustos, who still occupied Malinta. The attacking party consisted of
350 fusileers, 50 horsemen, a mob of Chinese, and a number of guns and
ammunition. The British took up quarters on one side of the river,
whilst Bustos remained on the other. The opposing parties exchanged
fire, but neither cared nor dared to cross the water-way. The British
forces retired in good order to Masilo, and remained there until they
heard that Bustos had burnt Malinta House, belonging to the Austin
friars, and removed his camp to Meycauayan. Then the British withdrew
to Manila in the evening. On the Spanish side there were two killed,
five mortally wounded, and two slightly wounded. The British losses
were six mortally wounded and seven disabled. This was the last
encounter in open warfare. Chinamen occasionally lost their lives
through their love of plunder in the vicinity occupied by the British.
During these operations the priesthood taught the ignorant natives
to believe that the invaders were infidels--and a holy war was
preached. The friars, especially those of the Augustine Order,
[42] abandoned their mission of peace for that of the sword, and
the British met with a slight reverse at Masilo, where a religious
fanatic of the Austin friars had put himself at the head of a small
band lying in ambush.
On July 23, 1763, a British frigate brought news from Europe of an
armistice, and the preliminaries of peace, by virtue of which Manila
was to be evacuated (Peace of Paris, February 10, 1763), were received
by the British Commander on August 27 following, and communicated
by him to the Archbishop-Governor for the "Commander-in-Chief" of
the Spanish arms. Anda stood on his dignity, and protested that he
should be addressed directly, and be styled Captain-General. On this
plea he declined to receive the communication. Drake replied by a
manifesto, dated September 19, to the effect that the responsibility
of the blood which might be spilt in consequence of Anda's refusal
to accept his notification would rest with him. Anda published
a counter-manifesto, dated September 28, in Bacolor (Pampanga),
protesting that he had not been treated with proper courtesy, and
claiming the governor-generalship.
Greater latitude was allowed to the prisoners, and Villa Corta effected
his escape disguised as a woman. He fled to Anda,--the co-conspirator
who had refused to save his life,--and their superficial friendship
was renewed. Villa Corta was left in charge of business in Bacolor
during Anda's temporary absence. Meanwhile the Archbishop became ill;
and it was discussed who should be his successor in the government
in the event of his death. Villa Corta argued that it fell to him
as senior magistrate. The discussion came to the knowledge of Anda,
and seriously aroused his jealousy. Fearing conspiracy against
his ambitious projects, he left his camp at Polo, and hastened to
interrogate Villa Corta, who explained that he had only made casual
remarks in the course of conversation. Anda, however, was restless on
the subject of the succession, and sought the opinion of all the chief
priests and the bishops. Various opinions existed. Some urged that the
decision be left to the Supreme Court; others were in favour of Anda,
whilst many prudently abstained from expressing their views. Anda was
so nervously anxious about the matter that he even begged the opinion
of the British Commander, and wrote him on the subject from Bacolor
(Pampanga) on November 2, 1763.
Major Fell seriously quarrelled with Drake about the Frenchman
Faller, whom Admiral Cornish had left under sentence of death for
having written a letter to Java accusing him of being a pirate and a
robber. Drake protected Faller, whilst Fell demanded his execution,
and the dispute became so heated that Fell was about to slay Drake
with a bayonet, but was prevented by some soldiers. Fell then went
to London to complain of Drake, hence Anda's letter was addressed
to Backhouse, who took Fell's place. Anda, who months since had
refused to negotiate or treat with Drake, still claimed to be
styled Captain-General. Backhouse replied that he was ignorant of
the Spaniards' statutes or laws, but that he knew the Governor was
the Archbishop. Anda thereupon spread the report that the British
Commander had forged the Preliminaries of Peace because he could no
longer hold out in warfare. The British necessarily had to send to the
provinces to purchase provisions, and Anda caused their forage parties
to be attacked, so that the war really continued, in spite of the news
of peace, until January 30, 1764. On this day the Archbishop died,
sorely grieved at the situation, and weighed down with cares. He had
engaged to pay four millions of pesos and surrender the Islands, but
could he indeed have refused any terms? The British were in possession;
and these conditions were dictated at the point of the bayonet.
Immediately after the funeral of the Archbishop, Anda received
despatches from the King of Spain, by way of China, confirming the news
of peace to his Governor at Manila. Then the British acknowledged
Anda as Governor, and proceeded to evacuate the city. But rival
factions were not so easily set aside, and fierce quarrels ensued
between the respective parties of Anda, Villa Corta, and Ustariz
as to who should be Governor and receive the city officially from
the British. Anda, being actually in command of the troops, held
the strongest position. The conflict was happily terminated by the
arrival at Marinduque Island of the newly-appointed Gov.-General,
from Spain, Don Francisco de La Torre. A galley was sent there by
Anda to bring His Excellency to Luzon, and he proceeded to Bacolor,
where Anda resigned the Government to him on March 17, 1764.
La Torre sent a message to Backhouse and Brereton--the commanding
officers at Manila and Cavite,--stating that he was ready to take
over the city in due form, and he thereupon took up his residence
in Santa Cruz, placed a Spanish guard with sentinels from that
ward as far as the Pontoon Bridge (Puente de Barcas, which then
occupied the site of the present Puente de Espana), where the British
advance-guard was, and friendly communication took place. Governor
Drake was indignant at being ignored in all these proceedings, and
ordered the Spanish Governor to withdraw his guards, under threat of
appealing to force. Backhouse and Brereton resented this rudeness and
ordered the troops under arms to arrest Drake, whose hostile action,
due to jealousy, they declared unwarrantable. Drake, being apprised
of their intentions, escaped from the city with his suite, embarked
on board a frigate, and sailed off.
La Torre was said to be indisposed on the day appointed for receiving
the city. Some assert that he feigned indisposition as he did not wish
to arouse Anda's animosity, and desired to afford him an opportunity
of displaying himself as a delegate, at least, of the highest local
authority by receiving the city from the British, whilst he pampered
his pride by allowing him to enter triumphantly into it. As the city
exchanged masters, the Spanish flag was hoisted once more on the Fort
of Santiago amidst the hurrahs of the populace, artillery salutes,
and the ringing of the church bells.
Before embarking, Brereton offered to do justice to any claims
which might legitimately be established against the British
authorities. Hence a sloop lent to Drake, valued at P4,000,
was paid for to the Jesuits, and the P3,000 paid to ransom Villa
Corta's life was returned, Brereton remarking, that if the sentence
against him were valid, it should have been executed at the time,
but it could not be commuted by money payment. At the instance of the
British authorities, a free pardon was granted and published to the
Chinese, few of whom, however, confided in it, and many left with
the retiring army. Brereton, with his forces, embarked for India,
after despatching a packet-boat to restore the Sultan of Sulu to
his throne. In connection with this expedition, 150 British troops
temporarily remained on the Island of Balambangan, near Balabac Island,
and Anda sent a messenger to inquire about this. The reply came that
the Moros, in return for British friendliness, invited the hundred
and fifty to a feast and treacherously slew 144 of them.
During this convulsed period, great atrocities were
committed. Unfortunately the common felons were released by the British
from their prisons, and used their liberty to perpetrate murders and
robbery in alliance with those always naturally bent that way. So
great did this evil become, so bold were the marauders, that in time
they formed large parties, infested highways, attacked plantations,
and the poor peasantry had to flee, leaving their cattle and all
their belongings in their power. Several avenged themselves of the
friars for old scores--others settled accounts with those Europeans
who had tyrannized over them of old. The Chinese, whether so-called
Christians or pagans, declared for and aided the British.
The proceedings of the choleric Simon de Anda y Salazar were approved
by his Sovereign, but his impetuous disposition drove from him
his best counsellors, whilst those who were bold enough to uphold
their opinions against his, were accused of connivance with the
British. Communications with Europe were scant indeed in those days,
but Anda could not have been altogether ignorant of the causes of
the war, which terminated with the Treaty of Paris.
A few months afterwards Anda returned to Spain and was received
with favour by the King, who created him a Cavalier of the Order of
Charles III. with a pension of 4,000 reales (about L40), and awarded
him a pension of 3,000 pesos, and on November 6, 1767, appointed
him a Councillor of Castile. In the course of the next three years
Gov.-General Jose Raon, who superseded La Torre, had fallen into
disgrace, and in 1770 Anda was appointed to the governor-generalship
of the Islands, specially charged to carry out the royal will with
respect to the expulsion of the Jesuits and the defence of Crown
rights in ecclesiastical matters.
Anda at once found himself in conflict with the Jesuits, the friars,
and the out-going Gov.-General Raon. As soon as Raon vacated his
post, Anda, as Gov.-General, had his predecessor confined in the Fort
of Santiago, where he died. At the same time he sent back to Spain
two magistrates who had sided with Raon, imprisoned other judges,
and banished military officers from the capital. Anda's position
was a very peculiar one. A partisan of the friars at heart, he had
undertaken the defence of Crown interests against them, but, in a
measure, he was able to palliate the bitterness he thus created by
expelling the Jesuits, who were an eyesore to the friars. The Jesuits
might easily have promoted a native revolt against their departure,
but they meekly submitted to the decree of banishment and left the
Islands, taking away nothing but their clothing. Having rid himself of
his rivals and the Jesuits, Anda was constantly haunted by the fear
of fresh conflict with the British. He had the city walls repaired
and created a fleet of ships built in the provinces of Pangasinan,
Cavite, and Zambales, consisting of one frigate of war with 18 cannon,
another with 32 cannon, besides 14 vessels of different types,
carrying a total of 98 cannon and 12 swivel guns, all in readiness
for the British who never reappeared.
Born on October 28, 1709, in the Province of Alava, Spain, Simon
de Anda's irascible temper, his vanity, and his extravagant love
of power created enmities and brought trouble upon himself at every
step. Exhausted by six years of continual strife in his private and
official capacities, he retired to the Austin Friars' Hospital of
San Juan de Dios, in Cavite, where, on October 30, 1776, he expired,
much to the relief of his numerous adversaries. The last resting-place
of his mortal remains is behind the altar of the Cathedral, marked by
a tablet; and a monument erected to his memory--107 years after his
death--stands on the quayside at the end of the Paseo de Santa Lucia,
near the Fort of Santiago, Manila.
Consequent on the troubled state of the Colony, a serious rebellion
arose in Ylogan (Cagayan Province) amongst the Timava natives, who
flogged the Commandant, and declared they would no longer pay tribute
to the Spaniards. The revolt spread to Ilocos and Pangasinan; in the
latter province Don Fernando Araya raised a troop of 30 Spaniards
with firearms, and 400 friendly natives with bows and arrows, and
after great slaughter of the rebels the ringleaders were caught,
and tranquillity was restored by the gallows.
A rising far more important occurred in Ilocos Sur. The _Alcalde_
was deposed, and escaped after he had been forced to give up his
staff of office. The leader of this revolt was a cunning and wily
Manila native, named Diego de Silan, who persuaded the people to cease
paying tribute and declare against the Spaniards, who, he pointed out,
were unable to resist the English. The City of Vigan was in great
commotion. The Vicar-General parleyed in vain with the natives; then,
at the head of his troops, he dispersed the rebels, some of whom were
taken prisoners. But the bulk of the rioters rallied and attacked,
and burnt down part of the city. The loyal natives fled before the
flames. The Vicar-General's house was taken, and the arms in it were
seized. All the Austin friars within a large surrounding neighbourhood
had to ransom themselves by money payments. Silan was then acknowledged
as chief over a large territory north and south of Vigan. He appointed
his lieutenants, and issued a manifesto declaring Jesus of Nazareth
to be Captain-General of the place, and that he was His _Alcalde_
for the promotion of the Catholic religion and dominion of the King
of Spain. His manifesto was wholly that of a religious fanatic. He
obliged the natives to attend Mass, to confess, and to see that their
children went to school. In the midst of all this pretended piety,
he stole cattle and exacted ransoms for the lives of all those who
could pay them; he levied a tax of P100 on each friar. Under the
pretence of keeping out the British, he placed sentinels in all
directions to prevent news reaching the terrible Simon de Anda. But
Anda, though fully informed by an Austin friar of what was happening,
had not sufficient troops to march north. He sent a requisition to
Silan to present himself within nine days, under penalty of arrest
as a traitor. Whilst this order was published, vague reports were
intentionally spread that the Spaniards were coming to Ilocos in
great force. Many deserted Silan, but he contrived to deceive even
the clergy and others by his feigned piety. Silan sent presents to
Manila for the British, acknowledging the King of England to be his
legitimate Sovereign. The British Governor sent, in return, a vessel
bearing despatches to Silan, appointing him _Alcalde_. Elated with
pride, Silan at once made this public. The natives were undeceived,
for they had counted on him to deliver them from the British; now, to
their dismay, they saw him the authorized magistrate of the invader. He
gave orders to make all the Austin friars prisoners, saying that the
British would send other clergy in their stead. The friars surrendered
themselves without resistance and joined their Bishop near Vigan,
awaiting the pleasure of Silan. The Bishop excommunicated Silan, and
then he released some of the priests. The christian natives having
refused to slay the friars, a secret compact was being made, with
this object, with the mountain tribes, when a Spanish half-caste
named Vicos obtained the Bishop's benediction and killed Silan;
and the Ilocos rebellion, which had lasted from December 14, 1762,
to May 28, 1763, ended.
Not until a score of little battles had been fought were the numerous
riots in the provinces quelled. The loyal troops were divided into
sections, and marched north in several directions, until peace was
restored by March, 1765. Zuniga says that the Spaniards lost in these
riots about 70 Europeans and 140 natives, whilst they cost the rebels
quite 10,000 men.
The submission made to the Spaniards, in the time of Legaspi, of the
Manila and Tondo chiefs, was but of local importance, and by no means
implied a total pacific surrender of the whole Archipelago; for each
district had yet to be separately conquered. In many places a bold
stand was made for independence, but the superior organization and
science of the European forces invariably brought them final victory.
The numerous revolutionary protests registered in history against
the Spanish dominion show that the natives, from the days of
Legaspi onwards, only yielded to a force which they repeatedly, in
each generation, essayed to overthrow. But it does not necessarily
follow that either the motives which inspired the leaders of these
social disturbances, or the acts themselves, were, in every case,
laudable ones.
The Pampanga natives were among the first to submit, but a few years
afterwards they were in open mutiny against their masters, who, they
alleged, took their young men from their homes to form army corps,
and busily employed the able-bodied men remaining in the district to
cut timber for Government requirements and furnish provisions to the
camp and to the Arsenal at Cavite.
In 1622 the natives of Bojol Island erected an oratory in the mountain
in honour of an imaginary deity, and revolted against the tyranny of
the Jesuit missionaries. They proclaimed their intention to regain
their liberty, and freedom from the payment of tribute to foreigners,
and taxes to a Church they did not believe in. Several towns and
churches were burnt, and Catholic images were desecrated, but the
rebels were dispersed by the Governor of Cebu, who, with a considerable
number of troops, pursued them into the interior. In the same island
a more serious rising was caused in 1744 by the despotism of a Jesuit
priest named Morales, who arrogated to himself governmental rights,
ordering the apprehension of natives who did not attend Mass, and
exercising his sacerdotal functions according to his own caprice. The
natives resisted these abuses, and a certain Dagohoy, whose brother's
body had been left uninterred to decompose by the priest's orders,
organized a revenge party, and swore to pay the priest in his own
coin. The Jesuit was captured and executed, and his corpse was left
four days in the sun to corrupt. Great numbers of disaffected natives
flocked to Dagohoy's standard. Their complaint was, that whilst
they risked their lives in foreign service for the sole benefit of
their European masters, their homes were wrecked and their wives and
families maltreated to recover the tribute. Dagohoy, with his people,
maintained his independence for the space of 35 years, during which
period it was necessary to employ constantly detachments of troops
to check the rebels' raids on private property. On the expulsion of
the Jesuits from the Colony, Recoleto friars went to Bojol, and then
Dagohoy and his partisans submitted to the Government on the condition
of all receiving a full pardon.
In 1622 an insurrection was set on foot in Leyte Island against Spanish
rule, and the Governor of Cebu went there with 40 vessels, carrying
troops and war material, to co-operate with the local Governor against
the rebels. The native leader was made prisoner, and his head placed
on a high pole to strike terror into the populace. Another prisoner
was garrotted, four more were publicly executed by being shot with
arrows, and another was burnt.
In 1629 an attempt was made in the Province of Surigao (then called
Caraga), in the east of Mindanao Island, to throw off the Spanish
yoke. Several churches were burnt and four priests were killed
by the rebels, and the rising was only quelled after three years'
guerilla warfare.
In 1649 the Gov.-General decided to supply the want of men in the
Arsenal at Cavite and the increasing necessity for troops, by pressing
the natives of Samar Island into the King's service. Thereupon a native
headman named Sumoroy killed the priest of Ybabao, on the east coast
of Samar, and led the mob who sacked and burnt the churches along
the coast. The Governor at Catbalogan got together a few men, and
sent them into the mountains with orders to send him back the head
of Sumoroy, but instead of obeying they joined the rebels and sent
him a pig's head. The revolt increased, and General Andres Lopez
Azaldegui was despatched to the island with full powers from the
Gov.-General, whilst he was supported on the coast by armed vessels
from Zamboanga. Sumoroy fled to the hills, but his mother was found
in a hut; and the invading party wreaked their vengeance on her by
literally pulling her to pieces. Sumoroy was at length betrayed by
his own people, who carried his head to the Spanish Captain, and
this officer had it exhibited on a pole in the village. Some years
afterwards another rebel chief surrendered, under a pardon obtained
for him by the priests, but the military authorities imprisoned and
then hanged him.
The riots of 1649 extended to other provinces for the same cause. In
Albay, the parish priest of Sorsogon had to flee for his life; in
Masbate Island, a sub-lieutenant was killed; in Zamboanga, a priest
was murdered; in Cebu, a Spaniard was assassinated; and in Surigao
(then called Caraga) and Butuan, many Europeans fell victims to the
fury of the populace. To quell these disturbances, Captain Gregorio de
Castillo, stationed at Butuan, was ordered to march against the rebels
with a body of infantry, but bloodshed was avoided by the Captain
publishing a general pardon in the name of the King, and crowds of
insurgents came to the camp in consequence. The King's name, however,
was sullied, for very few of those who surrendered ever regained their
liberty. They were sent prisoners to Manila, where a few were pardoned,
others were executed, and the majority became galley-slaves.
In 1660 there was again a serious rising in Pampanga, the natives
objecting to cut timber for the Cavite Arsenal without payment. The
revolt spread to Pangasinan Province, where a certain Andres Malong
was declared king, and he in turn gave to another--Pedro Gumapos--the
title of "Count." Messages were sent to Zambales and other adjacent
provinces ordering the natives to kill the Spaniards, under pain of
incurring "King" Malong's displeasure.
Three army-corps were formed by the rebels: one of 6,000 men, under
Melchor de Veras, for the conquest of Pampanga; another of 3,000
men, led by the titular count Gumapos, to annex Ilocos and Cagayan,
whilst the so-called King Malong took the field against the Pangasinan
people at the head of 2,000 followers. Ilocos Province declared in his
favour, and furnished a body of insurgents under a chief named Juan
Manzano, whilst everywhere on the march the titular king's troops
increased until they numbered about 40,000 men. On the way many
Spaniards--priests and laymen--were killed. The Gov.-General sent by
land to Pampanga 200 Spanish troops, 400 Pampangos and half-breeds,
well armed and provisioned, and Mount Arayat was fortified and
garrisoned by 500 men. By sea: two galleys, six small vessels, and
four cargo launches--carrying 700 Spaniards and half-breeds, and 30
Pampangos--went to Bolinao, in Zambales Province. The rebels were
everywhere routed, and their chiefs were hanged--some in Pampanga
and others in Manila.
Almost each generation has called forth the strong arm of the conqueror
to extinguish the flame of rebellion in one island or another, the
revolt being sometimes due to sacerdotal despotism, and at other
times to official rapacity.
In the last century, prior to 1896, several vain attempts to subvert
Spanish authority were made, notably in 1811 in Ilocos, where the
fanatics sought to establish a new religion and set up a new god. An
attempt was then made to enlist the wild tribes in a plot to murder
all the Spaniards, but it was opportunely discovered by the friars
and suppressed before it could be carried out.
In June, 1823, an order was received from Spain to the effect that
officers commissioned in the Peninsula should have precedence of all
those appointed in the Colony, so that, for instance, a lieutenant
from Spain would hold local rank above a Philippine major. The
Philippine officers protested against this anomaly, alleging that the
commissions granted to them in the name of the Sovereign were as good
as those granted in Spain. The Gov.-General refused to listen to the
objections put forward, and sent Captain Andres Novales and others on
board a ship bound for Mindanao. Novales, however, escaped to shore,
and, in conspiracy with a certain Ruiz, attempted to overthrow the
Government. At midnight all Manila was aroused by the cry of "Long
live the Emperor Novales!" Disaffected troops promenaded the city;
the people sympathized with the movement; flags were waved as the
rebels passed through the streets; the barrack used by Novales'
regiment was seized; the Cathedral and Town Hall were occupied,
and at 6 o'clock in the morning Andres Novales marched to Fort
Santiago, which was under the command of his brother Antonio. To his
great surprise, the brother Antonio stoutly refused to join in the
rising, and Andres' expostulations and exhortations were finally
met with a threat to fire on him if he did not retire. Meanwhile,
the Gov.-General remained in hiding until he heard that the fort was
holding out against Andres' assault, when he sent troops to assist
the defenders. Hemmed in between the fort and the troops outside,
Andres Novales and Ruiz made their escape, but they were soon taken
prisoners. Andres Novales was found hiding underneath the drawbridge
of the _Puerta Real_. The Gov.-General at once ordered Andres Novales,
Ruiz, and Antonio Novales to be executed. The Town Council then went
in a body to the Gov.-General to protest against the loyal defender
of Fort Santiago being punished simply because he was Andres Novales'
brother. The Gov.-General, however, threatened to have shot any one
who should say a word in favour of the condemned.
In a garden of the episcopal palace, near the ancient _Puerta del
Postigo_, the execution of the three condemned men was about to take
place, and crowds of people assembled to witness it. At the critical
moment an assessor of the Supreme Court shouted to the Gov.-General
that to take the life of the loyal defender of the fort, solely
on the ground of his relationship to the rebel leader, would be an
iniquity. His words found a sympathetic echo among the crowd, and the
Gov.-General, deadly pale with rage, yielded to this demonstration of
public opinion. Antonio Novales was pardoned, but the strain on his
nerves weakened his brain, and he lived for many years a semi-idiot
in receipt of a monthly pension of 14 pesos.
In 1827 the standard of sedition was raised in Cebu and a few towns
of that island, but these disturbances were speedily quelled through
the influence of the Spanish friars.
In 1828 a conspiracy of a separatist tendency was discovered, and
averted without bloodshed.
In 1835 Feliciano Paran took the field against the Spaniards in Cavite
Province, and held out so effectually that the Gov.-General came to
terms with him and afterwards deported him to the Ladrone Islands.
In 1836 there was much commotion of a revolutionary character, the
peculiar feature of it being the existence of pro-friar and anti-friar
native parties, the former seeking to subject absolutely the civil
government to ecclesiastical control. [43]
In 1841 a student for the priesthood, named Apolinario de la Cruz,
affected with religious mania, placed himself at the head of a
fanatical party in Tayabas, ostensibly for the purpose of establishing
a religious sect. Some thousands of natives joined the movement,
and troops had to be sent to suppress the rising. Having assumed the
title of King of the Tagalogs, he pretended to have direct heavenly
support, telling the ignorant masses that he was invulnerable and that
the soldiers' bullets would fly from them like chaff before the wind.
In 1844, during a rising at Jimamaylan, in Negros Island, the
Spanish Governor was killed. The revolt is said to have been due to
the Governor having compelled the State prisoners to labour for his
private account.
In 1854 a Spanish half-caste, named Cuesta, came back from Spain with
the rank of major, and at once broke out into open rebellion. The cry
was for independence, and four Luzon provinces rose in his support;
but the movement was crushed by the troops and Cuesta was hanged.
In 1870 a certain Camerino raised rebellion in Cavite province, and
after many unsuccessful attempts to capture him he came to terms with
the Gov.-General, who gave him a salaried employment for a couple
of years and then had him executed on the allegation that he was
concerned in the rising of Cavite Arsenal.
In 1871 there existed a Secret Society of reformers who used to
meet in Santa Cruz (Manila) at the house of the Philippine priest,
Father Mariano. [44] From the house proper a narrow staircase led
to a cistern about 25 feet square, in the side of which there was a
door which closed perfectly. The cistern was divided into two unequal
parts, the top compartment being full of water, whilst the lower part
served as the reformers' conference room, so that if search were made,
the cistern was, in fact, a cistern.
Among the members of this confraternity were Father Agustin Mendoza,
the parish priest of Santa Cruz; Dr. Jose Burgos, also a native priest;
Maximo Paterno, the father of Pedro A. Paterno; Ambrosio Rianzares
Bautista; and others still living (some personally known to me), under
the presidency of Jose Maria Basa (now residing in Hong-Kong). This
Secret Society demanded reforms, and published in Madrid their organ,
_Eco de Filipinas_, copies of which reached the Islands. The copy for
the paper was the result of the society's deliberations. The monks,
incensed at its publication, were, for a long time, puzzled to find
out whence the information emanated. Many of the desired reforms
closely affected the position of the regular clergy, the Philippine
priests, led by Dr. Burgos, urging the fulfilment of the Council of
Trent decisions, which forbade the friars to hold benefices unless
there were no secular priests available.
It appears that the friars, nevertheless, secured these ecclesiastical
preferments by virtue of Papal Bulls of Pius V. and subsequent Popes,
who authorized friars to act as parish priests, not in perpetuity,
but so long as secular clergymen were insufficient in number to attend
to the cure of souls. The native party consequently declared that
the friars retained their incumbencies illegally and by intrusion, in
view of the sufficiency of Philippine secular priests. Had the Council
of Trent enactments been carried out to the letter, undoubtedly the
religious communities in the Philippines would have been doomed to
comparative political impotence. The friars, therefore, sought to
embroil Dr. Burgos and his party in overt acts of sedition, in order
to bring about their downfall and so quash the movement. To this end
they contrived to draw a number of Manila and Cavite natives into a
conspiracy to subvert the Spanish Government. The native soldiers of
the Cavite garrison were induced to co-operate in what they believed
to be a genuine endeavour to throw off the Spanish dominion. They
were told that rockets fired off in Manila would be the signal for
revolt. It happened, however, that they mistook the fireworks of a
suburban feast for the agreed signal and precipitated the outbreak
in Cavite without any support in the capital. The disaffected
soldiers seized the Arsenal, whilst others attacked the influential
Europeans. Colonel Sabas was sent over to Cavite to quell the riot,
and after a short, but stubborn resistance, the rebels were overcome,
disarmed, and then formed up in line. On Colonel Sabas asking if there
were any one who would not cry, "_Viva Espana!_" one man stepped
forward a few paces out of the ranks. The Colonel shot him dead,
and the remainder were marched to prison.
The ruse operated effectually on the lay authorities, who yielded to
the Spanish monks' demand that the extreme penalty of the law should
be inflicted upon their opponents. Thereupon, Dr. Jose Burgos (aged
30 years), Father Jacinto Zamora (aged 35 years), and Father Mariano
Gomez [45] (a dotard, 85 years of age) were executed (February 28,
1872) on the _Luneta_, the fashionable esplanade outside the walled
city, facing the sea.
The friars then caused a bill of indictment to be put forward
by the Public Prosecutor, in which it was alleged that a
Revolutionary Government had been projected. The native clergy were
terror-stricken. It was decreed that whilst the Filipinos already
acting as parish priests would not be deposed, no further appointments
would be made, and the most the Philippine novice could aspire to
would be the position of coadjutor--practically servant--to the friar
incumbent. Moreover, the opportunity was taken to banish to the Ladrone
(Marianas) Islands many members of wealthy and influential families
whose passive resistance was an eyesore to the friars. Among these
was the late Maximo Paterno (q.v.), the father of Pedro A. Paterno;
also Dr. Antonio M. Regidor y Jurado and Jose Maria Basa, who are
still living. [46]
In 1889 I visited a penal settlement--La Colonia Agricola de San
Ramon--in Mindanao Island, and during my stay at the director's house
I was every day served at table by a native convict who was said to
have been nominated by the Cavite rebels to the Civil Governorship of
Manila. There was, however, no open trial from which the public could
form an opinion of the merits of the case, and the idea of subverting
the Spanish Government would appear to have been a fantastic concoction
for the purposes stated. But from that date there never ceased to
exist a secret revolutionary agitation which culminated in the events
of 1898.