_MATERIALS USED._
=Alkanet-root= (botanical name, _Anchusa tinctoria_).--This plant is a
native of the Levant, but it is much cultivated in the south of France
and in Germany. The root is the only part used by French polishers to
obtain a rich quiet red; the colouring is chiefly contained in the bark
or outer covering, and is easily obtained by soaking the root in spirits
or linseed-oil. The plant itself is a small herbaceous perennial, and
grows to about a foot in height, with lance-shaped leaves and purple
flowers, and with a long woody root with a deep red bark.
=Madder-root= (_Rubia tinctoria_).--This plant is indigenous to the
Levant; but it is much cultivated in Southern Europe, and also in India.
Its uses are for dyeing and staining; it can be procured in a powdered
state, and imparts its red colour when soaked in water or spirits. This
is a creeping plant with a slender stem; almost quadrangular, the
leaves grow four in a bunch; flowers small, fruit yellow, berry double,
one being abortive. The roots are dug up when the plant has attained the
age of two or three years; they are of a long cylindrical shape, about
the thickness of a quill, and of a red-brownish colour, and when
powdered are a bright Turkish-red. Extracts of madder are mostly
obtained by treating the root with boiling water, collecting the
precipitates which separate on cooling, mixing them with gum or starch,
and adding acetate of alumina or iron. This is in fact a mixture of
colouring matter and a mordant.
=Red-sanders= (_Pterocarpus santalinus_).--The tree from which this wood
is obtained is a lofty one, and is to be found in many parts of India,
especially about Madras. It yields a dye of a bright garnet-red colour,
and is used by French polishers for dyeing polishes, varnishes,
revivers, etc.
=Logwood= (_Hæmatoxylon campeachianum_).--This is a moderate-sized tree
with a very contorted trunk and branches, which are beset with sharp
thorns, and blooms with a yellow flower. It is a native of Central
America and the West Indies. This valuable dye-wood is imported in logs;
the heart-wood is the most valuable, which is cut up into chips or
ground to powder for the use of dyers by large powerful mills
constructed especially for the purpose. Logwood, when boiled in water,
easily imparts its red colour. If a few drops of acetic acid (vinegar)
is added, a bright red is produced; and when a little alum is added for
a mordant, it forms red ink. If an alkali, such as soda or potash, is
used instead of an acid, the colour changes to a dark blue or purple,
and with a little management every shade of these colours can be
obtained. Logwood put into polish or varnish also imparts its red
colour.
=Fustic= (_Maclura tinctoria_).--This tree is a native of the West
Indies, and imparts a yellow dye. Great quantities are used for dyeing
linens, etc. The fustic is a large and handsome evergreen, and is
imported in long sticks.
=Turmeric= (_Curcuma longa_).--Turmeric is a stemless plant, with
palmated tuberous roots and smooth lance-shaped leaves. It is imported
from the East Indies and China. The root is the part which affords the
yellow powder for dyeing. It is also a condiment, and is largely used in
Indian curry-powder. Paper stained with turmeric is used by chemists as
a test for alkalies, and it is also used in making Dutch, pink, and
gold-coloured varnishes.
=Indigo= (_Indigofera tinctoria_).--Indigo is a shrub which grows from
two to three feet in height, and is cut down just as it begins to
flower. It is cultivated in almost all the countries situated in the
tropics. The dye substance is prepared from the stems and leaves, and is
largely used in calico-printing.
=Persian Berries= (_Rhamnus infectorius_).--These berries are the
produce of a shrub of a species of buckthorn common in Persia, whence
they derive their name; but large quantities are also imported into
England from Turkey and the south of France. The berries are gathered in
an unripe state, and furnish a yellow dye.
=Nut-galls.=--These are found upon the young twigs of the Turkish dwarf
oak (_Quercus infectoria_), and are produced by the puncture of an
insect called Cynips. The supply is principally from Turkey and Aleppo.
Nut-galls contain a large quantity of tannin and gallic acid, and are
extensively used in dyeing.
=Catechu.=--This is obtained from the East Indies, and is the extract of
the _Acacia catechu_, a thorny tree. The wood is cut up into chips
similar to logwood, and after boiling and evaporation the liquor
assumes the consistency of tar; but when cold it hardens, and is formed
into small squares. It is extensively used by tanners in place of oak
bark.
=Thus.=--Thus is the resin which exudes from the spruce-fir, and is used
by some polishers in the making of polishes and varnishes.
=Sandarach= is the produce of the _Thuya articulata_ of Barbary. It
occurs in small pale yellow scales, slightly acid, and is soluble in
alcohol; it is used in both polishes and varnishes.
=Mastic= exudes from the mastic-tree (_Pistacia lentiscus_), and is
principally obtained from Chios, in the Grecian Archipelago. It runs
freely when an incision is made in the body of the tree, but not
otherwise. It occurs in the form of nearly colourless and transparent
tears of a faint smell, and is soluble in alcohol as well as oil of
turpentine, forming a rapidly-drying but alterable varnish, which
becomes brittle and dark-coloured by age.
=Benzoin.=--This is the produce of the American tree _Laurus benzoin_,
and also of the _Styrax benzoin_ of Sumatra, which is called "gum
benjamin"; it is used in polishes and varnishes, and as a cosmetic, and
is also burnt as incense in Catholic churches.
=Copal= is one of the most valuable of gums, and is furnished by many
countries in the districts of Africa explored by Mr. H. M. Stanley, the
discoverer of Livingstone. Copal is found in a fossil state in very
large quantities. The natives collect the gum by searching in the sandy
soil, mostly in the hilly districts, the country being almost barren,
with no large tree except the Adansonia, and occasionally a few thorny
bushes.
The gum is dug out of the earth by the copal gatherers at various
depths, from two or three to ten or more feet, in a manner resembling
gold-digging; and great excitement appears when a good amount is
discovered. The gum is found in various shapes and sizes, resembling a
hen's egg, a flat cake, a child's head, etc. There are three kinds,
yellow, red, and whitish; and the first furnishes the best varnish and
fetches the highest price from the dealers. Many of the natives assert
that the copal still grows on different trees, and that it acquires its
excellent qualities as a resin by dropping off and sinking several feet
into the soil, whereby it is cleansed, and obtains, after a lapse of
many years, its hardness, inflammability, and transparency.
=Dragon's Blood= is the juice of certain tropical plants of a red
colour, especially of the tree _Pterocarpus draco_. After the juice is
extracted, it is reduced to a powder by evaporation. It is used for
darkening mahogany, colouring varnishes or polishes, etc., and for
staining marble. Chemists also use it in preparing tinctures and tooth
powders.
=Shellac=--or, more properly, _gum-lac_--is a resinous substance
obtained from the Bihar-tree, and also from the _Ficus Indica_, or
Banyan-tree. It exudes when the branches are pierced by an insect called
the _Coccus ficus_. The twigs encrusted with the resin in its natural
state is called Stick-lac. When the resin is broken off the twigs,
powdered, and rubbed with water, a good deal of the red colouring matter
is dissolved, and the granular resin left is called seed-lac; and when
melted, strained, and spread into thin plates it is called shellac, and
is prepared in various ways and known by the names of button, garnet,
liver, orange, ruby, thread, etc., and is used for many purposes in the
arts. Shellac forms the principal ingredient for polishes and spirit
varnishes. Red sealing-wax is composed of shellac, Venice turpentine,
and vermilion red; for the black sealing-wax ivory-black is used instead
of the vermilion. Shellac is soluble in alcohol, and in many acids and
alkalies. Lac-dye is the red colour from the stick-lac dissolved by
water and evaporated to dryness. The dye, however, is principally from
the shrivelled-up body of the insect of the Stick-lac.
Shellac is produced in the largest quantity and the best quality in
Bengal, Assam, and Burmah. The chief seat of manufacture is Calcutta,
where the native manufacturers are accused of adulterating it with resin
to a considerable extent. The best customers are Great Britain and the
United States, though the demand in the Italian markets appears to be on
the increase.
=Amber= is a yellow, semi-transparent, fossil resin; hard but brittle,
and easily cut with a knife; tasteless, and without smell, except when
pounded or heated, and then it emits a fragrant odour. It has
considerable lustre; becomes highly electric by friction; and will burn
with a yellow flame. It is found in nodules of various sizes in alluvial
soils, or on the seashore in many places, particularly on the shores of
the Baltic. Amber is much employed for ornamental purposes, and is also
used in the manufacture of amber-varnish. It will not dissolve in
alcohol, but yields to the concentrated action of sulphuric acid, which
will dissolve all resins except caramba wax.
=Pumice-stone.=--This well-known light and spongy volcanic substance is
extensively quarried in the small islands that lie off the coast of
Sicily. Its porosity and smooth-cutting properties render it of great
value to painters and polishers for levelling down first coatings.
Ground pumice-stone is the best for cutting down bodies of polish or
varnish that are more advanced towards completion. The best way to get a
surface to a piece of lump pumice-stone is to rub it down on a flat York
stone, or, better still, an old tile that has been well baked.
Pumice-stone should not be allowed to stand in water; it causes the
grain to contract and to harden, thereby deteriorating its cutting
properties.
=Linseed-oil.=--This valuable oil is obtained by pressure from the seed
of the flax plant (_Linum usitatissimum_). Linseed contains on an
average about 33 per cent. of oil, though the amount varies materially,
the percentage obtained fluctuating considerably, not being alike on any
two successive days. This is partly due to the varying richness of the
seed, and partly to the manner in which it is manipulated in extracting
the oil, it being a very easy matter to lose a considerable percentage
of the oil by a lack of skill in any of the processes, though they all
seem so simple.
The first thing done with the seed from which the oil is to be extracted
is to pass it through a screen, to cleanse it from foreign substances.
The seed is received in bags containing from three to four bushels, and
pockets containing one-sixth of that amount. Having been screened it is
passed through a mill, whose large iron-rollers, three in number, grind
it to a coarse meal. Thence it is carried to what are known as the
"mullers," which are two large stones, about eight feet in diameter and
eighteen inches thick, weighing six tons each, standing on their edges,
and rolling around on a stone bed. About five bushels of the meal are
placed in the mullers, and about eight quarts of hot water are added.
The meal is afterwards carried by machinery to the heaters, iron pans
holding about a bushel each. These are heated to an even temperature by
steam, and are partly filled with the meal, which for seven minutes is
submitted to the heat, being carefully stirred in order that all parts
may become evenly heated. At the end of that time the meal is placed in
bags, which in turn are placed in hydraulic presses, iron plates being
placed between the bags. Pressure is applied for about eight minutes,
until, as is supposed, all the oil is pressed out, leaving a hard cake,
known to the trade as oil-cake, or linseed-cake.
The product of these various processes is known as "raw" oil, a
considerable portion of which is sold without further labour being
expended upon it. There is, however, a demand for "boiled" oil, for
certain purposes where greater drying properties are needed. To supply
this want oil is placed in large kettles, holding from five hundred to
one thousand gallons, where it is heated to a temperature of about 500
degrees, being stirred continually. This process, when large kettles are
used, requires nearly the entire day. While the boiling process is going
on, oxide of manganese is added, which helps to give the boiled oil
better drying properties. A considerable portion of the oil is bleached,
for the use of manufacturers of white paints.
=Venice Turpentine.=--This is obtained from the larch, and is said to be
contained in peculiar sacs in the upper part of the stem, and to be
obtained by puncturing them. It is a ropy liquid, colourless or brownish
green, having a somewhat unpleasant odour and bitter taste.
=Oil of Turpentine= is the most plentiful and useful of oils. It is
obtained in America from a species of pine very plentiful in the
Carolinas, Georgia, and Alabama, known as the long-leaved pine (_pinus
Australis_), and found only where the original forest has not been
removed.
=Methylated Spirits.=--The methylated spirit of commerce usually
consists of the ordinary mixed grain, or "plain" spirit, as produced by
the large distillers in London and elsewhere, with which are blended,
by simply mixing in various proportions, one part vegetable naphtha and
three parts spirits of wine. The mixing takes place in presence of a
revenue officer, and the spirits so "methylated" are allowed to be used
duty free. The revenue authorities consider the admixture of naphtha,
having so pungent and disagreeable a smell, a sufficient security
against its sale and consumption as a beverage. No process has yet been
discovered of getting rid of this odour. It is illegal for druggists to
use it in the preparation of medicinal tinctures, unless they are for
external use.
PRINTED BY WILLIAM CLOWES AND SONS, LIMITED, LONDON AND BECCLES.
CROSBY LOCKWOOD & SON'S
LIST OF WORKS
ON
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A Complete Catalogue of NEW and STANDARD BOOKS relating to CIVIL,
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7, STATIONERS' HALL COURT, LONDON, E.C.,
AND
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1910.
LIST OF WORKS
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=ACETYLENE, LIGHTING BY.= Generators, Burners, and Electric Furnaces. By
WILLIAM E. GIBBS, M.E. With 66 Illustrations. Crown 8vo, cloth =7/6=
=AIR GAS LIGHTING SYSTEMS.= See PETROL GAS.
=ALCOHOL (INDUSTRIAL): ITS MANUFACTURE AND USES.= A Practical Treatise
based on Dr. Max Maercker's "Introduction to Distillation," as revised
by Drs. DELBRUCK and LANGE. By J. K. BRACHVOGEL. 500 pages, 105
engravings _Net_ =16/6=
THE INDUSTRIAL VALUE OF TAX-FREE ALCOHOL AND WHAT IT MEANS TO
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PRODUCTION OF POWER, HEATING AND ILLUMINATION--STATISTICS.
=ALKALI TRADE MANUAL.= Including the Manufacture of Sulphuric Acid,
Sulphate of Soda, and Bleaching Powder. By JOHN LOMAS, Alkali
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=BLOWPIPE IN CHEMISTRY, MINERALOGY, Etc.= Containing all known Methods
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=BRASS FOUNDER'S MANUAL.= Modelling, Pattern Making, Moulding, Turning,
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=BREWERS, HANDY BOOK FOR.= Being a Practical Guide to the Art of Brewing
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=CALCULATOR, NUMBER, WEIGHT AND FRACTIONAL.= Containing upwards of
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=CEMENTS, PASTES, GLUES, AND GUMS.= A Guide to the Manufacture and
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=CHEMISTRY FOR ARMY AND MATRICULATION CANDIDATES.= By GEOFFREY
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PREPARATION AND USE OF APPARATUS--PREPARATION AND PROPERTIES OF
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=CLOCKS, WATCHES, & BELLS for PUBLIC PURPOSES.= By EDMUND BECKETT,
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=COMMERCIAL CORRESPONDENT, FOREIGN.= Being Aids to Commercial
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=CONFECTIONER, MODERN FLOUR.= Containing a large Collection of Recipes
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=CONFECTIONERY, ORNAMENTAL.= A Guide for Bakers, Confectioners and
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=DRYING MACHINERY AND PRACTICE.= A Handbook on the Theory and Practice
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=ELECTRICITY IN FACTORIES AND WORKSHOPS: ITS COST AND CONVENIENCE.=
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=ELECTRO-METALLURGY.= A Practical Treatise. By ALEXANDER WATT.
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=HOROLOGY, MODERN, IN THEORY AND PRACTICE.= Translated from the French
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=LEATHER MANUFACTURE.= A Practical Handbook of Tanning, Currying, and
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Grafting and Budding. C. BALTET 2/6
Bees for Pleasure & Profit. G. G. SAMSON _net_ 1/-
CROSBY LOCKWOOD & SON, 7, Stationers' Hall Court, E.C.
Transcriber's notes:
page
14. add period after "the above processes"
29. varnsh corrected to varnish
31. from corrected
32. closing quote added after Polish
44. polish aud spirits changed to and
93. added parens close after "finish
95. earthern corrected to earthen
97. boiled-linseed oil corrected to boiled linseed-oil
104. period after coarsely
114. campeachiaum corrected to campeachianum
130. published net added right bracket
131. net added right bracket
131. OF METALS added period
134. added right bracket ]
135. Material [added right bracket] Uses of
137. "Refining"--Power Consumption added dashes
138. added ] in 3 places
End of Project Gutenberg's French Polishing and Enamelling, by Richard Bitmead