and prepared the preceding descriptions of the Sioux settlements
Schoolcraft went down the river, and in his journal are to be found
brief references to the same villages. To quote from the journal, August
2, 1820: "Four miles below Carver's cave, we landed at the village of Le
Petit Corbeau, or the Little Raven. Here is a Sioux band of twelve
lodges, and consisting of about two hundred souls, who plant corn upon
the adjoining plain, and cultivate the cucumber, and pumpkin. They
sallied from their lodges on seeing us approach, and gathering upon the
bank of the river fired a kind of _feu-de-joie_, and manifested the
utmost satisfaction on our landing.... We were conducted into his cabin
which is spacious, being about sixty feet in length by thirty in
width--built in a permanent manner of logs, and covered with bark."
(Schoolcraft, (2), pp. 317-318.) The following day at noon the party
arrived "at the Sioux village of Talangamane, or the Red wing, which is
handsomely situated on the west banks of the river, six miles above Lake
Pepin. It consists of four large, and several small lodges, built of
logs in the manner of the little Raven's village. Talangamane is now
considered the first chief of his nation.... Very few of his people were
at home, being engaged in hunting or fishing. We observed several fine
corn fields near the village, but they subsist chiefly by taking
sturgeon in the neighbouring lake, and by hunting the deer. The buffalo
is also occasionally killed, but they are obliged to go two days journey
west of the Mississippi, before this animal is found in plenty. We
observed several buffalo skins which were undergoing the Indian process
of tanning." (Op. cit., p. 323.) The third settlement was reached during
the afternoon of August 4, 1820, at which time, to quote from the
journal, "we made a short halt at the Sioux village of Wabashaw, which
is eligibly situated on the west bank of the Mississippi, sixty miles
below Lake Pepin. It consists of four large lodges, with a population
of, probably, sixty souls. A present of tobacco and whiskey was given,
and we again embarked at twenty minutes before five o'clock." (Op, cit.,
p. 334.) The question now arises, Were the various structures seen by
Schoolcraft, those "built in a permanent manner of logs," constructed of
"upright flattened posts," as mentioned in the Long narrative? If so, it
is evident similar habitations were reared by the Foxes and were
encountered by Schoolcraft at the Fox village standing on the left bank
of the Mississippi, below the mouth of the Wisconsin, August 6, 1820.
However, the statements are rather vague, and the various dwellings may
have been quite similar to the bark houses more clearly described in
later narratives. But it is beyond question that some of the structures
were strongly built, and Long on July 16, 1817, wrote: "Passed a Sioux
village on our right containing fourteen cabins. The name of the chief
is the Petit Corbeau, or Little Raven.... One of their cabins is
furnished with loop holes, and is situated so near the water that the
opposite side of the river is within musket-shot range from the
building.... The cabins are a kind of stockade buildings, and of a
better appearance than any Indian dwellings I have before met with."
(Long, (1), p. 31.)
One of the most interesting accounts of the villages just mentioned is
contained in the journal of a traveler who visited them in 1849, the
year the Territory of Minnesota was created. On May 16 of that year he
"passed Wapasha's Prairie ... a beautiful prairie in Minnesota, about
nine miles long and three miles wide, occupied by the chief Wapasha (or
Red-Leaf) and his band of Sioux, whose bark lodges are seen at the upper
end of the prairie." (Seymour, (1), p. 75.) And later in the day, after
leaving Lake Pepin, "an Indian village, called Red Wing, inhabited by a
tribe of Sioux is seen on the Minnesota shore. It appears to contain
about one dozen bark lodges, and half as many conical lodges, covered
with buffalo skins; also, a log or frame house, occupied by a
missionary. Indian children were seen running, in frolicsome mood, over
the green prairie, and Indian females were paddling their canoes along
the shore. This village is near the mouth of Cannon River." On the
following day, May 17, 1849, Seymour passed the village of Kaposia,
occupied by the chief Little Crow, or Little Raven. It stood on the west
bank of the river about 5 miles below the then small town of St. Paul.
The Indian village at that time consisted of about 40 lodges, having a
population of some 300. A few days later he went to the village, and
regarding the visit wrote: "During the time I visited them, the Indians
were living in skin lodges, such as they use during the winter, and when
traveling. These are formed of long, slender poles, stuck in the ground,
in a circle of about eight feet in diameter, and united at the top, and
covered with the raw hide of the buffalo, having the hair scraped off.
They are in the form of a cone, and can be distinguished from those of
the Winnebagos and other Indians as far as they can be seen. During the
summer they live in bark houses, which are more spacious, and when seen
from a distance, resemble, in form and appearance, the log cabins of the
whites. When passing in sight of the village, a few days afterward, I
noticed that they had removed their skin lodges, and erected their bark
houses. The population of this village, as I before remarked, is from
250 to 300 souls." He entered one of the small skin-covered lodges. "An
iron kettle, suspended in the center, over a fire, forms the principal
cooking utensil. Blankets spread around on the ground, were used as
seats and beds." (Op. cit., pp. 137-138.) A cemetery, with its scaffold
burials, stood on the bluffs in the rear of the village. There is reason
to believe these were the first skin-covered tipis encountered by Seymour
while ascending the Mississippi.
BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY BULLETIN 77 PLATE 22
[Illustration: _a._ "Dakotah Village." Seth Eastman]
[Illustration: _b._ "Dakotah Encampment." Seth Eastman]
BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY BULLETIN 77 PLATE 23
[Illustration: _a._ Council at the mouth of the Teton. George Catlin]
[Illustration: _b._ Page of Kurz's Sketchbook, showing Fort Pierre and
the Indian encampment, July 4, 1851]
It will be noticed that in the preceding description of Kaposia no
mention is made of log structures, such as were alluded to by Long and
Schoolcraft. Only the typical bark house and the conical skin-covered
tipi were seen by Seymour. Fortunately a most valuable and interesting
picture of the village, as it appeared on June 19, 1851, is preserved
and is now reproduced in plate 21. Both forms of habitations are shown,
and in the distance, on the left, are indicated the scaffold burials
standing on the bluffs in the rear of the settlement. On the extreme
right is the prow of a canoe, evidently on the immediate bank of the
Mississippi. Having this remarkable sketch, it is gratifying to find a
brief description of the two forms of lodges, and also to know that the
notes may have referred to Kaposia in particular. It tells that "the
lodges are from eight to fifteen feet in diameter, about ten to fifteen
feet high and made of buffalo-skins tanned. Elk skins are used for this
purpose also. The summer house is built of wood, or perches set upright,
twenty or thirty feet long, by fifteen or twenty wide. The perches are
set in the ground about one foot, and are about six feet out of the
ground. Over this is put a roof of elm bark. They are very comfortable
for summer use. The lodge of skin lasts three or four years; the lodge
of wood seven or eight years." (Prescott, (1), p. 67.)
The bark houses, which resembled "the log cabins of the whites," were
shown by Capt. Eastman in one of his paintings. It was used as an
illustration by Schoolcraft, and is here reproduced as plate 22, _a_. It
is less interesting than the sketch of Kaposia, but in many respects the
two are quite similar.
Several bark houses of the form just mentioned stood on the shore of
Mille Lac, forming part of the Ojibway village visited in 1900, and
similar to these were the "winter habitations," occasionally erected by
the Menominee, as mentioned and figured by Hoffman as plate xviii in his
work on that tribe. (Hoffman, (1), p. 255.) It is rather curious that
these should be described as "winter habitations" among that Algonquian
tribe, and as being occupied during the summer by the Siouan people. As
a matter of fact this strong distinction may not have existed. The use
of this type of house by the Foxes has already been mentioned. Whether
these may be regarded as representing a purely aboriginal form of
structure is not easily determined, but they will at once recall the
unit of the long communal dwellings of the Iroquois. The slanting roof,
the flat front and back, and the upright walls, all covered with large
sheets of bark, were the same.
Again returning to the narrative of the Long expedition. Early in July,
1823, the party having rested at the mouth of the Minnesota, or St.
Peters River, began ascending that stream. Having advanced a short
distance they arrived at the village of Taoapa, better known as
"Shakopee's Village," from the name of the chief of this band of the
Mdewakanton. It stood in the present Scott County, Minnesota, and in the
summer of 1823 "consisted of fifteen large bark lodges, in good order;
they were arranged along the river. Some of them were large enough to
hold from thirty to fifty persons, accommodated as the Indians usually
are in their lodges. The ground near it is neatly laid out, and some
fine corn-fields were observed in the vicinity. There were scaffolds
annexed to the houses, for the purpose of drying maize, etc.; upon these
we were told that the Indians sleep during very hot nights." Near the
village were seen various scaffold burials, while "In the midst of the
corn-fields a dog was suspended, his head decorated with feathers, and
with horse-hair stained red; it was probably a sacrifice for the
protection of the corn-fields during the absence of the Indians." Six
miles above the village was Little Prairie. (Keating, (1), pp. 329-330.)
Quite likely the structures at this village were similar to those
described above, which resembled in outline the log cabins of the white
settlers.
WAHPETON.
The Wahpeton, "dwellers among leaves," constitute one of the seven great
divisions of the Dakota, and to quote from the Handbook: "Historic and
linguistic evidence proves the affinity of this tribe with the Sisseton,
Wahpekute, and Mdewakanton. Hennepin (1680) mentions them as living in
the vicinity of Mille Lac, Minn., near the Mdewakanton, Sisseton, and
Teton. On his map they are placed a little to the N. E. of the lake."
While living in the seclusion of the vast forests which surrounded the
great lakes of central Minnesota, the villages of the Wahpeton were
probably formed of groups of bark or mat covered structures so typical
of the region at a later day. Gradually they left the timbered regions,
and about the first years of the last century were living near the mouth
of the Minnesota River. Thence they appear to have moved up the stream,
and during the summer of 1823 were encountered by the Long expedition in
the vicinity of Big Stone Lake, in the present Lac qui Parle County,
Minnesota. The account of the meeting with the Indians on the prairie,
and later of their visit to the village, by the members of the
expedition, is most interesting. On July 21, 1823, "While traveling over
the prairie which borders upon this part of the St. Peter, that connects
Lake qui Parle with Big Stone Lake, our attention was aroused by the
sight of what appeared to be buffaloes chased across the prairie. They,
however, soon proved to be Indians; their number, at first limited to
two, gradually increased to near one hundred; they were seen rising from
every part of the prairie, and after those in advance had reconnoitered
us, and made signals that we were friends, by discharging their guns,
they all came running towards us, and in a few minutes we found
ourselves surrounded by a numerous band.... Some of them were mounted on
horseback, and were constantly drumming upon the sides of their horses
with their heels, being destitute both of whip and spur. Many of them
came and shook hands with us, while the rest were riding all round us in
different directions. They belonged, as we were told, to the Wahkpatoan,
[Wahpeton] one of the tribes of the Dacotas.... As we rode towards their
lodges, we were met by a large party of squaws and children, who formed
a very motly group.... The village, to which they directed us, consisted
of thirty skin lodges, situated on a fine meadow on the bank of the
lake. Their permanent residence, or at least that which they have
occupied as such for the last five years, is on a rocky island, (Big
Island), in the lake, nearly opposite to, and within a quarter of a mile
of, their present encampment. Upon the island they cultivate their
cornfields, secure against the aggressions of their enemies. They had
been lately engaged in hunting buffalo, apparently with much success.
The principal man led us to his lodge, wherein a number of the
influential men were admitted, the women being excluded; but we observed
that they, with the children, went about the lodge, peeping through all
the crevices, and not unfrequently raising the skins to observe our
motion. They soon brought in a couple of large wooden dishes, filled
with pounded buffalo meat boiled, and covered with the marrow of the
same animal; of this we partook with great delight." This was followed
by another feast, in a near-by tent, and still a third where a dog had
been killed and prepared, "which is considered not only as the greatest
delicacy, but also as a sacred animal, of which they eat only on great
occasions." The party did not remain long at the village, but continued
on up the lake shore, and soon encountered on a bluff "two Indian
lodges, in one of which was Tatanka Wechacheta, (the buffalo man,) an
Indian who claims the command of the Wahkpatoans." Later in the day the
party returned to these lodges, where "the chief, and his principal men,
were in waiting. We entered the skin lodge, and were seated on fine
buffalo robes, spread all round; on the fire, which was in the centre of
the lodge, two large iron kettles, filled with choicest pieces of
buffalo, were placed.... Our hosts were gratified and flattered at the
quantity which we ate; the residue of the feast was sent to our
soldiers. In this, and every other instance where we have been invited
to a feast by Indians, we observed that they never eat with their
guests." (Keating, (1), I, pp. 367-373.)
The village of skin-covered tipis standing on the shore of the lake, as
seen by members of the expedition on that July day nearly a century ago,
must have resembled the painting later made by Capt. Eastman, which is
reproduced in plate 22, _b_, taken from Schoolcraft. In the painting the
tipis are undoubtedly too closely placed, but otherwise they are quite
accurately shown. This illustration as used in Schoolcraft bears the
legend "Dakotah Encampment."
YANKTONAI.
Like other divisions of the Dakota, the Yanktonai formerly lived in the
thickly timbered region surrounding the headwaters of the Mississippi,
in the central portion of the present State of Minnesota, and, like
them, moved southward and westward until they reached the plains and the
habitat of the buffalo. Although in their earlier home they undoubtedly
reared the mat-covered structures, nevertheless when they reached the
open country they constructed the conical skin lodge.
During the latter part of July, 1823, the Long expedition reached a
village of this tribe then standing in the vicinity of Lake Traverse, in
the present Traverse County, Minnesota. In the narrative of the
expedition very little is said regarding the appearance of the
encampment, which may not have offered any peculiar features, but much
was said concerning the dress and ways of the inhabitants. In part the
narrative states: "The principal interest which we experienced in the
neighbourhood of Lake Traverse, was from an acquaintance with Wanotan,
(the Charger,) the most distinguished chief of the Yanktoanan tribe,
which, as we were informed, is subdivided into six bands. He is one of
the greatest men of the Dacota nation, and although but twenty-eight
years of age, he has already acquired great renown as a warrior." As the
party neared the establishment of the Columbia Fur Company, on the
border of the lake, "a salute was fired from a number of Indian tents
which were pitched in the vicinity, from the largest of which the
American colours were flying. And as soon as we had dismounted from our
horses, we received an invitation to a feast which Wanotan had prepared
for us." Three dogs had been killed and prepared for the great occasion.
"We repaired to a sort of pavilion which they had erected by the union
of several large skin lodges. Fine Buffalo robes were spread all around,
and the air was perfumed by the odour of sweet scenting grass which had
been burned in it. On entering the lodge we saw the chief seated near
the further end of it, and one of his principal men pointed out to us
the place which was destined for our accommodation; it was at the upper
end of the lodge." (Keating, (1), I, pp. 429-432.)
Arranging the skin covers of several large tipis in such a way as to
form a single shelter, to serve as a ceremonial "lodge," was the custom
of many tribes, and other instances will be mentioned. But another and
more elaborate form of structure was used by the tribes just mentioned.
In 1858, when describing certain customs of the people then living along
the course of the Minnesota and in the vicinity of Lake Traverse, Riggs
referred to the sacred dance and said: "Among the Dakotas a most
remarkable society exists which is called _Wakan wachepe_, or Sacred
Dance, of which the medicine sack is the badge. It may be regarded as
the depository and guardian of whatever they esteem as _wakan_, or
sacred." He then related the contents of the bag and the meaning of the
ceremony, and continues: "A large skin lodge is usually occupied as the
center of operations, the door of which is made wide by throwing up the
corners. From this, on each hand, extends a kind of railing, some thirty
or forty feet, on which skins are thrown. The entrance is at the farther
end. All around the inside of this sanctum sanctorum and along the
extended sides sit those who are called to the dance. Beyond this and
near the place of entrance is a fire, with great kettles hanging over
it, which are filled with dried buffalo meat or other food; and near by
lay several packs or bags of the same, which are consecrated to the
feast. The whole village are gathered around and are looking over or
peeping through the holes in the barricades." Much was then told about
the strange and curious ceremonies enacted within the lodge. (Riggs,
(1), pp. 505-506.)
Leaving the encampment in the vicinity of the post of the Columbia Fur
Company, the Long expedition moved northward, and when just beyond Lake
Traverse, while traversing the prairies on July 27, 1823, "passed a
party of squaws engaged in conveying to their camp some slices of fresh
meat to jerk; their fellow labourers were dogs. Each of the dogs had the
ends of two poles crossed and fastened over the shoulders, with a piece
of hide underneath to prevent chafing. The other extremities dragged on
the ground. This sort of vehicle was secured to the animal by a string
passing round the breast, and another under the abdomen; transverse
sticks, the ends of which were fastened in the poles, kept these at a
proper distance, and supported the meat. This seems to be the only mode
of harnessing dogs, practised among the Sioux; we believe, they never
use them in teams, as is customary with the traders." (Keating, (1), II,
pp. 9-10.)
The expedition soon arrived at Pembina, near the international boundary,
where it would appear they found the two characteristic forms of native
habitations in use by the Indians. A drawing was at that time made by
Seymour and used as an illustration in the narrative, showing the "two
different kind of lodges used by the northwest Indians," the first being
the skin lodge of the prairie tribes, and "of this nature are all the
lodges used by the Dacotas;" the second were the bark-covered structures
of the Ojibway, "who for the most part live to the north-east of the
buffalo regions." To this latter class must have belonged the
habitations of the Siouan tribes before they were forced from their
early homes among the forests and lakes to the eastward.
When referring to the two characteristic forms of habitations it will be
of interest to quote from the writings of one who traversed the country
more than a century and a half ago, when all was in its primitive
condition, but, like many writers of that period, he failed to give
details which at the present time would prove of the greatest value. He
wrote: "The Indians, in general, pay a greater attention to their dress
and to the ornaments with which they decorate their persons, than to the
accommodation of their huts or tents. They construct the latter in the
following simple and expeditious manner.
"Being provided with poles of a proper length, they fasten two of them
across, near their ends, with bands made of bark. Having done this, they
raise them up, and extend the bottom of each as wide as they purpose to
make the area of the tent: they then erect others of an equal height,
and fix them so as to support the two principal ones. On the whole they
lay skins of the elk or deer, sewed together, in quantity sufficient to
cover the poles, and by lapping over to form the door. A great number of
skins are sometimes required for this purpose, as some of their tents
are very capacious. That of the chief warrior of the Naudowessies was at
least forty feet in circumference, and very commodious.
"They observe no regularity in fixing their tents when they encamp, but
place them just as it suits their conveniency.
"The huts also, which those who use no tents erect when they travel,
for very few tribes have fixed abodes or regular towns or villages, are
equally simple, and almost as soon constructed.
"They fix small pliable poles in the ground, by bending them till they
meet at the top and form a semi-circle, then lash them together. These
they cover with mats made of rushes platted, or with birch bark, which
they carry with them in their canoes for this purpose.
"These cabins have neither chimnies nor windows; there is only a small
aperture left in the middle of the roofs through which the smoke is
discharged, but as this is obliged to be stopped up when it rains or
snows violently, the smoke then proves exceedingly troublesome.
"They lie on skins, generally those of the bear, which are placed in
rows on the ground; and if the floor is not large enough to contain
beds sufficient for the accommodation of the whole family, a frame is
erected about four or five feet from the ground, in which the younger
part of it sleep." (Carver, (1), pp. 152-154.) Though lacking much in
detail, nevertheless the preceding notes are of historical interest and
value, describing as they do the primitive habitations which were reared
and occupied by the native tribes living in the upper Mississippi Valley
about the middle of the eighteenth century. Skins of the elk and deer
were evidently used as coverings for the conical tipi, which seems to
prove the lack of a sufficient number of buffalo skins to serve the
purpose, although farther west, beyond the timbered country, where
buffalo were more easily obtained, their skins were made use of and
covered the shelters of tribes by whom they were hunted.
YANKTON.