month of April, and after putting their lodges in order, commence
preparing the ground to receive the seed. The number of acres cultivated
by that part of the two nations, who reside at their villages in this
vicinity, is supposed to be upwards of _three hundred_. They usually
raise from seven to eight thousand bushels of corn, besides beans,
pumpkins, melons, &c. About one thousand bushels of the corn they
annually sell to traders and others; the remainder (except about five
bushels for each family, which is taken with them,) they put into bags,
and bury in holes dug in the ground, for their use in the spring and
summer. The labor of agriculture is confined principally to the women,
and this is done altogether with a hoe. In June, the greatest part of
the young men go out on a summer hunt, and return in August. While they
are absent the old men and women are collecting rushes for mats, and
bark to make into bags for their corn, &c.
"The women usually make about three hundred floor mats every summer....
The twine which connects the rushes together, is made either of
basswood bark, after being boiled and hammered, or the bark of the
nettle; the women twist or spin it by rolling it on the knee with the
hand." (Morse, (1), App., pp. 124-127.) Some men, as well as women, of
these tribes are often employed in and about the lead mines on the
Mississippi, not far from their villages.
The customs of the tribes, as related in the preceding notes, their
hunts away from the villages during certain seasons of the year, their
return to plant and care for their fields and gardens, and the placing
of the surplus grain in caches, had probably been followed by native
tribes of the Mississippi Valley and adjacent regions for generations
before the coming of the Europeans.
ILLINOIS.
Although the tribes of the loosely constituted Illinois confederacy
claimed and occupied a wide region east of the Mississippi, in later
years centering in the valley of the Illinois River, nevertheless
certain villages are known to have crossed and recrossed the great
river. Thus, in the early summer of 1673, Pere Marquette arrived at a
village of the Peoria then standing on the right or west bank of the
Mississippi, at or near the mouth of the Des Moines. Two months later it
had removed to the upper Illinois. A few weeks after passing the Peoria
Marquette discovered another of the Illinois tribes, the Michigamea,
living near the northeastern corner of the present State of Arkansas,
and consequently west of the Mississippi. On the map of Pierre van der
Aa, _circa_ 1720, two small streams are shown flowing into the
Mississippi from the west, a short distance south of the Missouri. The
more northerly of the two is probably intended to represent the Meramec
and a dot at the north side of the mouth of the stream bears the legend:
"_Village des_ Ilinois _et des_ Caskoukia," probably the Cahokia. This
stream forms the boundary between Jefferson and St. Louis Counties,
Missouri, and a short distance above its junction with the Mississippi
are traces of a large village, with many stone-lined graves, probably
indicating the position of the Illinois village of two centuries ago.
Also, on the d'Anville map, issued in the year 1755, an "Ancien Village
Cahokias" is shown at a point corresponding with the mouth of the small
Riviere des Peres, a stream which joins the Mississippi and there forms
the southern boundary of the city of St. Louis. Until covered by
railroad embankments many small mounds were visible near the mouth of
the Riviere des Peres, indications of the old settlement were numerous,
and graves were encountered on the neighboring hills. These were
evidently the remains of the "Ancien Village Cahokias." The many salt
springs found on the Missouri side of the Mississippi served to attract
the Indians from the eastern shore. Establishing their camps in the
vicinity of the springs, they would evaporate the waters and so obtain a
supply of salt, a process which continued long after the French had
settled in this part of upper Louisiana.
The villages of the Illinois tribes have been described in a former
publication (Bushnell, (1)).
About the close of the eighteenth century many scattered bands of
various tribes whose habitat was east of the Mississippi sought new
homes to the westward. Especially was this true after the signing of the
treaty of Greenville, Ohio, August 3, 1795. But two years before the
signing of this important treaty small groups of Shawnee and Delaware
crossed the river, and by the year 1793 had established a village on
Apple Creek, near the Mississippi and some 40 miles south of the French
settlement of Ste. Genevieve. A few years later these, or others of the
same tribes, had small towns not far west of St. Louis and only a short
distance south of the Missouri. Within another generation many of the
remaining tribes were removed from east of the Mississippi by the
Government to lands set apart for them just west of the western boundary
of Missouri. But for many years after the beginning of the nineteenth
century the western part of the Ozarks was occupied, or frequented, by
bands of several tribes.
It seems quite evident that with the removal of the tribes from the east
came certain changes in their customs and ways of life. And it is
doubtful whether all attempted to erect their native form of
habitations. Again, before leaving the east they had seen and
constructed the log cabin of the pioneers, and it is evident similar
structures were reared by them in their new homes, or at least by some
of the tribes, among them the Delaware. An interesting account of one of
these later settlements has been preserved, but it is very brief. It was
mentioned in the journal of a dragoon, one of the command then crossing
the wilderness from St. Louis to the valley of the Arkansas, and was
prepared about the beginning of December, in the year 1833: "It was
drawing towards the close of the day, when at a little distance we
descried a cluster of huts that we imagined might be a squatter
settlement, but upon a nearer approach, found it to be the remains of a
log-town long since evacuated, that had formerly been the settlement of
a tribe of the Delawares.... The site was a beautiful one; and the
associations that were connected with it, as well as the many vestiges
of rude art that remained about it, invested this spot with many
pleasing sources of reflection. As we entered the town, our regiment
slackened their pace, and slowly rode through this now silent ruin. A
small space of cleared land encompassed the settlement, but scarce large
enough to relieve it from the deep gloom of the lofty and surrounding
forest of aged oaks.... The huts were small, containing but one
apartment, built of logs, many of which had become so decayed as to have
fallen to the ground, and the whole was covered with a rich coat of
moss." (Hildreth, (1), pp. 70-71.) Scattered throughout the settlement,
near and between the ruined houses, stood many large oaks. On the trunks
of some of these had been cut various figures and symbols by the
Indians.
This Delaware village evidently stood not far from the present town of
Springfield, Green County, Missouri. Just beyond it began the "Kickapoo
prairie, which is the commencement of that immense chain of prairie land
that extends in broken patches to the Rocky Mountains." (Op. cit., p.
70.)
The preceding reference to various figures cut on the trees near the
deserted village tends to recall a somewhat similar allusion by Irving.
On November 2, 1832, during his "Tour on the Prairies," so he wrote: "We
came out upon an extensive prairie, and about six miles to our left
beheld a long line of green forest, marking the course of the north fork
of the Arkansas. On the edge of the prairie, and in a spacious grove of
noble trees which overshadowed a small brook, were traces of an old
Creek hunting camp. On the bark of the trees were rude delineations of
hunters and squaws, scrawled with charcoal; together with various signs
and hieroglyphics, which our half-breeds interpreted as indicating that
from this encampment the hunters had returned home." (Irving,
Washington. (1), p. 187.)
It is to be regretted that all such figures should so soon have
disappeared, as did the frail structures of the native villages, leaving
only fragments of pottery and bits of stone, ashes, and occasional
animal bones to indicate where they had once stood.
SIOUAN TRIBES.
The numerous and widely scattered tribes belonging to the Siouan
linguistic family formerly had a combined population which caused this
to rank as the second largest stock north of Mexico, being exceeded only
by the Algonquian.
All evidence tends to prove that during past centuries the many tribes
who were found living west of the Mississippi when the great central
valley of the continent first became known to Europeans had, within a
few generations, migrated from the eastward. This is likewise indicated
by certain tribal traditions. Many had undoubtedly occupied the upper
parts of the Ohio Valley, and were probably the builders of the great
earthworks discovered in that region. What impelled the westward
movement of the tribes may never be determined. Whether they were forced
to abandon their early habitat by stronger forces, by the lack of food
which made it necessary for them to seek a more plentiful supply, or by
reason of causes distinct from either of these can never be definitely
known.
But some remained in the east; all did not join in the migration, and
the native tribes encountered by the colonists living in the piedmont
region of Virginia and extending southward into Carolina belonged to
this linguistic family. Their villages have been mentioned in a former
publication. (Bushnell, (1), pp. 92-94.)
It is more than probable that while living east of the Mississippi all
reared and occupied structures similar to those of the Algonquian tribes
of later generations, mat and bark covered lodges, such as continued in
use by the Osage, Quapaw, and others even after they had reached their
new homes, but some through necessity were compelled to adopt other
forms of dwellings. Thus many were found occupying the conical skin
tipi, while some had learned the art of building the large earth-covered
lodges, an art which had evidently been derived from the Caddoan tribes
coming from the Southwest.
DAKOTA-ASSINIBOIN GROUP.
The Dakota constitute the largest division of the great Siouan
linguistic family. To quote from the Handbook, this group includes the
following tribes, a classification which is recognized by the people
themselves: "1. Mdewakanton; 2. Wahpeton; 3. Wahpekute; 4. Sisseton; 5.
Yankton; 6. Yanktonai; 7. Teton, each of which is again subdivided into
bands and subbands." These seven principal divisions are often referred
to as the Seven Council Fires of the Dakota. The first four groups as
given in this classification formed the eastern division, and their
home, when first encountered by Europeans, was in the densely forested
region about the headwaters of the Mississippi. The others lived
westward, reaching far into the plains. The Assiniboin, in historic
times a separate tribe, was originally a part of the Yanktonai, from
whom they separated and became closely allied with the Algonquian Cree.
Thus some of the Dakota as first known to history were a timber people,
others lived where the forest and prairie joined, with a mingling of the
fauna and flora of the two regions, and in later years the Oglala, the
principal division of the Teton, extended their wanderings to and beyond
the Black Hills, crossing the great buffalo range.
As will be shown in the sketches of the dwellings and other structures
of the Dakota tribes, those who lived in the timbered region, occupying
much of the present State of Minnesota, erected the type of habitation
characteristic of the region, but in the villages along the Minnesota
both bark and skin covered lodges were in use, and the more western
villages were formed exclusively of the latter type, the conical skin
tipi of the plains. There appears to have been very little variation in
the form of structure as erected by the widely scattered bands.
MDEWAKANTON.
When preparing a sketch of the villages and village sites of the
Mdewakanton, it is quite natural to begin with a brief description of
the site of the village to which Father Hennepin was led captive, during
the early spring of the year 1680. On the afternoon of April 11 of that
year, while ascending the Mississippi with two companions, he was taken
by a war party of the Sioux, and after much anxiety and suffering
reached the Falls of St. Anthony, which he so named. Thence, going
overland through the endless forests, they arrived at the village of
their captors. Soon Indians were seen running from the village to meet
them, and then it was that "One of the principal Issati chiefs gave us
his peace-calumet to smoke, and accepted the one we had brought. He then
gave us some wild rice to eat, presenting it to us in large bark
dishes." From this place they were later taken in bark canoes "a short
league ... to an island where their cabins were." (Shea, (1), pp.
224-225.)
The Mdewakanton "mystery lake village," of the Santee or eastern
division of the Dakota, were considered by some as "the only Dakota
entitled to the name Isanyati (`Santee'), given them from their old home
on Mille Lac, Minnesota, called by them Isantamde, 'Knife Lake.'" There
is no doubt of the Mdewakanton being the Issati of Hennepin, to whose
principal village he was taken, and where he remained for some weeks
during the year 1680. It has always been acknowledged that the village
stood on or near the shore of Mille Lac, but not until 1900 was a site
discovered which appears without doubt to indicate the position of that
ancient settlement. The outlet of Mille Lac is Rum River, which enters
the Mississippi at Anoka. The stream soon after leaving the lake expands
into a series of small lakes, usually designated as the First, Second,
and Third Lake, from the outlet at Mille Lac. Rum River leaves Mille Lac
near the southwest corner, but soon turns eastward, therefore the three
lakes are rather parallel with the south shore of the great lake. At the
upper end of Third Lake is an isolated mass, rising some feet above the
highest stage of water, and having a superficial area of several acres.
On May 29, 1900, this spot was surrounded by a marsh, in places
overgrown with rushes, with pools of water, more numerous on the north
side. But a short time has elapsed since all the lakes were somewhat
deeper and more water flowed in Rum River. And at that time the waters
surrounded this elevated mass and it stood as an island at the head of
Third Lake. When the surface of this island was examined it was found
to be strewn with innumerable fragments of pottery, some fractured
stones, and a few stone implements. The amount of pottery was greater
than is often found on any site, in any part of the country, and it was
quite evident this island was once occupied by a large, permanent native
settlement. Without doubt this was the site of the village to which
Hennepin was taken in a bark canoe, "an island where their cabins were."
At present this is in Sec. 25, T. 42, R. 27, Mille Lacs County,
Minnesota.
No description of the ancient village has been preserved, but it
undoubtedly resembled the settlements of other tribes living in the
midst of the great forests. The structures were probably bark or mat
covered, many of an oval form quite similar to those of the Ojibway, who
later occupied the near-by sites on the shores of Mille Lac. And like
the Ojibway, the Mdewakanton may have had more than one type of dwelling
in the same village, or structures of different forms may have served
different purposes.
The shores of Mille Lac, one of the most beautiful sheets of water in
Minnesota, abound in traces of the ancient settlements which stood
generations or centuries ago. Near several of the sites are groups of a
hundred or more burial mounds, all of which may be attributed to the
Siouan tribes. One village, the site of which is marked by a large
number of mounds, stood on the shore of the bay in the northwestern part
of the lake, shown in the photograph reproduced in plate 20, _a_.
The sacred or mysterious island, known as such to the Sioux and later to
the Ojibway, is in the southern part of the lake, several miles from the
south shore. It is a remarkable spot, one to be looked upon by the
Indian as a place of mystery. So small that often it is not visible from
the shore, it consists of a great quantity of blocks of granitic
formation which are piled to a height of 20 feet or more upon a ledge
which comes to within a foot or less of the surface of the lake. The
island is about 250 feet in length from east to west, the width from
north to south being about one-half the length. Some of the great blocks
are 10 or 12 feet in length, 4 or 5 feet in thickness and width, and
would weigh many tons. The ledge extends for a distance of about 150
feet to the north and east of the island, covered by a foot or more of
water. There is no soil on the island, no vegetation, and its only
occupants are numbers of gulls. A photograph of this most interesting
spot, made by the writer May 20, 1900, is reproduced as plate 20, _b_.
BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY BULLETIN 77 PLATE 20
[Illustration: _a._ Northwest shore of Mille Lac, 1900. Site of an
ancient Sioux settlement]
[Illustration: _b._ The Sacred Island in the southern part of Mille Lac.
May, 1900]
BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY BULLETIN 77 PLATE 21
[Illustration: "KAPOSIA, JUNE 19TH, 1851"
F. B. Mayer]
According to the stories of the old Ojibway who were still living on the
shore of Mille Lac during the spring of 1900, the Mdewakanton were
driven from that region about the middle of the eighteenth century,
and moving southward settled along the banks of the Mississippi.
Descendants of these were occupying well-known villages on the
Mississippi and Minnesota during the summer of 1823, when Major Long and
his party ascended the rivers from Prairie du Chien.
Before leaving Prairie du Chien to discover the course of the Minnesota,
or St. Peters, as it was then designated, the members of the expedition
were divided into two groups, one to go overland to the mouth of the St.
Peters, the other to convey the supplies by boat to that point. Both
parties visited the principal villages on the way. First following the
route of those who went overland, on June 26, 1823, they encountered a
village of five lodges, evidently on the Iowa River, in the present
Winneshiek County, Iowa. Two days later, June 28, they arrived at the
more important village of Wapasha, in the present Wabasha County,
Minnesota, and as told in the narrative: "Whatever might be the reveries
in which the party were indulging, they were soon recalled to the dull
realities of travelling, by the howling and barking of a band of dogs,
that announced their approach to an Indian village consisting of twenty
fixed lodges and cabins. It is controlled by Wa-pa-sha, an Indian chief
of considerable distinction. In his language, (Dacota,) his name
signifies _the red leaf_. A number of young men fantastically decorated
with many and variously coloured feathers, and their faces as oddly
painted, advanced to greet the party. One of them, the son of the chief,
was remarkable for the gaudiness and display of his dress, which from
its showy appearance imparted to his character foppishness.... The chief
is about fifty years of age, but appears older.... His disposition to
the Americans has generally been a friendly one." (Keating, (1), I, pp.
249-250.) Hennepin's reception by the ancestors of the same people, in
their ancient village near Mille Lac, about a century and a half
earlier, may have been quite similar to this accorded the members of the
Long expedition in 1823.
On the evening of June 30 the party going by land arrived "at an Indian
village, which is under the direction of Shakea, (_the man that paints
himself red_;) the village has retained the appellation of Redwing,
(_aile rouge_,) by which the chief was formerly distinguished." This was
on the site of the present Red Wing, Goodhue County, Minnesota. There
the party remained overnight, and on the following morning, July 1,
1823, the boat bearing the supplies belonging to the expedition, on its
way from Prairie du Chien to Fort St. Anthony, reached the village, and
"The whole party being again united, the chief invited them to his
lodge, with a view to have a formal conversation with them.... As a
compliment to the party, the United States' flag was hoisted over his
cabin, and a deputation of some of his warriors waited at our encampment
to invite us to his lodge. We were received in due ceremony; the chief
and his son, Tatunkamane, (the walking buffalo,) were seated next to the
entrance. We took our stations near them, on the same bed-frame, while
his warriors seated themselves on the frame opposite to us." This was
followed by handshaking, and the smoking of the pipe of peace. (Op.
cit., pp. 251-252.) The two parties again separated and those passing
overland arrived at the fort the following evening.
The boat party, ascending the Mississippi, arrived at "Wapasha's
village" on June 29, soon after the departure of the others who were
going overland. They left Redwing early in the afternoon of July 1, and
on the following day passed the St. Croix. Continuing, they "passed an
Indian village consisting of ten or twelve huts, situated at a handsome
turn on the river, about ten miles below the mouth of the St. Peter; the
village is generally known by the name of the _Petit Corbeau_, or Little
Raven, which was the appellation of the father and grandfather of the
present chief.... As the village was abandoned for the season, we
proceeded without stopping. The houses which we saw here were
differently constructed from those which we had previously observed.
They are formed by upright flattened posts, implanted in the ground,
without any interval except here and there some small loopholes for
defence; these posts support the roof, which presents a surface of bark.
Before and behind each hut, there is a scaffold used for the purpose of
drying maize, pumpkins, &c." Late in the same day they arrived at the
fort. (Keating, (1), I, pp. 288-289.) Whether the method of constructing
lodges by forming the walls of upright posts or logs was of native
conception or was derived from the French is now difficult to determine.
In referring to the customs prevailing in the Mississippi Valley,
particularly the French portions, about the year 1810, Brackenridge
said: "In building their houses, the logs, instead of being laid
horizontally, as ours, are placed in a perpendicular position, the
interstices closed with earth or stone, as with us." (Brackenridge, (1),
p. 119.) The old courthouse at St. Louis was built after this method.
Again, among some tribes along the eastern slopes of the Rocky
Mountains, as will be told on another page, were to have been found
small, well-protected lodges formed of upright poles, and in this
instance there is no reason to suspect European influence. Therefore it
is not possible to say definitely whether the structures standing on the
banks of the Mississippi during the summer of 1823 were of a primitive,
native form, or if they represented the influence of the early French
who had penetrated the region many years before.