Gabon

Only two autocratic presidents have ruled Gabon since

independence from France in 1960. The current president of Gabon, El

Hadj Omar BONGO Ondimba - one of the longest-serving heads of state

in the world - has dominated the country's political scene for four

decades. President BONGO introduced a nominal multiparty system and

a new constitution in the early 1990s. However, allegations of

electoral fraud during local elections in 2002-03 and the

presidential elections in 2005 have exposed the weaknesses of formal

political structures in Gabon. Gabon's political opposition remains

weak, divided, and financially dependent on the current regime.

Despite political conditions, a small population, abundant natural

resources, and considerable foreign support have helped make Gabon

one of the more prosperous and stable African countries.

Gambia, The

The Gambia gained its independence from the UK in 1965.

Geographically surrounded by Senegal, it formed a short-lived

federation of Senegambia between 1982 and 1989. In 1991 the two

nations signed a friendship and cooperation treaty, but tensions

have flared up intermittently since then. Yahya A. J. J. JAMMEH led

a military coup in 1994 that overthrew the president and banned

political activity. A new constitution and presidential elections in

1996, followed by parliamentary balloting in 1997, completed a

nominal return to civilian rule. JAMMEH has been elected president

in all subsequent elections, including most recently in late 2006.

Gaza Strip

The September 1993 Israel-PLO Declaration of Principles

on Interim Self-Government Arrangements provided for a transitional

period of Palestinian self-rule in the West Bank and Gaza Strip.

Under a series of agreements signed between May 1994 and September

1999, Israel transferred to the Palestinian Authority (PA) security

and civilian responsibility for Palestinian-populated areas of the

West Bank and Gaza. Negotiations to determine the permanent status

of the West Bank and Gaza stalled following the outbreak of an

intifada in September 2000, as Israeli forces reoccupied most

Palestinian-controlled areas. In April 2003, the Quartet (US, EU,

UN, and Russia) presented a roadmap to a final settlement of the

conflict by 2005 based on reciprocal steps by the two parties

leading to two states, Israel and a democratic Palestine. The

proposed date for a permanent status agreement was postponed

indefinitely due to violence and accusations that both sides had not

followed through on their commitments. Following Palestinian leader

Yasir ARAFAT's death in late 2004, Mahmud ABBAS was elected PA

president in January 2005. A month later, Israel and the PA agreed

to the Sharm el-Sheikh Commitments in an effort to move the peace

process forward. In September 2005, Israel unilaterally withdrew all

its settlers and soldiers and dismantled its military facilities in

the Gaza Strip and withdrew settlers and redeployed soldiers from

four small northern West Bank settlements. Nonetheless, Israel

controls maritime, airspace, and most access to the Gaza Strip. A

November 2005 PA-Israeli agreement authorized the reopening of the

Rafah border crossing between the Gaza Strip and Egypt under joint

PA and Egyptian control. In January 2006, the Islamic Resistance

Movement, HAMAS, won control of the Palestinian Legislative Council

(PLC). The international community refused to accept the HAMAS-led

government because it did not recognize Israel, would not renounce

violence, and refused to honor previous peace agreements between

Israel and the PA. HAMAS took control of the PA government in March

2006, but President ABBAS had little success negotiating with HAMAS

to present a political platform acceptable to the international

community so as to lift economic sanctions on Palestinians. The PLC

was unable to convene throughout most of 2006 as a result of

Israel's detention of many HAMAS PLC members and Israeli-imposed

travel restrictions on other PLC members. Violent clashes took place

between Fatah and HAMAS supporters in the Gaza Strip in 2006 and

early 2007, resulting in numerous Palestinian deaths and injuries.

ABBAS and HAMAS Political Bureau Chief MISHAL in February 2007

signed the Mecca Agreement in Saudi Arabia that resulted in the

formation of a Palestinian National Unity Government (NUG) headed by

HAMAS member Ismail HANIYA. However, fighting continued in the Gaza

Strip, and in June, HAMAS militants succeeded in a violent takeover

of all military and governmental institutions in the Gaza Strip.

ABBAS dismissed the NUG and through a series of Presidential decrees

formed a PA government in the West Bank led by independent Salam

FAYYAD. HAMAS rejected the NUG's dismissal and has called for

resuming talks with Fatah, but ABBAS has ruled out negotiations

until HAMAS agrees to a return of PA control over the Gaza Strip and

recognizes the FAYYAD-led government. FAYYAD and his PA government

initiated a series of security and economic reforms to improve

conditions in the West Bank. ABBAS participated in talks with

Israel's Prime Minister OLMERT and secured the release of some

Palestinian prisoners and previously withheld customs revenue.

During a November 2007 international meeting in Annapolis Maryland,

ABBAS and OLMERT agreed to resume peace negotiations with the goal

of reaching a final peace settlement by the end of 2008.

Georgia

The region of present-day Georgia contained the ancient

kingdoms of Colchis and Kartli-Iberia. The area came under Roman

influence in the first centuries A.D. and Christianity became the

state religion in the 330s. Domination by Persians, Arabs, and Turks

was followed by a Georgian golden age (11th-13th centuries) that was

cut short by the Mongol invasion of 1236. Subsequently, the Ottoman

and Persian empires competed for influence in the region. Georgia

was absorbed into the Russian Empire in the 19th century.

Independent for three years (1918-1921) following the Russian

revolution, it was forcibly incorporated into the USSR until the

Soviet Union dissolved in 1991. An attempt by the incumbent Georgian

government to manipulate national legislative elections in November

2003 touched off widespread protests that led to the resignation of

Eduard SHEVARDNADZE, president since 1995. New elections in early

2004 swept Mikheil SAAKASHVILI into power along with his National

Movement party. Progress on market reforms and democratization has

been made in the years since independence, but this progress has

been complicated by Russian assistance and support to the breakaway

regions of Abkhazia and South Ossetia. Georgian military action in

South Ossetia in early August 2008 led to a Russian military

response that not only occupied the breakaway areas, but large

portions of Georgia proper as well. Russian troops pulled back from

most occupied Georgian territory, but in late August 2008 Russia

unilaterally recognized the independence of Abkhazia and South

Ossetia. This action was strongly condemned by most of the world's

nations and international organizations.

Germany

As Europe's largest economy and second most populous nation,

Germany is a key member of the continent's economic, political, and

defense organizations. European power struggles immersed Germany in

two devastating World Wars in the first half of the 20th century and

left the country occupied by the victorious Allied powers of the US,

UK, France, and the Soviet Union in 1945. With the advent of the

Cold War, two German states were formed in 1949: the western Federal

Republic of Germany (FRG) and the eastern German Democratic Republic

(GDR). The democratic FRG embedded itself in key Western economic

and security organizations, the EC, which became the EU, and NATO,

while the Communist GDR was on the front line of the Soviet-led

Warsaw Pact. The decline of the USSR and the end of the Cold War

allowed for German unification in 1990. Since then, Germany has

expended considerable funds to bring Eastern productivity and wages

up to Western standards. In January 1999, Germany and 10 other EU

countries introduced a common European exchange currency, the euro.

Ghana

Formed from the merger of the British colony of the Gold Coast

and the Togoland trust territory, Ghana in 1957 became the first

sub-Saharan country in colonial Africa to gain its independence.

Ghana endured a long series of coups before Lt. Jerry RAWLINGS took

power in 1981 and banned political parties. After approving a new

constitution and restoring multiparty politics in 1992, RAWLINGS won

presidential elections in 1992 and 1996, but was constitutionally

prevented from running for a third term in 2000. John KUFUOR

succeeded him and was reelected in 2004. Kufuor is constitutionally

barred from running for a third term in upcoming Presidential

elections, which are scheduled for December 2008.

Gibraltar

Strategically important, Gibraltar was reluctantly ceded

to Great Britain by Spain in the 1713 Treaty of Utrecht; the British

garrison was formally declared a colony in 1830. In a referendum

held in 1967, Gibraltarians voted overwhelmingly to remain a British

dependency. The subsequent granting of autonomy in 1969 by the UK

led to Spain closing the border and severing all communication

links. A series of talks were held by the UK and Spain between 1997

and 2002 on establishing temporary joint sovereignty over Gibraltar.

In response to these talks, the Gibraltar Government called a

referendum in late 2002 in which the majority of citizens voted

overwhelmingly against any sharing of sovereignty with Spain. Since

the referendum, tripartite talks on other issues have been held with

Spain, the UK, and Gibraltar, and in September 2006 a three-way

agreement was signed. Spain agreed to remove restrictions on air

movements, to speed up customs procedures, to implement

international telephone dialing, and to allow mobile roaming

agreements. Britain agreed to pay increased pensions to Spaniards

who had been employed in Gibraltar before the border closed. Spain

will be allowed to open a cultural institute from which the Spanish

flag will fly. A new noncolonial constitution came into effect in

2007, but the UK retains responsibility for defense, foreign

relations, internal security, and financial stability.

Greece

Greece achieved independence from the Ottoman Empire in 1829.

During the second half of the 19th century and the first half of the

20th century, it gradually added neighboring islands and

territories, most with Greek-speaking populations. In World War II,

Greece was first invaded by Italy (1940) and subsequently occupied

by Germany (1941-44); fighting endured in a protracted civil war

between supporters of the king and Communist rebels. Following the

latter's defeat in 1949, Greece joined NATO in 1952. A military

dictatorship, which in 1967 suspended many political liberties and

forced the king to flee the country, lasted seven years. The 1974

democratic elections and a referendum created a parliamentary

republic and abolished the monarchy. In 1981, Greece joined the EC

(now the EU); it became the 12th member of the European Economic and

Monetary Union in 2001.

Greenland

Greenland, the world's largest island, is about 81%

ice-capped. Vikings reached the island in the 10th century from

Iceland; Danish colonization began in the 18th century, and

Greenland was made an integral part of Denmark in 1953. It joined

the European Community (now the EU) with Denmark in 1973, but

withdrew in 1985 over a dispute centered on stringent fishing

quotas. Greenland was granted self-government in 1979 by the Danish

parliament; the law went into effect the following year. Denmark

continues to exercise control of Greenland's foreign affairs in

consultation with Greenland's Home Rule Government.

Grenada

Carib Indians inhabited Grenada when COLUMBUS discovered the

island in 1498, but it remained uncolonized for more than a century.

The French settled Grenada in the 17th century, established sugar

estates, and imported large numbers of African slaves. Britain took

the island in 1762 and vigorously expanded sugar production. In the

19th century, cacao eventually surpassed sugar as the main export

crop; in the 20th century, nutmeg became the leading export. In

1967, Britain gave Grenada autonomy over its internal affairs. Full

independence was attained in 1974, making Grenada one of the

smallest independent countries in the Western Hemisphere. Grenada

was seized by a Marxist military council on 19 October 1983. Six

days later the island was invaded by US forces and those of six

other Caribbean nations, which quickly captured the ringleaders and

their hundreds of Cuban advisers. Free elections were reinstituted

the following year and have continued since that time. Hurricane

Ivan struck Grenada in September of 2004 causing severe damage.

Guam

Guam was ceded to the US by Spain in 1898. Captured by the

Japanese in 1941, it was retaken by the US three years later. The

military installation on the island is one of the most strategically

important US bases in the Pacific.

Guatemala

The Mayan civilization flourished in Guatemala and

surrounding regions during the first millennium A.D. After almost

three centuries as a Spanish colony, Guatemala won its independence

in 1821. During the second half of the 20th century, it experienced

a variety of military and civilian governments, as well as a 36-year

guerrilla war. In 1996, the government signed a peace agreement

formally ending the conflict, which had left more than 100,000

people dead and had created, by some estimates, some 1 million

refugees.

Guernsey

Guernsey and the other Channel Islands represent the last

remnants of the medieval Dukedom of Normandy, which held sway in

both France and England. The islands were the only British soil

occupied by German troops in World War II. Guernsey is a British

crown dependency, but is not part of the UK. However, the UK

Government is constitutionally responsible for its defense and

international representation.

Guinea

Guinea has had only two presidents since gaining its

independence from France in 1958. Lansana CONTE came to power in

1984 when the military seized the government after the death of the

first president, Sekou TOURE. Guinea did not hold democratic

elections until 1993 when Gen. CONTE (head of the military

government) was elected president of the civilian government. He was

reelected in 1998 and again in 2003, though all the polls have been

marred by irregularities. Guinea has maintained its internal

stability despite spillover effects from conflict in Sierra Leone

and Liberia. As those countries have rebuilt, Guinea's own

vulnerability to political and economic crisis has increased.

Declining economic conditions and popular dissatisfaction with

corruption and bad governance prompted two massive strikes in 2006;

a third nationwide strike in early 2007 sparked violent protests in

many Guinean cities and prompted two weeks of martial law. To

appease the unions and end the unrest, CONTE named a new prime

minister in March 2007.

Guinea-Bissau

Since independence from Portugal in 1974,

Guinea-Bissau has experienced considerable political and military

upheaval. In 1980, a military coup established authoritarian

dictator Joao Bernardo 'Nino' VIEIRA as president. Despite setting a

path to a market economy and multiparty system, VIEIRA's regime was

characterized by the suppression of political opposition and the

purging of political rivals. Several coup attempts through the 1980s

and early 1990s failed to unseat him. In 1994 VIEIRA was elected

president in the country's first free elections. A military mutiny

and resulting civil war in 1998 eventually led to VIEIRA's ouster in

May 1999. In February 2000, a transitional government turned over

power to opposition leader Kumba YALA, after he was elected

president in transparent polling. In September 2003, after only

three years in office, YALA was ousted by the military in a

bloodless coup, and businessman Henrique ROSA was sworn in as

interim president. In 2005, former President VIEIRA was re-elected

president pledging to pursue economic development and national

reconciliation.

Guyana

Originally a Dutch colony in the 17th century, by 1815 Guyana

had become a British possession. The abolition of slavery led to

black settlement of urban areas and the importation of indentured

servants from India to work the sugar plantations. This

ethnocultural divide has persisted and has led to turbulent

politics. Guyana achieved independence from the UK in 1966, and

since then it has been ruled mostly by socialist-oriented

governments. In 1992, Cheddi JAGAN was elected president in what is

considered the country's first free and fair election since

independence. After his death five years later, his wife, Janet

JAGAN, became president but resigned in 1999 due to poor health. Her

successor, Bharrat JAGDEO, was reelected in 2001 and again in 2006.

Haiti

The native Taino Amerindians - who inhabited the island of

Hispaniola when it was discovered by COLUMBUS in 1492 - were

virtually annihilated by Spanish settlers within 25 years. In the

early 17th century, the French established a presence on Hispaniola,

and in 1697, Spain ceded to the French the western third of the

island, which later became Haiti. The French colony, based on

forestry and sugar-related industries, became one of the wealthiest

in the Caribbean, but only through the heavy importation of African

slaves and considerable environmental degradation. In the late 18th

century, Haiti's nearly half million slaves revolted under Toussaint

L'OUVERTURE. After a prolonged struggle, Haiti became the first

black republic to declare its independence in 1804. The poorest

country in the Western Hemisphere, Haiti has been plagued by

political violence for most of its history. After an armed rebellion

led to the forced resignation and exile of President Jean-Bertrand

ARISTIDE in February 2004, an interim government took office to

organize new elections under the auspices of the United Nations

Stabilization Mission in Haiti (MINUSTAH). Continued violence and

technical delays prompted repeated postponements, but Haiti finally

did inaugurate a democratically elected president and parliament in

May of 2006.

Heard Island and McDonald Islands

These uninhabited, barren,

sub-Antarctic islands were transferred from the UK to Australia in

1947. Populated by large numbers of seal and bird species, the

islands have been designated a nature preserve.

Holy See (Vatican City)

Popes in their secular role ruled portions

of the Italian peninsula for more than a thousand years until the

mid 19th century, when many of the Papal States were seized by the

newly united Kingdom of Italy. In 1870, the pope's holdings were

further circumscribed when Rome itself was annexed. Disputes between

a series of "prisoner" popes and Italy were resolved in 1929 by

three Lateran Treaties, which established the independent state of

Vatican City and granted Roman Catholicism special status in Italy.

In 1984, a concordat between the Holy See and Italy modified certain

of the earlier treaty provisions, including the primacy of Roman

Catholicism as the Italian state religion. Present concerns of the

Holy See include religious freedom, international development, the

environment, the Middle East, China, the decline of religion in

Europe, terrorism, interreligious dialogue and reconciliation, and

the application of church doctrine in an era of rapid change and

globalization. About one billion people worldwide profess the

Catholic faith.

Honduras

Once part of Spain's vast empire in the New World, Honduras

became an independent nation in 1821. After two and a half decades

of mostly military rule, a freely elected civilian government came

to power in 1982. During the 1980s, Honduras proved a haven for

anti-Sandinista contras fighting the Marxist Nicaraguan Government

and an ally to Salvadoran Government forces fighting leftist

guerrillas. The country was devastated by Hurricane Mitch in 1998,

which killed about 5,600 people and caused approximately $2 billion

in damage.

Hong Kong

Occupied by the UK in 1841, Hong Kong was formally ceded

by China the following year; various adjacent lands were added later

in the 19th century. Pursuant to an agreement signed by China and

the UK on 19 December 1984, Hong Kong became the Hong Kong Special

Administrative Region (SAR) of China on 1 July 1997. In this

agreement, China promised that, under its "one country, two systems"

formula, China's socialist economic system would not be imposed on

Hong Kong and that Hong Kong would enjoy a high degree of autonomy

in all matters except foreign and defense affairs for the next 50

years.

Hungary

Hungary became a Christian kingdom in A.D. 1000 and for many

centuries served as a bulwark against Ottoman Turkish expansion in

Europe. The kingdom eventually became part of the polyglot

Austro-Hungarian Empire, which collapsed during World War I. The

country fell under Communist rule following World War II. In 1956, a

revolt and an announced withdrawal from the Warsaw Pact were met

with a massive military intervention by Moscow. Under the leadership

of Janos KADAR in 1968, Hungary began liberalizing its economy,

introducing so-called "Goulash Communism." Hungary held its first

multiparty elections in 1990 and initiated a free market economy. It

joined NATO in 1999 and the EU in 2004.

Iceland

Settled by Norwegian and Celtic (Scottish and Irish)

immigrants during the late 9th and 10th centuries A.D., Iceland

boasts the world's oldest functioning legislative assembly, the

Althing, established in 930. Independent for over 300 years, Iceland

was subsequently ruled by Norway and Denmark. Fallout from the Askja

volcano of 1875 devastated the Icelandic economy and caused

widespread famine. Over the next quarter century, 20% of the

island's population emigrated, mostly to Canada and the US. Limited

home rule from Denmark was granted in 1874 and complete independence

attained in 1944. Literacy, longevity, income, and social cohesion

are first-rate by world standards.

India

Aryan tribes from the northwest infiltrated onto the Indian

subcontinent about 1500 B.C.; their merger with the earlier

Dravidian inhabitants created the classical Indian culture. The

Maurya Empire of the 4th and 3rd centuries B.C. - which reached its

zenith under ASHOKA - united much of South Asia. The Golden Age

ushered in by the Gupta dynasty (4th to 6th centuries A.D.) saw a

flowering of Indian science, art, and culture. Arab incursions

starting in the 8th century and Turkic in the 12th were followed by

those of European traders, beginning in the late 15th century. By

the 19th century, Britain had assumed political control of virtually

all Indian lands. Indian armed forces in the British army played a

vital role in both World Wars. Nonviolent resistance to British

colonialism led by Mohandas GANDHI and Jawaharlal NEHRU brought

independence in 1947. The subcontinent was divided into the secular

state of India and the smaller Muslim state of Pakistan. A third war

between the two countries in 1971 resulted in East Pakistan becoming

the separate nation of Bangladesh. India's nuclear weapons testing

in 1998 caused Pakistan to conduct its own tests that same year. The

dispute between the countries over the state of Kashmir is ongoing,

but discussions and confidence-building measures have led to

decreased tensions since 2002. Despite impressive gains in economic

investment and output, India faces pressing problems such as

significant overpopulation, environmental degradation, extensive

poverty, and ethnic and religious strife.