[1] According to another tradition Naboth lived at Samaria (xxi. 1
[LXX.], 18 seq.; cf. xxii. 38). A similar confusion regarding the
king's home appears in 2 Kings x. 11 compared with vv. 1, 17.
JEZREEL (Heb. "God sows"), the capital of the Israelite monarchy under
Ahab, and the scene of stirring Biblical events (1 Sam. xxix. 1; 1 Kings
xxi.; 2 Kings ix. 21-37). The name was also applied to the great plain
(Esdraelon) dominated by the city ("valley of Jezreel," Josh. xvii. 16,
&c.). The site has never been lost, and the present village _Zercin_
retains the name radically unchanged. In Greek (e.g. Judith) the name
appears under the form [Greek: Esdraêla]; it is _Stradela_ in the
_Bordeaux Pilgrim_, and to the Crusaders the place was known as _Parvum
Gerinum_. The modern stone village stands on a bare rocky knoll, 500 ft.
above the broad northern valley, at the north extremity of a long ledge,
terminating in steep cliffs, forming part of the chain of Mt Gilboa. The
buildings are modern, but some scanty remains of rock-hewn wine presses
and a few scattered sarcophagi mark the antiquity of the site. The view
over the plains is fine and extensive. It is vain now to look for Ahab's
palace or Naboth's vineyard. The fountain mentioned in 1 Sam. xxix. 1 is
perhaps the fine spring _'Ain el Meiyyita_, north of the village, a
shallow pool of good water full of small fish, rising between black
basalt boulders: or more probably the copious _'Ain Jalud_.
A second city named Jezreel lay in the hill country of Judah, somewhere
near Hebron (Josh. xv. 56). This was the native place of David's wife
Abinoam (1 Sam. xxv. 43).
See, for an excellent description of the scenery and history of the
Israelite Jezreel, G. A. Smith, _Hist. Geog._ xix.
JHABUA, a native state of Central India, in the Bhopawar agency. Area,
with the dependency of Rutanmal, 1336 sq. m. Pop. (1901), 80,889. More
than half the inhabitants belong to the aboriginal Bhils. Estimated
revenue, £7000; tribute, £1000. Manganese and opium are exported. The
chief, whose title is raja, is a Rajput of the Rathor clan, descended
from a branch of the Jodhpur family. Raja Udai Singh was invested in
1898 with the powers of administration.
The town of JHABUA (pop. 3354) stands on the bank of a lake, and is
surrounded by a mud wall. A dispensary and a guesthouse were constructed
to commemorate Queen Victoria's Diamond Jubilee in 1897.
JHALAWAR, a native state of India, in the Rajputana agency, pop. (1901),
90,175; estimated revenue, £26,000; tribute, £2000. Area, 810 sq. m. The
ruling family of Jhalawar belongs to the Jhala clan of Rajputs, and
their ancestors were petty chiefs of Halwad in the district of Jhalawar,
in Kathiawar. About 1709 one of the younger sons of the head of the clan
left his country with his son to try his fortunes at Delhi. At Kotah he
left his son Madhu Singh, who soon became a favourite with the maharaja,
and received from him an important post, which became hereditary. On the
death of one of the Kotah rajas (1771), the country was left to the
charge of Zalim Singh, a descendant of Madhu Singh. From that time Zalim
Singh was the real ruler of Kotah. He brought it to a wonderful state of
prosperity, and under his administration, which lasted over forty-five
years, the Kotah territory was respected by all parties. In 1838 it was
resolved, with the consent of the chief of Kotah, to dismember the
state, and to create the new principality of Jhalawar as a separate
provision for the descendants of Zalim Singh. The districts then severed
from Kotah were considered to represent one-third (£120,000) of the
income of Kotah; by treaty they acknowledged the supremacy of the
British, and agreed to pay an annual tribute of £8000. Madan Singh
received the title of maharaja rana, and was placed on the same footing
as the other chiefs in Rajputana. He died in 1845. An adopted son of his
successor took the name of Zalim Singh in 1875 on becoming chief of
Jhalawar. He was a minor and was not invested with governing powers till
1884. Owing to his maladministration, his relations with the British
government became strained, and he was finally deposed in 1896, "on
account of persistent misgovernment and proved unfitness for the powers
of a ruling chief." He went to live at Benares, on a pension of £2000;
and the administration was placed in the hands of the British resident.
After much consideration, the government resolved in 1897 to break up
the state, restoring the greater part to Kotah, but forming the two
districts of Shahabad and the Chaumahla into a new state, which came
into existence in 1899, and of which Kunwar Bhawani Singh, a descendant
of the original Zalim Singh, was appointed chief.
The chief town is PATAN, or JHALRAPATAN (pop. 7955), founded close to an
old site by Zalim Singh in 1796, by the side of an artificial lake. It
is the centre of trade, the chief exports of the state being opium,
oil-seeds and cotton. The palace is at the cantonment or chhaoni, 4 m.
north. The ancient site near the town was occupied by the city of
Chandrawati, said to have been destroyed in the time of Aurangzeb. The
finest feature of its remains is the temple of Sitaleswar Mahadeva (c.
600).
JHANG, a town and district of British India, in the Multan division of
the Punjab. The town, which forms one municipality with the newer and
now more important quarter of Maghiana, is about 3 m. from the right
bank of the river Chenab. Founded by Mal Khan, a Sial chieftain, in
1462, it long formed the capital of a Mahommedan state. Pop. (1901),
24,382. Maghiana has manufactures of leather, soap and metal ware.
The DISTRICT OF JHANG extends along both sides of the Chenab, including
its confluences with the Jhelum and the Ravi. Area, 3726 sq. m. Pop.
(1901), 378,695, showing an apparent decrease of 13% in the decade, due
to the creation of the district of Lyallpur in 1904. But actually the
population increased by 132% on the old area, owing to the opening of
the Chenab canal and the colonization of the tract irrigated by it.
Within Jhang many thousands of acres of government waste have been
allotted to colonists, who are reported to be flourishing. A branch of
the North-Western railway enters the district in this quarter, extending
throughout its entire length. The Southern Jech Doab railway serves the
south. The principal industries are the ginning, pressing and weaving of
cotton.
Jhang contains the ruins of Shorkot, identified with one of the towns
taken by Alexander. In modern times the history of Jhang centres in the
famous clan of Sials, who exercised an extensive sway over a large tract
between Shahpur and Multan, with little dependence on the imperial court
at Delhi, until they finally fell before the all-absorbing power of
Ranjit Singh. The Sials of Jhang are Mahommedans of Rajput descent,
whose ancestor, Rai Shankar of Daranagar, emigrated early in the 13th
century from the Gangetic Doab. In the beginning of the 19th century
Maharaja Ranjit Singh invaded Jhang, and captured the Sial chieftain's
territory. The latter recovered a small portion afterwards, which he was
allowed to retain on payment of a yearly tribute. In 1847, after the
establishment of the British agency at Lahore, the district came under
the charge of the British government; and in 1848 Ismail Khan, the Sial
leader, rendered important services against the rebel chiefs, for which
he received a pension. During the Mutiny of 1857 the Sial leader again
proved his loyalty by serving in person on the British side. His pension
was afterwards increased, and he obtained the title of khan bahadur,
with a small _jagir_ for life.
JHANSI, a city and district of British India, in the Allahabad division
o£ the United Provinces. The city is the centre of the Indian Midland
railway system, whence four lines diverge to Agra, Cawnpore, Allahabad
and Bhopal. Pop. (1901), 55,724. A stone fort crowns a neighbouring
rock. Formerly the capital of a Mahratta principality, which lapsed to
the British in 1853, it was during the Mutiny the scene of disaffection
and massacre. It was then made over to Gwalior, but has been taken back
in exchange for other territory. Even when the city was within Gwalior,
the civil headquarters and the cantonment were at Jhansi Naoabad, under
its walls. Jhansi is the principal centre for the agricultural trade of
the district, but its manufactures are small.
The DISTRICT OF JHANSI was enlarged in 1891 by the incorporation of the
former district of Lalitpur, which extends farther into the hill
country, almost entirely surrounded by native states. Combined area,
3628 sq.m. Pop. (1901), 616,759 showing a decrease of 10% in the decade,
due to the results of famine. The main line and branches of the Indian
Midland railway serve the district, which forms a portion of the hill
country of Bundelkhand, sloping down from the outliers of the Vindhyan
range on the south to the tributaries of the Jumna on the north. The
extreme south is composed of parallel rows of long and narrow-ridged
hills. Through the intervening valleys the rivers flow down impetuously
over ledges of granite or quartz. North of the hilly region, the rocky
granite chains gradually lose themselves in clusters of smaller hills.
The northern portion consists of the level plain of Bundelkhand,
distinguished for its deep black soil, known as _mar_, and admirably
adapted for the cultivation of cotton. The district is intersected or
bounded by three principal rivers--the Pahuj, Betwa and Dhasan. The
district is much cut up, and portions of it are insulated by the
surrounding native states. The principal crops are millets, cotton,
oil-seeds, pulses, wheat, gram and barley. The destructive _kans_ grass
has proved as great a pest here as elsewhere in Bundelkhand. Jhansi is
especially exposed to blights, droughts, floods, hailstorms, epidemics,
and their natural consequence--famine.
Nothing is known with certainty as to the history of this district
before the period of Chandel rule, about the 11th century of our era. To
this epoch must be referred the artificial reservoirs and architectural
remains of the hilly region. The Chandels were succeeded by their
servants the Khangars, who built the fort of Karar, lying just outside
the British border. About the 14th century the Bundelas poured down upon
the plains, and gradually spread themselves over the whole region which
now bears their name. The Mahommedan governors were constantly making
irruptions into the Bundela country; and in 1732 Chhatar Sal, the
Bundela chieftain, called in the aid of the Mahrattas. They came to his
assistance with their accustomed promptitude, and were rewarded on the
raja's death in 1734, by the bequest of one-third of his dominions.
Their general founded the city of Jhansi, and peopled it with
inhabitants from Orchha state. In 1806 British protection was promised
to the Mahratta chief, and in 1817 the peshwa ceded to the East India
Company all his rights over Bundelkhand. In 1853 the raja died
childless, and his territories lapsed to the British. The Jhansi state
and the Jalaun and Chanderi districts were then formed into a
superintendency. The widow of the raja considered herself aggrieved
because she was not allowed to adopt an heir, and because the slaughter
of cattle was permitted in the Jhansi territory. Reports were spread
which excited the religious prejudices of the Hindus. The events of 1857
accordingly found Jhansi ripe for mutiny. In June a few men of the 12th
native infantry seized the fort containing the treasure and magazine,
and massacred the European officers of the garrison. Everywhere the
usual anarchic quarrels rose among the rebels, and the country was
plundered mercilessly. The rani put herself at the head of the rebels,
and died bravely in battle. It was not till November 1858, after a
series of sharp contests with various guerilla leaders, that the work of
reorganization was fairly set on foot.
JHELUM, or JEHLAM (_Hydaspes_ of the Greeks), a river of northern India.
It is the most westerly of the "five rivers" of the Punjab. It rises in
the north-east of the Kashmir state, flows through the city of Srinagar
and the Wular lake, issues through the Pir Panjal range by the narrow
pass of Baramula, and enters British territory in the Jhelum district.
Thence it flows through the plains of the Punjab, forming the boundary
between the Jech Doab and the Sind Sagar Doab, and finally joins the
Chenab at Timmu after a course of 450 miles. The Jhelum colony, in the
Shahpur district of the Punjab, formed on the example of the Chenab
colony in 1901, is designed to contain a total irrigable area of
1,130,000 acres. The Jhelum canal is a smaller work than the Chenab
canal, but its silt is noted for its fertilizing qualities. Both
projects have brought great prosperity to the cultivators.
JHELUM, or JEHLAM, a town and district of British India, in the
Rawalpindi division of the Punjab. The town is situated on the right
bank of the river Jhelum, here crossed by a bridge of the North-Western
railway, 103 m. N. of Lahore. Pop. (1901), 14,951. It is a modern town
with river and railway trade (principally in timber from Kashmir),
boat-building and cantonments for a cavalry and four infantry regiments.
The DISTRICT OF JEHLUM stretches from the river Jhelum almost to the
Indus. Area, 2813 sq. m. Pop. (1901), 501,424, showing a decrease of 2%
in the decade. Salt is quarried at the Mayo mine in the Salt Range.
There are two coal-mines, the only ones worked in the province, from
which the North-Western railway obtains part of its supply of coal. The
chief centre of the salt trade is Pind Dadan Khan (pop. 13,770). The
district is crossed by the main line of the North-Western railway, and
also traversed along the south by a branch line. The river Jhelum is
navigable throughout the district, which forms the south-eastern portion
of a rugged Himalayan spur, extending between the Indus and Jhelum to
the borders of the Sind Sagar Doab. Its scenery is very picturesque,
although not of so wild a character as the mountain region of Rawalpindi
to the north, and is lighted up in places by smiling patches of
cultivated valley. The backbone of the district is formed by the Salt
Range, a treble line of parallel hills running in three long forks from
east to west throughout its whole breadth. The range rises in bold
precipices, broken by gorges, clothed with brushwood and traversed by
streams which are at first pure, but soon become impregnated with the
saline matter over which they pass. Between the line of hills lies a
picturesque table-land, in which the beautiful little lake of Kallar
Kahar nestles amongst the minor ridges. North of the Salt Range, the
country extends upwards in an elevated plateau, diversified by countless
ravines and fissures, until it loses itself in tangled masses of
Rawalpindi mountains. In this rugged tract cultivation is rare and
difficult, the soil being choked with saline matter. At the foot of the
Salt Range, however, a small strip of level soil lies along the banks of
the Jhelum, and is thickly dotted with prosperous villages. The drainage
of the district is determined by a low central watershed running north
and south at right angles to the Salt Range. The waters of the western
portion find their way into the Sohan, and finally into the Indus; those
of the opposite slope collect themselves into small torrents, and empty
themselves into the Jhelum.
The history of the district dates back to the semi-mythical period of
the _Mahabharata_. Hindu tradition represents the Salt Range as the
refuge of the five Pandava brethren during the period of their exile,
and every salient point in its scenery is connected with some legend of
the national heroes. Modern research has fixed the site of the conflict
between Alexander and Porus as within Jhelum district, although the
exact point at which Alexander effected the passage of the Jhelum (or
Hydaspes) is disputed. After this event, we have little information with
regard to the condition of the district until the Mahommedan conquest
brought back literature and history to Upper India. The Janjuahs and
Jats, who now hold the Salt Range and its northern plateau respectively,
appear to have been the earliest inhabitants. The Ghakkars seem to
represent an early wave of conquest from the east, and they still
inhabit the whole eastern slope of the district; while the Awans, who
now cluster in the western plain, are apparently later invaders from the
opposite quarter. The Ghakkars were the dominant race at the period of
the first Mahommedan incursions, and long continued to retain their
independence. During the flourishing period of the Mogul dynasty, the
Ghakkar chieftains were prosperous and loyal vassals of the house of
Baber; but after the collapse of the Delhi Empire Jhelum fell, like its
neighbours, under the sway of the Sikhs. In 1765 Gujar Singh defeated
the last independent Ghakkar prince, and reduced the wild mountaineers
to subjection. His son succeeded to his dominions, until 1810, when he
fell before the irresistible power of Ranjit Singh. In 1849 the district
passed, with the rest of the Sikh territories, into the hands of the
British.
JHERING, RUDOLF VON (1818-1892), German jurist, was born on the 22nd of
August 1818 at Aurich in East Friesland, where his father practised as a
lawyer. Young Jhering entered the university of Heidelberg in 1836 and,
after the fashion of German students, visited successively Göttingen and
Berlin. G. F. Puchta, the author of _Geschichte des Rechts bei dem
römischen Volke_, alone of all his teachers appears to have gained his
admiration and influenced the bent of his mind. After graduating _doctor
juris_, Jhering established himself in 1844 at Berlin as _privatdocent_
for Roman law, and delivered public lectures on the _Geist des römischen
Rechts_, the theme which may be said to have constituted his life's
work. In 1845 he became an ordinary professor at Basel, in 1846 at
Rostock, in 1849 at Kiel, and in 1851 at Giessen. Upon all these seats
of learning he left his mark; beyond any other of his contemporaries he
animated the dry bones of Roman law. The German juristic world was still
under the dominating influence of the Savigny cult, and the older school
looked askance at the daring of the young professor, who essayed to
adapt the old to new exigencies and to build up a system of natural
jurisprudence. This is the keynote of his famous work, _Geist des
römischen Rechts auf den verschiedenen Stufen seiner Entwickelung_
(1852-1865), which for originality of conception and lucidity of
scientific reasoning placed its author in the forefront of modern Roman
jurists. It is no exaggeration to say that in the second half of the
19th century the reputation of Jhering was as high as that of Savigny in
the first. Their methods were almost diametrically opposed. Savigny and
his school represented the conservative, historical tendency. In Jhering
the philosophical conception of jurisprudence, as a science to be
utilized for the further advancement of the moral and social interests
of mankind, was predominant. In 1868 Jhering accepted the chair of Roman
Law at Vienna, where his lecture-room was crowded, not only with regular
students but with men of all professions and even of the highest ranks
in the official world. He became one of the lions of society, the
Austrian emperor conferring upon him in 1872 a title of hereditary
nobility. But to a mind constituted like his, the social functions of
the Austrian metropolis became wearisome, and he gladly exchanged its
brilliant circles for the repose of Göttingen, where he became professor
in 1872. In this year he had read at Vienna before an admiring audience
a lecture, published under the title of _Der Kampf um's Recht_ (1872;
Eng. trans., _Battle for Right_, 1884). Its success was extraordinary.
Within two years it attained twelve editions, and it has been translated
into twenty-six languages. This was followed a few years later by _Der
Zweck im Recht_ (2 vols., 1877-1883). In these two works is clearly seen
Jhering's individuality. The _Kampf um's Recht_ shows the firmness of
his character, the strength of his sense of justice, and his juristic
method and logic: "to assert his rights is the duty that every
responsible person owes to himself." In the _Zweck im Recht_ is
perceived the bent of the author's intellect. But perhaps the happiest
combination of all his distinctive characteristics is to be found in his
_Jurisprudenz des täglichen Lebens_ (1870; Eng. trans., 1904). A great
feature of his lectures was his so-called _Praktika_, problems in Roman
law, and a collection of these with hints for solution was published as
early as 1847 under the title _Civilrechtsfälle ohne Entscheidungen_. In
Göttingen he continued to work until his death on the 17th of September
1892. A short time previously he had been the centre of a devoted crowd
of friends and former pupils, assembled at Wilhelmshöhe near Cassel to
celebrate the jubilee of his doctorate. Almost all countries were
worthily represented, and this pilgrimage affords an excellent
illustration of the extraordinary fascination and enduring influence
that Jhering commanded. In appearance he was of middle stature, his face
clean-shaven and of classical mould, lit up with vivacity and beaming
with good nature. He was perhaps seen at his best when dispensing
hospitality in his own house. With him died the best beloved and the
most talented of Roman-law professors of modern times. It was said of
him by Professor Adolf Merkel in a memorial address, _R. v. Jhering_
(1893), that he belonged to the happy class of persons to whom Goethe's
lines are applicable: "Was ich in der Jugend gewünscht, das habe ich im
Alter die Fülle," and this may justly be said of him, though he did not
live to complete his _Geist des römischen Rechts_ and his
_Rechtsgeschichte_. For this work the span of a single life would have
been insufficient, but what he has left to the world is a monument of
vigorous intellectual power and stamps Jhering as an original thinker
and unrivalled exponent (in his peculiar interpretation) of the spirit
of Roman law.
Among others of his works, all of them characteristic of the author
and sparkling with wit, may be mentioned the following: _Beiträge zur
Lehre von Besitz_, first published in the _Jahrbücher für die Dogmatik
des heutigen römischen und deutschen Privat-rechts_, and then
separately; _Der Besitzwille_, and an article entitled "Besitz" in the
_Handwörterbuch der Staatswissenschaften_ (1891), which aroused at the
time much controversy, particularly on account of the opposition
manifested to Savigny's conception of the subject. See also _Scherz
und Ernst in der Jurisprudenz_ (1885); _Das Schuldmoment im römischen
Privat-recht_ (1867); _Das Trinkgeld_ (1882); and among the papers he
left behind him his _Vorgeschichte der Indoeuropäer_, a fragment, has
been published by v. Ehrenberg (1894). See for an account of his life
also M. de Jonge, _Rudolf v. Jhering_ (1888); and A. Merkel, _Rudolf
von Jhering_ (1893). (P. A. A.)
JIBITOS, a tribe of South American Indians, first met with by the
Franciscans in 1676 in the forest near the Huallaga river, in the
Peruvian province of Loreto. After their conversion they settled in
villages on the western bank of the river.
JIBUTI (DJIBOUTI), the chief port and capital of French Somaliland, in
11° 35´ N., 43° 10´ E. Jibuti is situated at the entrance to and on the
southern shore of the Gulf of Tajura about 150 m. S.W. of Aden. The town
is built on a horseshoe-shaped peninsula partly consisting of mud flats,
which are spanned by causeways. The chief buildings are the governor's
palace, customs-house, post office, and the terminal station of the
railway to Abyssinia. The houses in the European quarter are built of
stone, are flat-roofed and provided with verandas. There is a good water
supply, drawn from a reservoir about 2½ m. distant. The harbour is
land-locked and capacious. Ocean steamers are able to enter it at all
states of wind and tide. Adjoining the mainland is the native town,
consisting mostly of roughly made wooden houses with well thatched
roofs. In it is held a large market, chiefly for the disposal of live
stock, camels, cattle, &c. The port is a regular calling-place and also
a coaling station for the steamers of the Messageries Maritimes, and
there is a local service to Aden. Trade is confined to coaling passing
ships and to importing goods for and exporting goods from southern
Abyssinia via Harrar, there being no local industries. (For statistics
see SOMALILAND, FRENCH.) The inhabitants are of many races--Somali,
Danakil, Gallas, Armenians, Jews, Arabs, Indians, besides Greeks,
Italians, French and other Europeans. The population, which in 1900 when
the railway was building was about 15,000, had fallen in 1907 to some
5000 or 6000, including 300 Europeans.
Jibuti was founded by the French in 1888 in consequence of its
superiority to Obok both in respect to harbour accommodation and in
nearness to Harrar. It has been the seat of the governor of the colony
since May 1896. Order is maintained by a purely native police force. The
port is not fortified.
JICARILLA, a tribe of North American Indians of Athapascan stock. Their
former range was in New Mexico, about the headwaters of the Rio Grande
and the Pecos, and they are now settled in a reservation on the northern
border of New Mexico. Originally a scourge of the district, they are now
subdued, but remain uncivilized. They number some 800 and are steadily
decreasing. The name is said to be from the Spanish _jicara_, a basket
tray, in reference to their excellent basket-work.
JIDDA (also written JEDDAH, DJIDDAH, DJEDDEH), a town in Arabia on the
Red Sea coast in 21° 28´ N. and 39° 10´ E. It is of importance mainly as
the principal landing place of pilgrims to Mecca, from which it is about
46 m. distant. It is situated in a low sandy plain backed by a range of
hills 10 m. to the east, with higher mountains behind. The town extends
along the beach for about a mile, and is enclosed by a wall with towers
at intervals, the seaward angles being commanded by two forts, in the
northern of which are the prison and other public buildings. There are
three gates, the Medina gate on the north, the Mecca gate on the east,
and the Yemen gate (rarely opened) on the south; there are also three
small posterns on the west side, the centre one leading to the quay. In
front of the Mecca gate is a rambling suburb with shops, coffee houses,
and an open market place; before the Medina gate are the Turkish
barracks, and beyond them the holy place of Jidda, the tomb of "our
mother Eve," surrounded by the principal cemetery.
The tomb is a walled enclosure said to represent the dimensions of the
body, about 200 paces long and 15 ft. broad. At the head is a small
erection where gifts are deposited, and rather more than half-way down
a whitewashed dome encloses a small dark chapel within which is the
black stone known as _El Surrah_, the navel. The grave of Eve is
mentioned by Edrisi, but except the black stone nothing bears any
aspect of antiquity (see Burton's _Pilgrimage_, vol. ii.).
The sea face is the best part of the town; the houses there are lofty
and well built of the rough coral that crops out all along the shore.
The streets are narrow and winding. There are two mosques of
considerable size and a number of smaller ones. The outer suburbs are
merely collections of brushwood huts. The bazaars are well supplied with
food-stuffs imported by sea, and fruit and vegetables from Taif and Wadi
Fatima. The water supply is limited and brackish; there are, however,
two sweet wells and a spring 7½ m. from the town, and most of the houses
have cisterns for storing rain-water. The climate is hot and damp, but
fever is not so prevalent as at Mecca. The harbour though inconvenient
of access is well protected by coral reefs; there are, however, no
wharves or other dock facilities and cargo is landed in small Arab
boats, _sambuks_.
The governor is a Turkish kaimakam under the vali of Hejaz, and there is
a large Turkish garrison; the sharif of Mecca, however, through his
agent at Jidda exercises an authority practically superior to that of
the sultan's officials. Consulates are maintained by Great Britain,
France, Austria, Russia, Holland, Belgium and Persia. The permanent
population is estimated at 20,000, of which less than half are Arabs,
and of these a large number are foreigners from Yemen and Hadramut, the
remainder are negroes and Somali with a few Indian and Greek traders.
Jidda is said to have been founded by Persian merchants in the caliphate
of Othman, but its great commercial prosperity dates from the beginning
of the 15th century when it became the centre of trade between Egypt and
India. Down to the time of Burckhardt (1815) the Suez ships went no
farther than Jidda, where they were met by Indian vessels. The
introduction of steamers deprived Jidda of its place as an emporium, not
only for Indian goods but for the products of the Red Sea, which
formerly were collected here, but are now largely exported direct by
steamer from Hodeda, Suakin, Jibuti and Aden. At the same time it gave a
great impulse to the pilgrim traffic which is now regarded as the annual
harvest of Jidda. The average number of pilgrims arriving by sea exceeds
50,000, and in 1903-1904 the total came to 74,600. The changed status of
the port is shown in its trade returns, for while its exports decreased
from £250,000 in 1880 to £25,000 in 1904, its imports in the latter year
amounted to over £1,400,000. The adverse balance of trade is paid by a
very large export of specie, collected from the pilgrims during their
stay in the country.
JIG, a brisk lively dance, the quick and irregular steps of which have
varied at different times and in the various countries in which it has
been danced (see DANCE). The music of the "jig," or such as is written
in its rhythm, is in various times and has been used frequently to
finish a suite, e.g. by Bach and Handel. The word has usually been
derived from or connected with Fr. _gigue_, Ital. _giga_, Ger. _Geige_,
a fiddle. The French and Italian words are now chiefly used of the dance
or dance rhythm, and in this sense have been taken by etymologists as
adapted from the English "jig," which may have been originally an
onomatopoeic word. The idea of jumping, jerking movement has given rise
to many applications of "jig" and its derivative "jigger" to mechanical
and other devices, such as the machine used for separating the heavier
metal-bearing portions from the lighter parts in ore-dressing, or a
tackle consisting of a double and single block and fall, &c. The word
"jigger," a corruption of the West Indian _chigoe_, is also used as the
name of a species of flea, the _Sarcopsylla penetrans_, which burrows
and lays its eggs in the human foot, generally under the toe nails, and
causes great swelling and irritation (see FLEA).
JIHAD (also written JEHAD, JAHAD, DJEHAD), an Arabic word of which the
literal meaning is an effort or a contest. It is used to designate the
religious duty inculcated in the Koran on the followers of Mahomet to
wage war upon those who do not accept the doctrines of Islam. This duty
is laid down in five suras--all of these suras belonging to the period
after Mahomet had established his power. Conquered peoples who will
neither embrace Islam nor pay a poll-tax (_jizya_) are to be put to the
sword. (See further MOHAMMEDAN INSTITUTIONS.) By Mahommedan commentators
the commands in the Koran are not interpreted as a general injunction on
all Moslems constantly to make war on the infidels. It is generally
supposed that the order for a general war can only be given by the
caliph (an office now claimed by the sultans of Turkey). Mahommedans who
do not acknowledge the spiritual authority of the Ottoman sultan, such
as the Persians and Moors, look to their own rulers for the proclamation
of a jihad; there has been in fact no universal warfare by Moslems on
unbelievers since the early days of Mahommedanism. Jihads are generally
proclaimed by all persons who claim to be mahdis, e.g. Mahommed Ahmad
(the Sudanese mahdi) proclaimed a jihad in 1882. In the belief of
Moslems every one of their number slain in a jihad is taken straight to
paradise.
JIMENES (or XIMENES) DE CISNEROS, FRANCISCO (1436-1517), Spanish
cardinal and statesman, was born in 1436 at Torrelaguna in Castile, of
good but poor family. He studied at Alcalá de Henares and afterwards at
Salamanca; and in 1459, having entered holy orders, he went to Rome.
Returning to Spain in 1465, he brought with him an "expective" letter
from the pope, in virtue of which he took possession of the
archpriestship of Uzeda in the diocese of Toledo in 1473. Carillo,
archbishop of Toledo, opposed him, and on his obstinate refusal to give
way threw him into prison. For six years Jimenes held out, and at length
in 1480 Carillo restored him to his benefice. This Jimenes exchanged
almost at once for a chaplaincy at Siguenza, under Cardinal Mendoza,
bishop of Siguenza, who shortly appointed him vicar-general of his
diocese. In that position Jimenes won golden opinions from ecclesiastic
and layman; and he seemed to be on the sure road to distinction among
the secular clergy, when he abruptly resolved to become a monk. Throwing
up all his benefices, and changing his baptismal name Gonzales for that
of Francisco, he entered the Franciscan monastery of San Juan de los
Reyes, recently founded by Ferdinand and Isabella at Toledo. Not content
with the ordinary severities of the noviciate, he added voluntary
austerities. He slept on the bare ground, wore a hair-shirt, doubled his
fasts, and scourged himself with much fervour; indeed throughout his
whole life, even when at the acme of his greatness, his private life was
most rigorously ascetic. The report of his sanctity brought crowds to
confess to him; but from them he retired to the lonely monastery of Our
Lady of Castañar; and he even built with his own hands a rude hut in the
neighbouring woods, in which he lived at times as an anchorite. He was
afterwards guardian of a monastery at Salzeda. Meanwhile Mendoza (now
archbishop of Toledo) had not forgotten him; and in 1492 he recommended
him to Isabella as her confessor. The queen sent for Jimenes, was
pleased with him, and to his great reluctance forced the office upon
him. The post was politically important, for Isabella submitted to the
judgment of her father-confessor not only her private affairs but also
matters of state. Jimenes's severe sanctity soon won him considerable
influence over Isabella; and thus it was that he first emerged into
political life. In 1494 the queen's confessor was appointed provincial
of the order of St Francis, and at once set about reducing the laxity of
the conventual to the strictness of the observantine Franciscans.
Intense opposition was continued even after Jimenes became archbishop of
Toledo. The general of the order himself came from Rome to interfere
with the archbishop's measures of reform, but the stern inflexibility of
Jimenes, backed by the influence of the queen, subdued every obstacle.
Cardinal Mendoza had died in 1495, and Isabella had secretly procured a
papal bull nominating her confessor to his diocese of Toledo, the
richest and most powerful in Spain, second perhaps to no other dignity
of the Roman Church save the papacy. Long and sincerely Jimenes strove
to evade the honour; but his _nolo episcopari_ was after six months
overcome by a second bull ordering him to accept consecration. With the
primacy of Spain was associated the lofty dignity of high chancellor of
Castile; but Jimenes still maintained his lowly life; and, although a
message from Rome required him to live in a style befitting his rank,
the outward pomp only concealed his private asceticism. In 1499 Jimenes
accompanied the court to Granada, and there eagerly joined the mild and
pious Archbishop Talavera in his efforts to convert the Moors. Talavera
had begun with gentle measures, but Jimenes preferred to proceed by
haranguing the _fakihs_, or doctors of religion, and loading them with
gifts. Outwardly the latter method was successful; in two months the
converts were so numerous that they had to be baptized by aspersion. The
indignation of the unconverted Moors swelled into open revolt. Jimenes
was besieged in his house, and the utmost difficulty was found in
quieting the city. Baptism or exile was offered to the Moors as a
punishment for rebellion. The majority accepted baptism; and Isabella,
who had been momentarily annoyed at her archbishop's imprudence, was
satisfied that he had done good service to Christianity.
On the 24th of November 1504 Isabella died. Ferdinand at once resigned
the title of king of Castile in favour of his daughter Joan and her
husband the archduke Philip, assuming instead that of regent. Philip
was keenly jealous of Ferdinand's pretensions to the regency; and it
required all the tact of Jimenes to bring about a friendly interview
between the princes. Ferdinand finally retired from Castile; and, though
Jimenes remained, his political weight was less than before. The sudden
death of Philip in September 1506 quite overset the already tottering
intellect of his wife; his son and heir Charles was still a child; and
Ferdinand was at Naples. The nobles of Castile, mutually jealous, agreed
to entrust affairs to the archbishop of Toledo, who, moved more by
patriotic regard for his country's welfare than by special friendship
for Ferdinand, strove to establish the final influence of that king in
Castile. Ferdinand did not return till August 1507; and he brought a
cardinal's hat for Jimenes. Shortly afterwards the new cardinal of Spain
was appointed grand inquisitor-general for Castile and Leon.
The next great event in the cardinal's life was the expedition against
the Moorish city of Oran in the north of Africa, in which his religious
zeal was supported by the prospect of the political and material gain
that would accrue to Spain from the possession of such a station. A
preliminary expedition, equipped, like that which followed, at the
expense of Jimenes, captured the port of Mers-el-Kebir in 1505; and in
1509 a strong force, accompanied by the cardinal in person, set sail for
Africa, and in one day the wealthy city was taken by storm. Though the
army remained to make fresh conquests, Jimenes returned to Spain, and
occupied himself with the administration of his diocese, and in
endeavouring to recover from the regent the expenses of his Oran
expedition. On the 28th of January 1516 Ferdinand died, leaving Jimenes
as regent of Castile for Charles (afterwards Charles V.), then a youth
of sixteen in the Netherlands. Though Jimenes at once took firm hold of
the reins of government, and ruled in a determined and even autocratic
manner, the haughty and turbulent Castilian nobility and the jealous
intriguing Flemish councillors of Charles combined to render his
position peculiarly difficult; while the evils consequent upon the
unlimited demands of Charles for money threw much undeserved odium upon
the regent. In violation of the laws, Jimenes acceded to Charles's
desire to be proclaimed king; he secured the person of Charles's younger
brother Ferdinand; he fixed the seat of the cortes at Madrid; and he
established a standing army by drilling the citizens of the great towns.
Immediately on Ferdinand's death, Adrian, dean of Louvain, afterwards
pope, produced a commission from Charles appointing him regent. Jimenes
admitted him to a nominal equality, but took care that neither he nor
the subsequent commissioners of Charles ever had any real share of
power. In September 1517 Charles landed in the province of Asturias, and
Jimenes hastened to meet him. On the way, however, he fell ill, not
without a suspicion of poison. While thus feeble, he received a letter
from Charles coldly thanking him for his services, and giving him leave
to retire to his diocese. A few hours after this virtual dismissal,
which some, however, say the cardinal never saw, Francisco Jimenes died
at Roa, on the 8th of November 1517.
Jimenes was a bold and determined statesman. Sternly and inflexibly,
with a confidence that became at times overbearing, he carried through
what he had decided to be right, with as little regard for the
convenience of others as for his own. In the midst of a corrupt clergy
his morals were irreproachable. He was liberal to all, and founded and
maintained very many benevolent institutions in his diocese. His whole
time was devoted either to the state or to religion; his only recreation
was in theological or scholastic discussion. Perhaps one of the most
noteworthy points about the cardinal is the advanced period of life at
which he entered upon the stage where he was to play such leading parts.
Whether his abrupt change from the secular to the regular clergy was the
fervid outcome of religious enthusiasm or the far-seeing move of a wily
schemer has been disputed; but the constant austerity of his life, his
unvarying superiority to small personal aims, are arguments for the
former alternative that are not to be met by merely pointing to the
actual honours and power he at last attained.
In 1500 was founded, and in 1508 was opened, the university of Alcalá
de Henares, which, fostered by Cardinal Jimenes, at whose sole expense
it was raised, attained a great pitch of outward magnificence and
internal worth. At one time 7000 students met within its walls. In
1836 the university was removed to Madrid, and the costly buildings
were left vacant. In the hopes of supplanting the romances generally
found in the hands of the young, Jimenes caused to be published
religious treatises by himself and others. He revived also the
Mozarabic liturgy, and endowed a chapel at Toledo, in which it was to
be used. But his most famous literary service was the printing at
Alcalá (in Latin _Complutum_) of the Complutensian Polyglott, the
first edition of the Christian Scriptures in the original text. In
this work, on which he is said to have expended half a million of
ducats, the cardinal was aided by the celebrated Stunica (D. Lopez de
Zuñiga), the Greek scholar Nuñez de Guzman (Pincianus), the Hebraist
Vergara, and the humanist Nebrija, by a Cretan Greek Demetrius Ducas,
and by three Jewish converts, of whom Zamora edited the Targum to the
Pentateuch. The other Targums are not included. In the Old Testament
Jerome's version stands between the Greek and Hebrew. The synagogue
and the Eastern church, as the preface expresses it, are set like the
thieves on this side and on that, with Jesus (that is, the Roman
Church) in the midst. The text occupies five volumes, and a sixth
contains a Hebrew lexicon, &c. The work commenced in 1502. The New
Testament was finished in January 1514, and the whole in April 1517.
It was dedicated to Leo X., and was reprinted in 1572 by the Antwerp
firm of Plantin, after revision by Benito Arias Montano at the expense
of Philip II. The second edition is known as the _Biblia Regia_ or
_Filipina_.
The work by Alvaro Gomez de Castro, _De Rebus Gestis Francisci
Ximenii_ (folio, 1659, Alcalá), is the quarry whence have come the
materials for biographies of Jimenes--in Spanish by Robles (1604) and
Quintanilla (1633); in French by Baudier (1635), Marsollier (1684),
Flèchier (1694) and Richard (1704); in German by Hefele (1844,
translated into English by Canon Dalton, 1860) and Havemann (1848);
and in English by Barrett (1813). See also Prescott's _Ferdinand and
Isabella_; _Revue des Deux Mondes_ (May 1841) and _Mém. de l'Acad.
d'hist. de Madrid_, vol. iv.
JIND, a native state of India, within the Punjab. It ranks as one of the
Cis-Sutlej states, which came under British influence in 1809. The
territory consists of three isolated tracts, amid British districts.
Total area, 1332 sq. m. Pop. (1901), 282,003, showing a decrease of 1%
in the decade. Estimated gross revenue £109,000; there is no tribute.
Grain and cotton are exported, and there are manufactures of gold and
silver ornaments, leather and wooden wares and cloth. The chief, whose
title is raja, is a Sikh of the Sidhu Jat clan and of the Phulkian
family. The principality was founded in 1763, and the chief was
recognized by the Mogul emperor in 1768. The dynasty has always been
famous for its loyalty to the British, especially during the Mutiny,
which has been rewarded with accessions of territory. In 1857 the raja
of Jind was actually the first man, European or native, who took the
field against the mutineers; and his contingent collected supplies in
advance for the British troops marching upon Delhi, besides rendering
excellent service during the siege. Raja Ranbir Singh succeeded as a
minor in 1887, and was granted full powers in 1899. During the Tirah
expedition of 1897-98 the Jind imperial service infantry specially
distinguished themselves. The town of Jind, the former capital, has a
station on the Southern Punjab railway, 80 m. N.W. of Delhi. Pop.
(1901), 8047. The present capital and residence of the raja since 1827
is Sangrur; pop. (1901), 11,852.
JINGO, a legendary empress of Japan, wife of Chuai, the 14th mikado
(191-200). On her husband's death she assumed the government, and fitted
out an army for the invasion of Korea (see JAPAN, § 9). She returned to
Japan completely victorious after three years' absence. Subsequently her
son Ojen Tenno, afterwards 15th mikado, was born, and later was
canonized as Hachiman, god of war. The empress Jingo ruled over Japan
till 270. She is still worshipped.
As regards the English oath, usually "By Jingo," or "By the living
Jingo," the derivation is doubtful. The identification with the name of
Gingulph or Gengulphus, a Burgundian saint who was martyred on the 11th
of May 760, was a joke on the part of R. H. Barham, author of the
_Ingoldsby Legends_. Some explain the word as a corruption of Jainko,
the Basque name for God. It has also been derived from the Persia _jang_
(war), St Jingo being the equivalent of the Latin god of war, Mars; and
is even explained as a corruption of "Jesus, Son of God," Je-n-go. In
support of the Basque derivation it is alleged that the oath was first
common in Wales, to aid in the conquest of which Edward I. imported a
number of Basque mercenaries. The phrase does not, however, appear in
literature before the 17th century, first as conjurer's jargon. Motteux,
in his "Rabelais," is the first to use "by jingo," translating _par
dieu_. The political use of the word as indicating an aggressive
patriotism (Jingoes and Jingoism) originated in 1877 during the weeks of
national excitement preluding the despatch of the British Mediterranean
squadron to Gallipoli, thus frustrating Russian designs on
Constantinople. While the public were on the tiptoe of expectation as to
what policy the government would pursue, a bellicose music-hall song
with the refrain "We don't want to fight, but by Jingo if we do," &c.,
was produced in London by a singer known as "the great MacDermott," and
instantly became very popular. Thus the war-party came to be called
Jingoes, and Jingoism has ever since been the term applied to those who
advocate a national policy of arrogance and pugnacity.
For a discussion of the etymology of Jingo see _Notes and Queries_,
(August 25, 1894), 8th series, p. 149.
JINN (DJINN), the name of a class of spirits (_genii_) in Arabian
mythology. They are the offspring of fire, but in their form and the
propagation of their kind they resemble human beings. They are ruled by
a race of kings named "Suleyman," one of whom is considered to have
built the pyramids. Their central home is the mountain Kaf, and they
manifest themselves to men under both animal and mortal form and become
invisible at will. There are good and evil jinn, and these in each case
reach the extremes of beauty and ugliness.
JIRECEK, JOSEF (1825-1888), Czech scholar, was born at Vysoké Mýto in
Bohemia on the 9th of October 1825. He entered the Prague bureau of
education in 1850, and became minister of the department in the
Hohenwart cabinet in 1871. His efforts to secure equal educational
privileges for the Slav nationalities in the Austrian dominions brought
him into disfavour with the German element. He became a member of the
Bohemian Landtag in 1878, and of the Austrian Reichsrat in 1879. His
merits as a scholar were recognized in 1875 by his election as president
of the royal Bohemian academy of sciences. He died in Prague on the 25th
of November 1888.
With Hermenegild Jirecek he defended in 1862 the genuineness of the
Königinhof MS. discovered by Wenceslaus Hanka. He published in the
Czech language an anthology of Czech literature (3 vols., 1858-1861),
a biographical dictionary of Czech writers (2 vols., 1875-1876), a
Czech hymnology, editions of Blahoslaw's Czech grammar and of some
Czech classics, and of the works of his father-in-law Pavel Josef
Safarik (1795-1861).
His brother HERMENEGILD JIRECEK, Ritter von Samakow (1827- ), Bohemian
jurisconsult, who was born at Vysoké Mýto on the 13th of April 1827, was
also an official in the education department.
Among his important works on Slavonic law were _Codex juris bohemici_
(11 parts, 1867-1892), and a _Collection of Slav Folk-Law_ (Czech,
1880), _Slav Law in Bohemia and Moravia down to the 14th Century_
(Czech, 3 vols. 1863-1873).
JIRECEK, KONSTANTIN JOSEF (1854- ), son of Josef, taught history at
Prague. He entered the Bulgarian service in 1879, and in 1881 became
minister of education at Sofia. In 1884 he became professor of universal
history in Czech at Prague, and in 1893 professor of Slavonic
antiquities at Vienna.
The bulk of Konstantin's writings deal with the history of the
southern Slavs and their literature. They include a _History of the
Bulgars_ (Czech and German, 1876), _The Principality of Bulgaria_
(1891), _Travels in Bulgaria_ (Czech, 1888), &c.
JIZAKH, a town of Russian Central Asia, in the province of Samarkand, on
the Transcaspian railway, 71 m. N.E. of the city of Samarkand. Pop.
(1897), 16,041. As a fortified post of Bokhara it was captured by the
Russians in 1866.
JOAB (Heb. "Yah[weh] is a father"), in the Bible, the son of Zeruiah,
David's sister (1 Chron. ii. 16). His brothers were Asahel and Abishai.
All three were renowned warriors and played a prominent part in David's
history. Abishai on one occasion saved the king's life from a Philistine
giant (2 Sam. xxi. 17), and Joab as warrior and statesman was directly
responsible for much of David's success. Joab won his spurs, according
to one account, by capturing Jerusalem (1 Chron. xi. 4-9); with Abishai
and Ittai of Gath he led a small army against the Israelites who had
rebelled under Absalom (2 Sam. xviii. 2); and he superintended the
campaign against Ammon and Edom (2 Sam. xi. 1, xii. 26; 1 Kings xi. 15).
He showed his sturdy character by urging the king after the death of
Absalom to place his duty to his people before his grief for the loss of
his favourite son (2 Sam. xix. 1-8), and by protesting against David's
proposal to number the people, an innovation which may have been
regarded as an infringement of their liberties (2 Sam. xxiv.; 1 Chron.
xxi. 6).
The hostility of the "sons of Zeruiah" towards the tribe of Benjamin
is characteristically contrasted with David's own generosity towards
Saul's fallen house. Abishai proposed to kill Saul when David
surprised him asleep (1 Sam. xxvi. 8), and was anxious to slay Shimei
when he cursed the king (2 Sam. xvi. 9). But David was resigned to the
will of Yahweh and refused to entertain the suggestions. After Asahel
met his death at the hands of Abner, Joab expostulated with David for
not taking revenge upon the guilty one, and indeed the king might be
considered bound in honour to take up his nephew's cause. But when
Joab himself killed Abner, David's imprecation against him and his
brother Abishai showed that he dissociated himself from the act of
vengeance, although it brought him nearer to the throne of all Israel
(2 Sam. iii.). Fear of a possible rival may have influenced Joab, and
this at all events led him to slay Amasa of Judah (2 Sam. xx. 4-13).
The two deeds are similar, and the impression left by them is
expressed in David's last charges to Solomon (1 Kings ii.). But here
Joab had taken the side of Adonijah against Solomon, and was put to
death by Benaiah at Solomon's command, and it is possible that the
charges are the fruit of a later tradition to remove all possible
blame from Solomon (q.v.). It is singular that Joab is not blamed for
killing Absalom, but it would indeed be strange if the man who helped
to reconcile father and son (2 Sam. xiv.) should have perpetrated so
cruel an act in direct opposition to the king's wishes (xviii. 5,
10-16). A certain animus against Joab's family thus seems to underlie
some of the popular narratives of the life of David (q.v.).
(S. A. C.)
JOACHIM OF FLORIS (c. 1145-1202), so named from the monastery of San
Giovanni in Fiore, of which he was abbot, Italian mystic theologian, was
born at Celico, near Cosenza, in Calabria. He was of noble birth and was
brought up at the court of Duke Roger of Apulia. At an early age he went
to visit the holy places. After seeing his comrades decimated by the
plague at Constantinople he resolved to change his mode of life, and, on
his return to Italy, after a rigorous pilgrimage and a period of ascetic
retreat, became a monk in the Cistercian abbey of Casamari. In August
1177 we know that he was abbot of the monastery of Corazzo, near
Martirano. In 1183 he went to the court of Pope Lucius III. at Veroli,
and in 1185 visited Urban III. at Verona. There is extant a letter of
Pope Clement III., dated the 8th of June 1188, in which Clement alludes
to two of Joachim's works, the _Concordia_ and the _Expositio in
Apocalypsin_, and urges him to continue them. Joachim, however, was
unable to continue his abbatial functions in the midst of his labours in
prophetic exegesis, and, moreover, his asceticism accommodated itself
but ill with the somewhat lax discipline of Corazzo. He accordingly
retired into the solitudes of Pietralata, and subsequently founded with
some companions under a rule of his own creation the abbey of San
Giovanni in Fiore, on Monte Nero, in the _massif_ of La Sila. The pope
and the emperor befriended this foundation; Frederick II. and his wife
Constance made important donations to it, and promoted the spread of
offshoots of the parent house; while Innocent III., on the 21st of
January 1204, approved the "ordo Florensis" and the "institutio" which
its founder had bestowed upon it. Joachim died in 1202, probably on the
20th of March.
Of the many prophetic and polemical works that were attributed to
Joachim in the 13th and following centuries, only those enumerated in
his will can be regarded as absolutely authentic. These are the
_Concordia novi et veteris Testamenti_ (first printed at Venice in
1519), the _Expositio in Apocalypsin_ (Venice, 1527), the _Psalterium
decem chordarum_ (Venice, 1527), together with some "libelli" against
the Jews or the adversaries of the Christian faith. It is very
probable that these "libelli" are the writings entitled _Concordia
Evangeliorum_, _Contra Judaeos_, _De articulis fidei_, _Confessio
fidei_ and _De unitate Trinitatis_. The last is perhaps the work which
was condemned by the Lateran council in 1215 as containing an
erroneous criticism of the Trinitarian theory of Peter Lombard. This
council, though condemning the book, refrained from condemning the
author, and approved the order of Floris. Nevertheless, the monks
continued to be subjected to insults as followers of a heretic, until
they obtained from Honorius III. in 1220 a bull formally recognizing
Joachim as orthodox and forbidding anyone to injure his disciples.
It is impossible to enumerate here all the works attributed to
Joachim. Some served their avowed object with great success, being
powerful instruments in the anti-papal polemic and sustaining the
revolted Franciscans in their hope of an approaching triumph. Among
the most widely circulated were the commentaries on Jeremiah, Isaiah
and Ezekiel, the _Vaticinia pontificum_ and the _De oneribus
ecclesiae_. Of his authentic works the doctrinal essential is very
simple. Joachim divides the history of humanity, past, present and
future, into three periods, which, in his _Expositio in Apocalypsin_
(bk. i. ch. 5), he defines as the age of the Law, or of the Father;
the age of the Gospel, or of the Son; and the age of the Spirit, which
will bring the ages to an end. Before each of these ages there is a
period of incubation, or initiation: the first age begins with
Abraham, but the period of initiation with the first man Adam. The
initiation period of the third age begins with St Benedict, while the
actual age of the Spirit is not to begin until 1260, the
Church--_mulier amicta sole_ (Rev. xii. 1)--remaining hidden in the
wilderness 1260 days. We cannot here enter into the infinite details
of the other subdivisions imagined by Joachim, or into his system of
perpetual concordances between the New and the Old Testaments, which,
according to him, furnish the prefiguration of the third age. Far more
interesting as explaining the diffusion and the religious and social
importance of his doctrine is his conception of the second and third
ages. The first age was the age of the Letter, the second was
intermediary between the Letter and the Spirit, and the third was to
be the age of the Spirit. The age of the Son is the period of study
and wisdom, the period of striving towards mystic knowledge. In the
age of the Father all that was necessary was obedience; in the age of
the Son reading is enjoined; but the age of the Spirit was to be
devoted to prayer and song. The third is the age of the _plena
spiritus libertas_, the age of contemplation, the monastic age _par
excellence_, the age of a monachism wholly directed towards ecstasy,
more Oriental than Benedictine. Joachim does not conceal his
sympathies with the ideal of Basilian monachism. In his opinion--which
is, in form at least, perfectly orthodox--the church of Peter will be,
not abolished, but purified; actually, the hierarchy effaces itself in
the third age before the order of the monks, the _viri spirituales_.
The entire world will become a vast monastery in that day, which will
be the resting-season, the sabbath of humanity. In various passages in
Joachim's writings the clerical hierarchy is represented by Rachel and
the contemplative order by her son Joseph, and Rachel is destined to
efface herself before her son. Similarly, the teaching of Christ and
the Apostles on the sacraments is considered, implicitly and
explicitly, as transitory, as representing that passage from the
_significantia_ to the _significata_ which Joachim signalizes at every
stage of his demonstration. Joachim was not disturbed during his
lifetime. In 1200 he submitted all his writings to the judgment of the
Holy See, and unreservedly affirmed his orthodoxy; the Lateran
council, which condemned his criticism of Peter Lombard, made no
allusion to his eschatological temerities; and the bull of 1220 was a
formal certificate of his orthodoxy.
The Joachimite ideas soon spread into Italy and France, and especially
after a division had been produced in the Franciscan order. The
rigorists, who soon became known as "Spirituals," represented St
Francis as the initiator of Joachim's third age. Certain convents
became centres of Joachimism. Around the hermit of Hyères, Hugh of
Digne, was formed a group of Franciscans who expected from the advent
of the third age the triumph of their ascetic ideas. The Joachimites
even obtained a majority in the general chapter of 1247, and elected
John of Parma, one of their number, general of the order. Pope
Alexander IV., however, compelled John of Parma to renounce his
dignity, and the Joachimite opposition became more and more vehement.
Pseudo-Joachimite treatises sprang up on every hand, and, finally, in
1254, there appeared in Paris the _Liber introductorius ad Evangelium
aeternum_, the work of a Spiritual Franciscan, Gherardo da Borgo San
Donnino. This book was published with, and as an introduction to, the
three principal works of Joachim, in which the Spirituals had made
some interpolations.[1] Gherardo, however, did not say, as has been
supposed, that Joachim's books were the new gospel, but merely that
the Calabrian abbot had supplied the key to Holy Writ, and that with
the help of that _intelligentia mystica_ it would be possible to
extract from the Old and New Testaments the eternal meaning, the
gospel according to the Spirit, a gospel which would never be written;
as for this eternal sense, it had been entrusted to an order set
apart, to the Franciscan order announced by Joachim, and in this order
the ideal of the third age was realized. These affirmations provoked
very keen protests in the ecclesiastical world. The secular masters of
the university of Paris denounced the work to Pope Innocent IV., and
the bishop of Paris sent it to the pope. It was Innocent's successor,
Alexander IV., who appointed a commission to examine it; and as a
result of this commission, which sat at Anagni, the destruction of the
_Liber introductorius_ was ordered by a papal breve dated the 23rd of
October 1255. In 1260 a council held at Arles condemned Joachim's
writings and his supporters, who were very numerous in that region.
The Joachimite ideas were equally persistent among the Spirituals, and
acquired new strength with the publication of the commentary on the
Apocalypse. This book, probably published after the death of its
author and probably interpolated by his disciples, contains, besides
Joachimite principles, an affirmation even clearer than that of
Gherardo da Borgo of the elect character of the Franciscan order, as
well as extremely violent attacks on the papacy. The Joachimite
literature is extremely vast. From the 14th century to the middle of
the 16th, Ubertin of Casale (in his _Arbor Vitae crucifixae_),
Bartholomew of Pisa (author of the _Liber Conformitatum_), the
Calabrian hermit Telesphorus, John of La Rochetaillade, Seraphin of
Fermo, Johannes Annius of Viterbo, Coelius Pannonius, and a host of
other writers, repeated or complicated _ad infinitum_ the exegesis of
Abbot Joachim. A treatise entitled _De ultima aetate ecclesiae_, which
appeared in 1356, has been attributed to Wycliffe, but is undoubtedly
from the pen of an anonymous Joachimite Franciscan. The heterodox
movements in Italy in the 13th and 14th centuries, such as those of
the Segarellists, Dolcinists, and Fraticelli of every description,
were penetrated with Joachimism; while such independent spirits as
Roger Bacon, Arnaldus de Villa Nova and Bernard Délicieux often
comforted themselves with the thought of the era of justice and peace
promised by Joachim. Dante held Joachim in great reverence, and has
placed him in Paradise (_Par._, xii. 140-141).
See _Acta Sanctorum, Boll._ (May), vii. 94-112; W. Preger in _Abhandl.
der kgl. Akad. der Wissenschaften_, hist, sect., vol. xii., pt. 3
(Munich, 1874); idem, _Gesch. d. deutschen Mystik im Mittelalter_,
vol. i. (Leipzig, 1874); E. Renan, "Joachim de Flore et l'Évangile
éternel" in _Nouvelles études d'histoire religieuse_ (Paris, 1884); F.
Tocco, _L'Eresia nel medio evo_ (Florence, 1884); H. Denifle, "Das
Evangelium aeternum und die Commission zu Anagni" in _Archiv für
Literatur- und Kirchengesch. des Mittelalters_, vol. i.; Paul
Fournier, "Joachim de Flore, ses doctrines, son influence" in _Revue
des questions historiques_, t. i. (1900); H. C. Lea, _History of the
Inquisition of the Middle Ages_, vol. iii. ch. i. (London, 1888); F.
Ehrle's article "Joachim" in Wetzer and Welte's _Kirchenlexikon_. On
Joachimism see E. Gebhardt, "Recherches nouvelles sur l'histoire du
Joachimisme" in _Revue historique_, vol. xxxi. (1886); H. Haupt, "Zur
Gesch. des Joachimismus" in _Briegers Zeitschrift für Kirchengesch._,
vol. vii. (1885). (P. A.)