Research on memory and language functions in the brain is being
carried out at the University of Minnesota, Institute of Child
Development. Work is focused on individuals who are about to
undergo partial lobotomies to treat intractable epilepsy. The
goal is to provide a functional map of the brain.
"History remains a strict discipline only when it stops short, in
its description, of the nonverbal past." (Ivan Illich and Barry
Sanders, The Alphabetization of the Popular Mind, p. 3).
Derrick de Kerkhove, Charles J. Lumsden, Editors. The Alphabet
and the Brain. The Lateralization of Writing.
Berlin/Heidelberg: Springer Verlag, 1988.
In this book, Edward Jones and Chizato Aoki report on the
different cognitive processing of phonetic (Kana) and
logographic (Kanji) characters in Japanese (p. 301).
André Martinet. Le Langage. Paris: Encyclopédie de la Pléiade,
1939.
Maurice Merleau-Ponty. Phénoménologie de la perception. Paris:
Gallimard, Bibliothèque des Idées, 1945.
André Leroi-Gourhan. Moyens d'expression graphique, in Bulletin
du Centre de Formation aux Recherches Ethnologiques, Paris, No.
4, 1956, pp. 1-3.
-. Le geste et la parole, Vol. I and II. Paris: Albin Michel,
1964-1965. -. Les racines du monde, in Entretiens avec
Claude-Henri Rocquet. Paris: Pierre Belfond, 1982.
Gordon V. Childe. The Bronze Age. New York: Biblio and Tannen,
1969.
John DeFrances. The Chinese Language: Fact and Fantasy. 1983.
Marshall McLuhan. Understanding Media: the Extensions of Man. New
York: McGraw Hill 1964.
In many of his writings, Roland Barthes suggested
characteristics of the oral and visual culture. The distinction
between the two preoccupied him.
Klingon is a language crafted by Marc Okrand, a linguist, for use
by fictional characters. The popularity of Star Trek explains
how Klingon spread around the world.
By eliminating sources of ambiguity and prescribing stylistic
rules, controlled languages aim for improved readability. They
are easier to maintain and they support computational processing,
such as machine translation (cf. Willem-Olaf Huijsen,
Introduction to Controlled Languages, a Webtext of 1996).
An example of an artificial language of controlled functions and
logic is Logics Workbench (LWB), developed at the University of
Berne, in Switzerland. The language is available through the WWW.
Drawing: The trace left by a tool drawn along a surface
particularly for the purpose of preparing a representation or
pattern. Drawing forms the basis of all the arts.
Edward Laning, The Act of Drawing, New York: McGraw Hill, 1971.
Design: Balducinni defined design as "a visible demonstration by
means of those things which man has first conceived in his mind
and pictured in the imagination and which the practised hand can
make appear."
"Before Balducinni, its primary sense was drawing." (cf. Oxford
Companion to Art). More information is given in the references
for the chapter devoted to design.
Alan Pipes, Drawing for 3-Dimensional Design: Concepts,
Illustration, Presentation, London: Thames and Hudson, 1990.
Thomas Crump. The Anthropology of Numbers, Cambridge/New York:
Cambridge University Press, 1990.
Referring to Yoshio Yano's article of 1973, in Japanese,
entitled Communication Life of the Family, Crump writes:
"...age, in the absence of other overreaching criteria,
determines hierarchy: this rule applies, for instance, in Japan,
and is based on the antithesis of semmai-kohai, whose actual
meaning is simply senior-junior. The moral basis of the
precedence of the elder over the younger (cho-yo-no-jo)
originated in China, and is reflected in the first instance in
the precedence of siblings of the same sex, which is an
important structural principle within the family" (p. 69).
On the issue of context affecting language functions, see George
Carpenter Barker, Social Functions of Language in a
Mexican-American Community. Phoenix: The University of Arizona
Press, 1972.
Arthur M. Schlesinger, Jr. The Disuniting of America. Reflections
on a Multicultural Society. New York: W.W. Norton, 1992.
Sneja Gunew and Jan Mahyuddin, Editors. Beyond the Echo.
Multicultural Women's Writing . St. Lucia: University of
Queensland Press, 1988.
Stephen J. Rimmer. The Cost of Multiculturalism. Belconnen, ACT:
S.J.Rimmer, 1991.