The Indian Ocean is the third largest of the world's
five oceans (after the Pacific Ocean and Atlantic Ocean, but larger
than the Southern Ocean and Arctic Ocean). Four critically important
access waterways are the Suez Canal (Egypt), Bab el Mandeb
(Djibouti-Yemen), Strait of Hormuz (Iran-Oman), and Strait of
Malacca (Indonesia-Malaysia). The decision by the International
Hydrographic Organization in the spring of 2000 to delimit a fifth
ocean, the Southern Ocean, removed the portion of the Indian Ocean
south of 60 degrees south latitude.
Indonesia
The Dutch began to colonize Indonesia in the early 17th
century; the islands were occupied by Japan from 1942 to 1945.
Indonesia declared its independence after Japan's surrender, but it
required four years of intermittent negotiations, recurring
hostilities, and UN mediation before the Netherlands agreed to
relinquish its colony. Indonesia is the world's largest archipelagic
state and home to the world's largest Muslim population. Current
issues include: alleviating poverty, preventing terrorism,
consolidating democracy after four decades of authoritarianism,
implementing financial sector reforms, stemming corruption, holding
the military and police accountable for human rights violations, and
controlling avian influenza. In 2005, Indonesia reached a historic
peace agreement with armed separatists in Aceh, which led to
democratic elections in December 2006. Indonesia continues to face a
low intensity separatist movement in Papua.
Iran
Known as Persia until 1935, Iran became an Islamic republic in
1979 after the ruling monarchy was overthrown and the shah was
forced into exile. Conservative clerical forces established a
theocratic system of government with ultimate political authority
vested in a learned religious scholar referred to commonly as the
Supreme Leader who, according to the constitution, is accountable
only to the Assembly of Experts. US-Iranian relations have been
strained since a group of Iranian students seized the US Embassy in
Tehran on 4 November 1979 and held it until 20 January 1981. During
1980-88, Iran fought a bloody, indecisive war with Iraq that
eventually expanded into the Persian Gulf and led to clashes between
US Navy and Iranian military forces between 1987 and 1988. Iran has
been designated a state sponsor of terrorism for its activities in
Lebanon and elsewhere in the world and remains subject to US and UN
economic sanctions and export controls because of its continued
involvement in terrorism and conventional weapons proliferation.
Following the election of reformer Hojjat ol-Eslam Mohammad KHATAMI
as president in 1997 and similarly a reformer Majles (parliament) in
2000, a campaign to foster political reform in response to popular
dissatisfaction was initiated. The movement floundered as
conservative politicians, through the control of unelected
institutions, prevented reform measures from being enacted and
increased repressive measures. Starting with nationwide municipal
elections in 2003 and continuing through Majles elections in 2004,
conservatives reestablished control over Iran's elected government
institutions, which culminated with the August 2005 inauguration of
hardliner Mahmud AHMADI-NEJAD as president. In December 2006 and
March 2007, the international community passed resolutions 1737 and
1747 respectively after Iran failed to comply with UN demands to
halt the enrichment of uranium or to agree to full IAEA oversight of
its nuclear program. In October 2007, Iranian entities were also
subject to US sanctions under EO 13382 designations for
proliferation activities and EO 13224 designations for providing
material support to the Taliban and other terrorist organizations.
Iraq
Formerly part of the Ottoman Empire, Iraq was occupied by
Britain during the course of World War I; in 1920, it was declared a
League of Nations mandate under UK administration. In stages over
the next dozen years, Iraq attained its independence as a kingdom in
1932. A "republic" was proclaimed in 1958, but in actuality a series
of military strongmen ruled the country until 2003. The last was
SADDAM Husayn. Territorial disputes with Iran led to an inconclusive
and costly eight-year war (1980-88). In August 1990, Iraq seized
Kuwait but was expelled by US-led, UN coalition forces during the
Gulf War of January-February 1991. Following Kuwait's liberation,
the UN Security Council (UNSC) required Iraq to scrap all weapons of
mass destruction and long-range missiles and to allow UN
verification inspections. Continued Iraqi noncompliance with UNSC
resolutions over a period of 12 years led to the US-led invasion of
Iraq in March 2003 and the ouster of the SADDAM Husayn regime.
Coalition forces remain in Iraq under a UNSC mandate, helping to
provide security and to support the freely elected government. The
Coalition Provisional Authority, which temporarily administered Iraq
after the invasion, transferred full governmental authority on 28
June 2004 to the Iraqi Interim Government, which governed under the
Transitional Administrative Law for Iraq (TAL). Under the TAL,
elections for a 275-member Transitional National Assembly (TNA) were
held in Iraq on 30 January 2005. Following these elections, the
Iraqi Transitional Government (ITG) assumed office. The TNA was
charged with drafting Iraq's permanent constitution, which was
approved in a 15 October 2005 constitutional referendum. An election
under the constitution for a 275-member Council of Representatives
(CoR) was held on 15 December 2005. The CoR approval in the
selection of most of the cabinet ministers on 20 May 2006 marked the
transition from the ITG to Iraq's first constitutional government in
nearly a half-century.
Ireland
Celtic tribes arrived on the island between 600-150 B.C.
Invasions by Norsemen that began in the late 8th century were
finally ended when King Brian BORU defeated the Danes in 1014.
English invasions began in the 12th century and set off more than
seven centuries of Anglo-Irish struggle marked by fierce rebellions
and harsh repressions. A failed 1916 Easter Monday Rebellion touched
off several years of guerrilla warfare that in 1921 resulted in
independence from the UK for 26 southern counties; six northern
(Ulster) counties remained part of the UK. In 1949, Ireland withdrew
from the British Commonwealth; it joined the European Community in
1973. Irish governments have sought the peaceful unification of
Ireland and have cooperated with Britain against terrorist groups. A
peace settlement for Northern Ireland is being implemented with some
difficulties. In 2006, the Irish and British governments developed
and began to implement the St. Andrews Agreement, building on the
Good Friday Agreement approved in 1998.
Isle of Man
Part of the Norwegian Kingdom of the Hebrides until the
13th century when it was ceded to Scotland, the isle came under the
British crown in 1765. Current concerns include reviving the almost
extinct Manx Gaelic language. Isle of Man is a British crown
dependency but is not part of the UK. However, the UK Government
remains constitutionally responsible for its defense and
international representation.
Israel
Following World War II, the British withdrew from their
mandate of Palestine, and the UN partitioned the area into Arab and
Jewish states, an arrangement rejected by the Arabs. Subsequently,
the Israelis defeated the Arabs in a series of wars without ending
the deep tensions between the two sides. The territories Israel
occupied since the 1967 war are not included in the Israel country
profile, unless otherwise noted. On 25 April 1982, Israel withdrew
from the Sinai pursuant to the 1979 Israel-Egypt Peace Treaty. In
keeping with the framework established at the Madrid Conference in
October 1991, bilateral negotiations were conducted between Israel
and Palestinian representatives and Syria to achieve a permanent
settlement. Israel and Palestinian officials signed on 13 September
1993 a Declaration of Principles (also known as the "Oslo Accords")
guiding an interim period of Palestinian self-rule. Outstanding
territorial and other disputes with Jordan were resolved in the 26
October 1994 Israel-Jordan Treaty of Peace. In addition, on 25 May
2000, Israel withdrew unilaterally from southern Lebanon, which it
had occupied since 1982. In April 2003, US President BUSH, working
in conjunction with the EU, UN, and Russia - the "Quartet" - took
the lead in laying out a roadmap to a final settlement of the
conflict by 2005, based on reciprocal steps by the two parties
leading to two states, Israel and a democratic Palestine. However,
progress toward a permanent status agreement was undermined by
Israeli-Palestinian violence between September 2003 and February
2005. An Israeli-Palestinian agreement reached at Sharm al-Sheikh in
February 2005, along with an internally-brokered Palestinian
ceasefire, significantly reduced the violence. In the summer of
2005, Israel unilaterally disengaged from the Gaza Strip, evacuating
settlers and its military while retaining control over most points
of entry into the Gaza Strip. The election of HAMAS in January 2006
to head the Palestinian Legislative Council froze relations between
Israel and the Palestinian Authority (PA). Ehud OLMERT became prime
minister in March 2006; following an Israeli military operation in
Gaza in June-July 2006 and a 34-day conflict with Hizballah in
Lebanon in June-August 2006, he shelved plans to unilaterally
evacuate from most of the West Bank. OLMERT in June 2007 resumed
talks with the PA after HAMAS seized control of the Gaza Strip and
PA President Mahmoud ABBAS formed a new government without HAMAS.
Italy
Italy became a nation-state in 1861 when the regional states
of the peninsula, along with Sardinia and Sicily, were united under
King Victor EMMANUEL II. An era of parliamentary government came to
a close in the early 1920s when Benito MUSSOLINI established a
Fascist dictatorship. His alliance with Nazi Germany led to Italy's
defeat in World War II. A democratic republic replaced the monarchy
in 1946 and economic revival followed. Italy was a charter member of
NATO and the European Economic Community (EEC). It has been at the
forefront of European economic and political unification, joining
the Economic and Monetary Union in 1999. Persistent problems include
illegal immigration, organized crime, corruption, high unemployment,
sluggish economic growth, and the low incomes and technical
standards of southern Italy compared with the prosperous north.
Jamaica
The island - discovered by Christopher COLUMBUS in 1494 -
was settled by the Spanish early in the 16th century. The native
Taino Indians, who had inhabited Jamaica for centuries, were
gradually exterminated and replaced by African slaves. England
seized the island in 1655 and established a plantation economy based
on sugar, cocoa, and coffee. The abolition of slavery in 1834 freed
a quarter million slaves, many of whom became small farmers. Jamaica
gradually obtained increasing independence from Britain, and in 1958
it joined other British Caribbean colonies in forming the Federation
of the West Indies. Jamaica gained full independence when it
withdrew from the Federation in 1962. Deteriorating economic
conditions during the 1970s led to recurrent violence as rival gangs
affiliated with the major political parties evolved into powerful
organized crime networks involved in international drug smuggling
and money laundering. Violent crime, drug trafficking, and poverty
pose significant challenges to the government today. Nonetheless,
many rural and resort areas remain relatively safe and contribute
substantially to the economy.
Jan Mayen
This desolate, arctic, mountainous island was named after
a Dutch whaling captain who indisputably discovered it in 1614
(earlier claims are inconclusive). Visited only occasionally by seal
hunters and trappers over the following centuries, the island came
under Norwegian sovereignty in 1929. The long dormant Haakon VII
Toppen/Beerenberg volcano resumed activity in 1970; the most recent
eruption occurred in 1985. It is the northernmost active volcano on
earth.
Japan
In 1603, a Tokugawa shogunate (military dictatorship) ushered
in a long period of isolation from foreign influence in order to
secure its power. For more than two centuries this policy enabled
Japan to enjoy stability and a flowering of its indigenous culture.
Following the Treaty of Kanagawa with the US in 1854, Japan opened
its ports and began to intensively modernize and industrialize.
During the late 19th and early 20th centuries, Japan became a
regional power that was able to defeat the forces of both China and
Russia. It occupied Korea, Formosa (Taiwan), and southern Sakhalin
Island. In 1931-32 Japan occupied Manchuria, and in 1937 it launched
a full-scale invasion of China. Japan attacked US forces in 1941 -
triggering America's entry into World War II - and soon occupied
much of East and Southeast Asia. After its defeat in World War II,
Japan recovered to become an economic power and a staunch ally of
the US. While the emperor retains his throne as a symbol of national
unity, elected politicians - with heavy input from bureaucrats and
business executives - wield actual decisionmaking power. The economy
experienced a major slowdown starting in the 1990s following three
decades of unprecedented growth, but Japan still remains a major
economic power, both in Asia and globally.
Jersey
Jersey and the other Channel Islands represent the last
remnants of the medieval Dukedom of Normandy that held sway in both
France and England. These islands were the only British soil
occupied by German troops in World War II. Jersey is a British crown
dependency but is not part of the UK. However, the UK Government is
constitutionally responsible for its defense and international
representation.
Jordan
Following World War I and the dissolution of the Ottoman
Empire, the UK received a mandate to govern much of the Middle East.
Britain separated out a semi-autonomous region of Transjordan from
Palestine in the early 1920s, and the area gained its independence
in 1946; it adopted the name of Jordan in 1950. The country's
long-time ruler was King HUSSEIN (1953-99). A pragmatic leader, he
successfully navigated competing pressures from the major powers
(US, USSR, and UK), various Arab states, Israel, and a large
internal Palestinian population, despite several wars and coup
attempts. In 1989 he reinstituted parliamentary elections and
gradual political liberalization; in 1994 he signed a peace treaty
with Israel. King ABDALLAH II, the son of King HUSSEIN, assumed the
throne following his father's death in February 1999. Since then, he
has consolidated his power and undertaken an aggressive economic
reform program. Jordan acceded to the World Trade Organization in
2000, and began to participate in the European Free Trade
Association in 2001. Municipal elections were held in July 2007
under a system in which 20% of seats in all municipal councils were
reserved by quota for women. Parliamentary elections were held in
November 2007 and saw independent pro-government candidates win the
vast majority of seats. In November 2007, King Abdallah instructed
his new prime minister to focus on socioeconomic reform, developing
a healthcare and housing network for civilians and military
personnel, and improving the educational system.
Kazakhstan
Native Kazakhs, a mix of Turkic and Mongol nomadic tribes
who migrated into the region in the 13th century, were rarely united
as a single nation. The area was conquered by Russia in the 18th
century, and Kazakhstan became a Soviet Republic in 1936. During the
1950s and 1960s agricultural "Virgin Lands" program, Soviet citizens
were encouraged to help cultivate Kazakhstan's northern pastures.
This influx of immigrants (mostly Russians, but also some other
deported nationalities) skewed the ethnic mixture and enabled
non-Kazakhs to outnumber natives. Independence in 1991 caused many
of these newcomers to emigrate. Kazakhstan's economy is larger than
those of all the other Central Asian states combined, largely due to
the country's vast natural resources and a recent history of
political stability. Current issues include: developing a cohesive
national identity; expanding the development of the country's vast
energy resources and exporting them to world markets; achieving a
sustainable economic growth; diversifying the economy outside the
oil, gas, and mining sectors; enhancing Kazakhstan's
competitiveness; and strengthening relations with neighboring states
and other foreign powers.
Kenya
Founding president and liberation struggle icon Jomo KENYATTA
led Kenya from independence in 1963 until his death in 1978, when
President Daniel Toroitich arap MOI took power in a constitutional
succession. The country was a de facto one-party state from 1969
until 1982 when the ruling Kenya African National Union (KANU) made
itself the sole legal party in Kenya. MOI acceded to internal and
external pressure for political liberalization in late 1991. The
ethnically fractured opposition failed to dislodge KANU from power
in elections in 1992 and 1997, which were marred by violence and
fraud, but were viewed as having generally reflected the will of the
Kenyan people. President MOI stepped down in December 2002 following
fair and peaceful elections. Mwai KIBAKI, running as the candidate
of the multiethnic, united opposition group, the National Rainbow
Coalition (NARC), defeated KANU candidate Uhuru KENYATTA and assumed
the presidency following a campaign centered on an anticorruption
platform. KIBAKI's NARC coalition splintered in 2005 over the
constitutional review process. Government defectors joined with KANU
to form a new opposition coalition, the Orange Democratic Movement,
which defeated the government's draft constitution in a popular
referendum in November 2005. KIBAKI's reelection in December 2007
brought charges of vote rigging from ODM candidate Raila ODINGA and
unleashed two months of violence in which as many as 1,500 people
died. UN-sponsored talks in late February produced a powersharing
accord bringing ODINGA into the government in the restored position
of prime minister.
Kiribati
The Gilbert Islands became a British protectorate in 1892
and a colony in 1915; they were captured by the Japanese in the
Pacific War in 1941. The islands of Makin and Tarawa were the sites
of major US amphibious victories over entrenched Japanese garrisons
in 1943. The Gilbert Islands were granted self-rule by the UK in
1971 and complete independence in 1979 under the new name of
Kiribati. The US relinquished all claims to the sparsely inhabited
Phoenix and Line Island groups in a 1979 treaty of friendship with
Kiribati.
Korea, North
An independent kingdom for much of its long history,
Korea was occupied by Japan in 1905 following the Russo-Japanese
War. Five years later, Japan formally annexed the entire peninsula.
Following World War II, Korea was split with the northern half
coming under Soviet-sponsored Communist domination. After failing in
the Korean War (1950-53) to conquer the US-backed Republic of Korea
(ROK) in the southern portion by force, North Korea (DPRK), under
its founder President KIM Il Sung, adopted a policy of ostensible
diplomatic and economic "self-reliance" as a check against excessive
Soviet or Communist Chinese influence. The DPRK demonized the US as
the ultimate threat to its social system through state-funded
propaganda, and molded political, economic, and military policies
around the core ideological objective of eventual unification of
Korea under Pyongyang's control. KIM's son, the current ruler KIM
Jong Il, was officially designated as his father's successor in
1980, assuming a growing political and managerial role until the
elder KIM's death in 1994. After decades of economic mismanagement
and resource misallocation, the DPRK since the mid-1990s has relied
heavily on international aid to feed its population while continuing
to expend resources to maintain an army of approximately 1 million.
North Korea's history of regional military provocations,
proliferation of military-related items, and long-range missile
development - as well as its nuclear, chemical, and biological
weapons programs and massive conventional armed forces - are of
major concern to the international community. In December 2002,
following revelations that the DPRK was pursuing a nuclear weapons
program based on enriched uranium in violation of a 1994 agreement
with the US to freeze and ultimately dismantle its existing
plutonium-based program, North Korea expelled monitors from the
International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA). In January 2003, it
declared its withdrawal from the international Non-Proliferation
Treaty. In mid-2003 Pyongyang announced it had completed the
reprocessing of spent nuclear fuel rods (to extract weapons-grade
plutonium) and was developing a "nuclear deterrent." Beginning in
August 2003, North Korea, China, Japan, Russia, South Korea, and the
US have participated in the Six-Party Talks aimed at resolving the
stalemate over the DPRK's nuclear programs. North Korea pulled out
of the talks in November 2005. It test-fired ballistic missiles in
July 2006 and conducted a nuclear test in October 2006. North Korea
returned to the Six-Party Talks in December 2006 and subsequently
signed two agreements on denuclearization. The 13 February 2007
Initial Actions Agreement shut down the North's nuclear facilities
at Yongbyon in July 2007. In the 3 October 2007 Second Phase Actions
Agreement, Pyongyang pledged to disable those facilities and provide
a correct and complete declaration of its nuclear programs. Under
the supervision of US nuclear experts, North Korean personnel
completed a number of agreed-upon disablement actions at the three
core facilities at the Yongbyon nuclear complex by the end of 2007.
North Korea also began the discharge of spent fuel rods in December
2007, but it did not provide a declaration of its nuclear programs
by the end of the year.
Korea, South
An independent Korean state or collection of states has
existed almost continuously for several millennia. Between its
initial unification in the 7th century - from three predecessor
Korean states - until the 20th century, Korea existed as a single
independent country. In 1905, following the Russo-Japanese War,
Korea became a protectorate of imperial Japan, and in 1910 it was
annexed as a colony. Korea regained its independence following
Japan's surrender to the United States in 1945. After World War II,
a Republic of Korea (ROK) was set up in the southern half of the
Korean Peninsula while a Communist-style government was installed in
the north (the DPRK). During the Korean War (1950-53), US troops and
UN forces fought alongside soldiers from the ROK to defend South
Korea from DPRK attacks supported by China and the Soviet Union. An
armistice was signed in 1953, splitting the peninsula along a
demilitarized zone at about the 38th parallel. Thereafter, South
Korea achieved rapid economic growth with per capita income rising
to roughly 14 times the level of North Korea. In 1993, KIM Young-sam
became South Korea's first civilian president following 32 years of
military rule. South Korea today is a fully functioning modern
democracy. In June 2000, a historic first North-South summit took
place between the South's President KIM Dae-jung and the North's
leader KIM Jong Il. In October 2007, a second North-South summit
took place between the South's President ROH Moo-hyun and the North
Korean leader.