[1] Preger is the only writer who has maintained that the three books
in their primitive form date from 1254.
JOACHIM I. (1484-1535), surnamed Nestor, elector of Brandenburg, elder
son of John Cicero, elector of Brandenburg, was born on the 21st of
February 1484. He received an excellent education, became elector of
Brandenburg on his father's death in January 1499, and soon afterwards
married Elizabeth, daughter of John, king of Denmark. He took some part
in the political complications of the Scandinavian kingdoms, but the
early years of his reign were mainly spent in the administration of his
electorate, where by stern and cruel measures he succeeded in restoring
some degree of order (see BRANDENBURG). He also improved the
administration of justice, aided the development of commerce, and was a
friend to the towns. On the approach of the imperial election of 1519,
Joachim's vote was eagerly solicited by the partisans of Francis I.,
king of France, and by those of Charles, afterwards the emperor Charles
V. Having treated with, and received lavish promises from, both parties,
he appears to have hoped for the dignity for himself; but when the
election came he turned to the winning side and voted for Charles. In
spite of this step, however, the relations between the emperor and the
elector were not friendly, and during the next few years Joachim was
frequently in communication with the enemies of Charles. Joachim is best
known as a pugnacious adherent of Catholic orthodoxy. He was one of the
princes who urged upon the emperor the necessity of enforcing the Edict
of Worms, and at several diets was prominent among the enemies of the
Reformers. He was among those who met at Dessau in July 1525, and was a
member of the league established at Halle in November 1533. But his wife
adopted the reformed faith, and in 1528 fled for safety to Saxony; and
he had the mortification of seeing these doctrines also favoured by
other members of his family. Joachim, who was a patron of learning,
established the university of Frankfort-on-the-Oder in 1506. He died at
Stendal on the 11th of July 1535.
See T. von Buttlar, _Der Kampf Joachims I. von Brandenburg gegen den
Adel_ (1889); J. G. Droysen, _Geschichte der Preussischen Politik
(1855-1886)._
JOACHIM II. (1505-1571), surnamed Hector, elector of Brandenburg, the
elder son of Joachim I., elector of Brandenburg, was born on the 13th of
January 1505. Having passed some time at the court of the emperor
Maximilian I., he married in 1524 a daughter of George, duke of Saxony.
In 1532 he led a contingent of the imperial army on a campaign against
the Turks; and soon afterwards, having lost his first wife, married
Hedwig, daughter of Sigismund I., king of Poland. He became elector of
Brandenburg on his father's death in July 1535, and undertook the
government of the old and middle marks, while the new mark passed to his
brother John. Joachim took a prominent part in imperial politics as an
advocate of peace, though with a due regard for the interests of the
house of Habsburg. He attempted to make peace between the Protestants
and the emperor Charles V. at Frankfort in 1539, and subsequently at
other places; but in 1542 he led the German forces on an unsuccessful
campaign against the Turks. When the war broke out between Charles and
the league of Schmalkalden in 1546 the elector at first remained
neutral; but he afterwards sent some troops to serve under the emperor.
With Maurice, elector of Saxony, he persuaded Philip, landgrave of
Hesse, to surrender to Charles after the imperial victory at Mühlberg in
April 1547, and pledged his word that the landgrave would be pardoned.
But, although he felt aggrieved when the emperor declined to be bound by
this promise, he refused to join Maurice in his attack on Charles. He
supported the _Interim_, which was issued from Augsburg in May 1548, and
took part in the negotiations that resulted in the treaty of Passau
(1552), and the religious peace of Augsburg (1555). In domestic politics
he sought to consolidate and strengthen the power of his house by
treaties with neighbouring princes, and succeeded in secularizing the
bishoprics of Brandenburg, Havelberg and Lebus. Although brought up as a
strict adherent of the older religion, he showed signs of wavering soon
after his accession, and in 1539 allowed free entrance to the reformed
teaching in the electorate. He took the communion himself in both kinds,
and established a new ecclesiastical organization in Brandenburg, but
retained much of the ceremonial of the Church of Rome. His position was
not unlike that of Henry VIII. in England, and may be partly explained
by a desire to replenish his impoverished exchequer with the wealth of
the Church (see BRANDENBURG). After the peace of Augsburg the elector
mainly confined his attention to Brandenburg, where he showed a keener
desire to further the principles of the Reformation. By his luxurious
habits and his lavish expenditure on public buildings he piled up a
great accumulation of debt, which was partly discharged by the estates
of the land in return for important concessions. He cast covetous eyes
upon the archbishopric of Magdeburg and the bishopric of Halberstadt,
both of which he secured for his son Frederick in 1551. When Frederick
died in the following year, the elector's son Sigismund obtained the two
sees; and on Sigismund's death in 1566 Magdeburg was secured by his
nephew, Joachim Frederick, afterwards elector of Brandenburg. Joachim,
who was a prince of generous and cultured tastes, died at Köpenick on
the 3rd of January 1571, and was succeeded by his son, John George. In
1880 a statue was erected to his memory at Spandau.
See Steinmüller, _Einführung der Reformation in die Kurmark
Brandenburg durch Joachim II._ (1903); S. Isaacsohn, "Die Finanzen
Joachims II." in the _Zeitschrift für Preussische Geschichte und
Landeskunde_ (1864-1883); J. G. Droysen, _Geschichte der Preussischen
Politik_ (1855-1886).
JOACHIM, JOSEPH (1831-1907), German violinist and composer, was born at
Kittsee, near Pressburg, on the 28th of June 1831, the son of Jewish
parents. His family moved to Budapest when he was two years old, and he
studied there under Serwaczynski, who brought him out at a concert when
he was only eight years old. Afterwards he learnt from the elder
Hellmesberger and Joseph Böhm in Vienna, the latter instructing him in
the management of the bow. In 1843 he went to Leipzig to enter the newly
founded conservatorium. Mendelssohn, after testing his musical powers,
pronounced that the regular training of a music school was not needed,
but recommended that he should receive a thorough general education in
music from Ferdinand David and Moritz Hauptmann. In 1844 he visited
England, and made his first appearance at Drury Lane Theatre, where his
playing of Ernst's fantasia on _Otello_ made a great sensation; he also
played Beethoven's concerto at a Philharmonic concert conducted by
Mendelssohn. In 1847-1849 and 1852 he revisited England, and after the
foundation of the popular concerts in 1859, up to 1899, he played there
regularly in the latter part of the season. On Liszt's invitation he
accepted the post of _Konzertmeister_ at Weimar, and was there from 1850
to 1853. This brought Joachim into close contact with the advanced
school of German musicians, headed by Liszt; and he was strongly tempted
to give his allegiance to what was beginning to be called the "music of
the future"; but his artistic convictions forced him to separate himself
from the movement, and the tact and good taste he displayed in the
difficult moment of explaining his position to Liszt afford one of the
finest illustrations of his character.
His acceptance of a similar post at Hanover brought him into a different
atmosphere, and his playing at the Düsseldorf festival of 1853 procured
him the intimate friendship of Robert Schumann. His introduction of the
young Brahms to Schumann is a famous incident of this time. Schumann and
Brahms collaborated with Albert Dietrich in a joint sonata for violin
and piano, as a welcome on his arrival in Düsseldorf. At Hanover he was
_königlicher Konzertdirektor_ from 1853 to 1868, when he made Berlin his
home. He married in 1863 the mezzo soprano singer, Amalie Weiss, who
died in 1899. In 1869 Joachim was appointed head of the newly founded
_königliche Hochschule für Musik_ in Berlin. The famous "Joachim
quartet" was started in the _Sing-Akademie_ in the following year. Of
his later life, continually occupied with public performances, there is
little to say except that he remained, even in a period which saw the
rise of numerous violinists of the finest technique, the acknowledged
master of all. He died on the 15th of August 1907.
Besides the consummate manual skill which helped to make him famous in
his youth, Joachim was gifted with the power of interpreting the
greatest music in absolute perfection: while Bach, Mozart, Beethoven and
Brahms were masters, whose works he played with a degree of insight that
has never been approached, he was no less supreme in the music of
Mendelssohn and Schumann; in short, the whole of the classical repertory
has become identified with his playing. No survey of Joachim's artistic
career would be complete which omitted mention of his absolute freedom
from tricks or mannerism, his dignified bearing, and his unselfish
character. His devotion to the highest ideals, combined with a certain
austerity and massivity of style, brought against him an accusation of
coldness from admirers of a more effusive temperament. But the answer to
this is given by the depth and variety of expression which his mastery
of the resources of his instrument put at his command. His biographer
(1898), Andreas Moser, expressed his essential characteristic in the
words, "He plays the violin, not for its own sake, but in the service of
an ideal."
As a composer Joachim did but little in his later years, and the works
of his earlier life never attained the public success which, in the
opinion of many, they deserve (see MUSIC). They undoubtedly have a
certain austerity of character which does not appeal to every hearer,
but they are full of beauty of a grave and dignified kind; and in such
things as his "Hungarian concerto" for his own instrument the utmost
degree of difficulty is combined with great charm of melodic treatment.
The "romance" in B flat for violin and the variations for violin and
orchestra are among his finest things, and the noble overture in memory
of Kleist, as well as the scena for mezzo soprano from Schiller's
_Demetrius_, show a wonderful degree of skill in orchestration as well
as originality of thought. Joachim's place in musical history as a
composer can only be properly appreciated in the light of his intimate
relations with Brahms, with whom he studiously refrained from putting
himself into independent rivalry, and to whose work as a composer he
gave the co-operation of one who might himself have ranked as a master.
There are admirable portraits of Joachim by G. F. Watts (1866) and by
J. S. Sargent (1904), the latter presented to him on the 16th of May
1904, at the celebration of the sixtieth anniversary of his first
appearance in England.
JOAN, a mythical female pope, who is usually placed between Leo IV.
(847-855) and Benedict III. (855-858). One account has it that she was
born in England, another in Germany of English parents. After an
education at Cologne, she fell in love with a Benedictine monk and fled
with him to Athens disguised as a man. On his death she went to Rome
under the alias of Joannes Anglicus (John of England), and entered the
priesthood, eventually receiving a cardinal's hat. She was elected pope
under the title of John VIII., and died in childbirth during a papal
procession.
A French Dominican, Steven of Bourbon (d. c. 1261) gives the legend in
his _Seven Gifts of the Holy Spirit_. He is believed to have derived
it from an earlier writer. More than a hundred authors between the
13th and 17th centuries gave circulation to the myth. Its explosion
was first seriously undertaken by David Blondel, a French Calvinist,
in his _Éclaircissement de la question si une femme a été assise au
siège papal de Rome_ (1647); and _De Joanna Papissa_ (1657). The
refutation was completed by Johann Dollinger in his _Papstfabeln des
Mittelalters_ (1863; Eng. trans. 1872).
JOAN OF ARC, more properly JEANNETON DARC, afterwards known in France as
JEANNE D'ARC[1] (1411-1431), the "Maid of Orleans," was born between
1410 and 1412, the daughter of Jacques Darc, peasant proprietor, of
Domremy, a small village in the Vosges, partly in Champagne and partly
in Lorraine, and of his wife Isabeau, of the village of Vouthon, who
from having made a pilgrimage to Rome had received the usual surname of
Romée. Although her parents were in easy circumstances, Joan never
learned to read or write, and received her sole religious instruction
from her mother, who taught her to recite the Pater Noster, Ave Maria,
and Credo. She sometimes guarded her father's flocks, but at her trial
in 1431 she strongly resented being referred to as a shepherd girl. In
all household work she was specially proficient, her skill in the use of
the needle not being excelled (she said) by that of any matron even of
Rouen. In her childhood she was noted for her abounding physical energy;
but her vivacity, so far from being tainted by any coarse or unfeminine
trait, was the direct outcome of an abnormally sensitive nervous
temperament. Towards her parents her conduct was uniformly exemplary,
and the charm of her unselfish kindness made her a favourite in the
village. As she grew to womanhood she became inclined to silence, and
spent much of her time in solitude and prayer. She repelled all attempts
of the young men of her acquaintance to win her favour; and while active
in the performance of her duties, and apparently finding her life quite
congenial, inwardly she was engrossed with thoughts reaching far beyond
the circle of her daily concerns.
At this time, through the alliance and support of Philip of Burgundy,
the English had extended their conquest over the whole of France north
of the Loire in addition to their possession of Guienne; and while the
infant Henry VI. of England had in 1422 been proclaimed king of France
at his father's grave at St Denis, Charles the dauphin (still uncrowned)
was forced to watch the slow dismemberment of his kingdom. Isabella, the
dauphin's mother, had favoured Henry V. of England, the husband of her
daughter Catherine; and under Charles VI. a visionary named Marie
d'Avignon declared that France was being ruined by a woman and would be
restored by an armed virgin from the marches of Lorraine. To what extent
this idea worked in Joan's mind is doubtful. In Geoffrey of Monmouth's
tract, _De prophetiis Merlini_, there is a reference to an ancient
prophecy of the enchanter Merlin concerning a virgin _ex nemore canuto_,
and it appears that this _nemus canutum_ had been identified in
folk-lore with the oak wood of Domremy. Joan's knowledge of the prophecy
does not, however, appear till 1429; and already before that, from 1424,
according to her account at her trial, she had become imbued with a
sense of having a mission to free France from the English. She heard the
voices of St Michael, St Catherine and St Margaret urging her on. In May
1428 she tried to obtain from Robert de Baudricourt, governor of
Vaucouleurs, an introduction to the dauphin, saying that God would send
him aid, but she was rebuffed. When, however, in September the English
(under the earl of Salisbury) invested Orleans, the key to the south of
France, she renewed her efforts with Baudricourt, her mission being to
relieve Orleans and crown the dauphin at Reims. By persistent
importunity, the effect of which was increased by the simplicity of her
demeanour and her calm assurance of success, she at last prevailed on
the governor to grant her request; and in February 1429, accompanied by
six men-at-arms, she set out on her perilous journey to the court of the
dauphin at Chinon. At first Charles refused to see her, but popular
feeling in her favour induced his advisers to persuade him after three
days to grant her an interview. She is said to have persuaded him of the
divine character of her commission by discovering him though disguised
in the crowd of his courtiers, and by reassuring him regarding his
secret doubts as to his legitimacy. And Charles was impressed by her
knowledge of a secret prayer, which (he told Dunois) could only be known
to God and himself. Accordingly, after a commission of doctors had
reported that they had found in her nothing of evil or contrary to the
Catholic faith, and a council of matrons had reported on her chastity,
she was permitted to set forth with an army of 4000 or 5000 men designed
for the relief of Orleans. At the head of the army she rode clothed in a
coat of mail, armed with an ancient sword, said to be that with which
Charles Martel had vanquished the Saracens, the hiding-place of which,
under the altar of the parish church of the village of Ste Catherine de
Fierbois, the "voices" had revealed to her; she carried a white standard
of her own design embroidered with lilies, and having on the one side
the image of God seated on the clouds and holding the world in His hand,
and on the other a representation of the Annunciation. Joan succeeded in
entering Orleans on the 29th of April 1429, and through the vigorous and
unremitting sallies of the French the English gradually became so
discouraged that on the 8th of May they raised the siege. It is admitted
that her extraordinary pluck and sense of leadership were responsible
for this result. In a single week (June 12 to 19), by the capture of
Jargeau and Beaugency, followed by the great victory of Patay, where
Talbot was taken prisoner, the English were driven beyond the Loire.
With some difficulty the dauphin was then persuaded to set out towards
Reims, which he entered with an army of 12,000 men on the 16th of July,
Troyes having yielded on the way. On the following day, holding the
sacred banner, Joan stood beside Charles at his coronation in the
cathedral.
The king then entered into negotiations with a view to detaching
Burgundy from the English cause. Joan, at his importunity, remained with
the army, but the king played her false when she attempted the capture
of Paris; and after a failure on the 8th of September, when Joan was
wounded,[2] his troops were disbanded. Joan went into Normandy to assist
the duke of Alençon, but in December returned to the court, and on the
29th she and her family were ennobled with the surname of du Lis.
Unconsoled by such honours, she rode away from the court in March, to
assist in the defence of Compiègne against the duke of Burgundy; and on
the 24th of May she led an unsuccessful sortie against the besiegers,
when she was surrounded and taken prisoner. Charles, partly perhaps on
account of his natural indolence, partly on account of the intrigues at
the court, made no effort to effect her ransom, and never showed any
sign of interest in her fate. By means of negotiations instigated and
prosecuted with great perseverance by the university of Paris and the
Inquisition, and through the persistent scheming of Pierre Cauchon, the
bishop of Beauvais--a Burgundian partisan, who, chased from his own see,
hoped to obtain the archbishopric of Rouen--she was sold in November by
John of Luxemburg and Burgundy to the English, who on the 3rd of January
1431, at the instance of the university of Paris, delivered her over to
the Inquisition for trial. After a public examination, begun on the 9th
of January and lasting six days, and another conducted in the prison,
she was, on the 20th of March, publicly accused as a heretic and witch,
and, being in the end found guilty, she made her submission at the
scaffold on the 24th of May, and received pardon. She was still,
however, the prisoner of the English, and, having been induced by those
who had her in charge to resume her male clothes, she was on this
account judged to have relapsed, was sentenced to death, and burned at
the stake on the streets of Rouen on the 30th of May 1431. In 1436 an
impostor appeared, professing to be Joan of Arc escaped from the flames,
who succeeded in inducing many people to believe in her statement, but
afterwards confessed her imposture. The sentence passed on Joan of Arc
was revoked by the pope on the 7th of July 1456, and since then it has
been the custom of Catholic writers to uphold the reality of her divine
inspiration.
During the latter part of the 19th century a popular cult of the Maid of
Orleans sprang up in France, being greatly stimulated by the clerical
party, which desired to advertise, in the person of this national
heroine, the intimate union between patriotism and the Catholic faith,
and for this purpose ardently desired her enrolment among the Saints. On
the 27th of January 1894 solemn approval was given by Pope Leo XIII.,
and in February 1903 a formal proposal was entered for her canonization.
The Feast of the Epiphany (Jan. 6), 1904 was made the occasion for a
public declaration by Pope Pius X. that she was entitled to the
designation Venerable. On the 13th of December 1908 the decree of
beatification was published in the Consistory Hall of the Vatican.
As an historical figure, it is impossible to dogmatize concerning the
personality of Joan of Arc. The modern clerical view has to some extent
provoked what appears, in Anatole France's learned account, ably
presented as it is, to be a retaliation, in regarding her as a clerical
tool in her own day. But her character was in any case exceptional. She
undoubtedly nerved the French at a critical time, and inspired an army
of laggards and pillagers with a fanatical enthusiasm, comparable with
that of Cromwell's Puritans. Moreover, as regards her genuine military
qualities we have the testimony of Dunois and d'Alençon; and Captain
Marin, in his _Jeanne d'Arc, tacticien et stratégiste_ (1891), takes a
high view of her achievements. The nobility of her purpose and the
genuineness of her belief in her mission, combined with her purity of
character and simple patriotism, stand clear. As to her "supranormal"
faculties, a matter concerning which belief largely depends on the point
of view, it is to be remarked that Quicherat, a freethinker wholly
devoid of clerical influences, admits them (_Aperçus nouveaux_, 1850),
saying that the evidence is as good as for any facts in her history. See
also A. Lang on "the voices" in _Proc. Soc. Psychical Research_, vol.
xi.
AUTHORITIES.--For bibliography see _Le Livre d'or de Jeanne d'Arc_
(1894), and A. Molinier, _Sources de l'histoire de France_ (1904).
Until the 19th century the history of Joan of Arc was almost entirely
neglected; Voltaire's scurrilous satire _La Pucelle_, while indicative
of the attitude of his time, may be compared with the very fair
praises in the _Encyclopédie_. The first attempt at a study of the
sources was that of L'Averdy in 1790, published in the third volume of
_Mémoires_ of the Academy of Inscriptions, which served as the base
for all lives until J. Quicherat's great work, _Le Procès de Jeanne
d'Arc_ (1841-1849), a collection of the texts so full and so vivid
that they reveal the character and life of the heroine with great
distinctness. Michelet's sketch of her work in his _Histoire de
France_, one of the best sections of the history, is hardly more vivid
than these sources, upon which all the later biographies (notably that
of H. A. Wallon, 1860) are based. See also A. Marty, _L'Histoire de
Jeanne d'Arc d'après des documents originaux_, with introduction by M.
Sepet (1907); P. H. Dunand, _Jeanne d'Arc et l'église_ (1908); and
especially Andrew Lang, _The Maid of France_ (1908). The _Vie de
Jeanne d'Arc_, by Anatole France (2 vols., 1908), is brilliant and
erudite, but in some respects open to charges of inaccuracy and
prejudice in its handling of the sources (see the criticism by Andrew
Lang in _The Times_, Lit. Suppl., May 28, 1908). The attempt to
establish the reality of the "revelations" and consequently to obtain
the canonization of Joan of Arc led the Catholic party in France to
publish lives (such as Sepet's, 1869) in support of their claims.
Excellent works worth special mention are: Siméon Luce, _Jeanne d'Arc
à Domremy_; L. Jarry, _L'Armée anglaise au siège d'Orleans_ (1892);
J. J. Bourassé, _Miracles de Madame Sainte Kathérine de Fierbois_
(1858, trans. by A. Lang); Boucher de Molandon and A. de Beaucorps,
_L'Armée anglaise vaincue par Jeanne d'Arc_ (1892); R. P. Agroles,
S.J., _La Vraie Jeanne d'Arc_. For the "false Pucelle" see A. Lang's
article in his _Valet's Tragedy_ (1903). Of the numerous dramas and
poems of which Joan of Arc has been the subject, mention can only be
made of _Die Jungfrau von Orleans_ of Schiller, and of the _Joan of
Arc_ of Southey. A drama in verse by Jules Barbier was set to music by
C. Gounod (1873). (J. T. S.*; H. Ch.)