15th April, 1858, died in Paris 15th Nov., 1917. Educated at the ['E]cole
Normale Sup['e]rieure, he travelled in Germany, where he studied social
conditions. In 1887 he founded the first French chair in sociology at the
University of Bordeaux. Durkheim's merit consists in having separated
sociology from mere psychology, and in having made a distinction between
individual mental phenomena and Folk-psychology. In 1898 he founded and
published annually _L'Ann['e]e Sociologique_. His other works include: _De
la division du travail social_ (1893); _Les r[`e]gles de la m['e]thode
sociologique_ (1894); _Le Suicide_ (1897); _Les formes ['e]l['e]mentaires
de la vie r['e]ligieuse; Sociologie et sciences sociales_ (1910); _Le
syst[`e]me tot['e]mique en Australie_ (1912); _La Sociologie_ (in _La
Science Francaise_, 1915); _Qui a voulu la guerre?; Les Origines de la
guerre, d'apr[`e]s les documents diplomatiques_ (1915).
DURLACH (d[u:]r'l[.a]_h_), a town in Baden, 4 miles E.S.E. of Carlsruhe, at
the foot of the Turmberg, with manufactures of machinery, chemicals, and
leather. Pop. 13,896.
DURMAST, a species of oak, _Quercus sessiliflora_, or according to some,
_Q. pubescens_, so closely allied to the common oak (_Q. robur_) as to be
reckoned only a variety of it. Its wood is, however, darker, heavier, and
more elastic, less easy to split, not so easy to break, yet not so
difficult to bend. It is highly valued, therefore, by the builder and
cabinet-maker.
DUROC (d[.u]-rok), Michel G['e]raud Christophe, Duke of Friuli, a
distinguished general under Bonaparte, born at Pont-[`a]-Mousson in 1772,
killed, 1813, at the battle of Bautzen. He served as aide-de-camp to
Napoleon in the Italian and Egyptian campaigns. In 1805 he was made
grand-marshal of the palace; and was frequently employed in diplomatic
missions, though he still took his full share in the wars of France till
the time of his death. He was a great favourite of Napoleon, and was killed
by his side.
DURRA, or DHURRA, Indian millet, the seed of _Sorghum vulg[=a]re_, after
wheat the chief cereal crop of the Mediterranean region, and largely used
in those countries by the labouring classes for food. Varieties are grown
in many parts of Africa, one of them being known as Kaffir corn.
D[:U]RRENSTEIN (d[.u]r'en-st[=i]n), a village in Lower Austria, on the
Danube, 41 miles west by north of Vienna. Here are the ruins of the castle
in which Leopold, Duke of Austria, imprisoned Richard Coeur-de-Lion on his
return from Palestine, 1192.
DURUY (d[.u]-r[.u]-[=e]), Victor, French historian and educationist, born
at Paris 1811, died in 1894. His father was a workman in the Gobelins
tapestry works, and the boy did not begin his education until he was grown
up. He was admitted to the ['E]cole Normale Sup['e]rieure in 1830,
graduated in 1833, and was appointed successively teacher of history in the
Lyc['e]e Henri IV, then at the Normal School and the Polytechnic School,
inspector of the Academy of Paris, inspector-general of secondary
education, and Minister of Public Instruction (1863-9). He is author of
_G['e]ographie Politique de la R['e]publique Romaine et de l'Empire_,
_G['e]ographie Historique du Moyen Age_, _Histoire Romaine_, _Histoire de
France_, _Histoire Grecque_, _Histoire Populaire Contemporaine_, &c. Some
of these are simply school-books, but his _Histoire des Romains_
(translated into English) and his _Histoire de la Gr[`e]ce Ancienne_
(translated into English) are extensive and important works, the former
especially.
DUSE, Eleonora, Italian actress, born at Vigevano, near Venice, in 1859. At
the age of thirteen she made her first appearance on the stage, and in 1883
she acted at Rome, when she was recognized as one of the greatest Italian,
and even one of the greatest living actresses. From that time her career
was one of uninterrupted success, and she gained a world-wide reputation.
Duse is one of the dramatic artists who discard the customary mannerisms of
the stage, and all that is conventional but unreal in modern acting. Some
of d'Annunzio's best plays were specially written for her. Among her most
remarkable impersonations are those of Francesca da Rimini, Marguerite
Gautier in _La Dame aux Cam['e]lias_, Magda, La Tosca, Paula in _The Second
Mrs. Tanqueray_, and Nora in Ibsen's _A Doll's House_. She appeared for the
first time in London in 1897.
D[:U]SSELDORF (d[.u]s'sel-dorf), a town of Germany, in the Rhine province,
beautifully situated among villas and gardens on the right bank of the
Rhine, 22 miles N.N.W. of Cologne, one of the handsomest towns in the
valley of the Rhine. It is a great focus of railway and steamboat
communication, and has a number of handsome public buildings, and several
remarkable churches. Among the public institutions particular notice is due
to the Academy of Art, founded in 1767, by the Elector Theodore, and
afterwards directed by Cornelius, Schadow, and Bendemann. It has the honour
of having founded a school of painting, which takes the name of
D[:u]sseldorf, and has had a large number of distinguished pupils. The
industries embrace iron, machinery, railway plant, cotton, leather,
chemicals, and beer, and the trade is large. Pop. 358,728.
DUST, solid matter in a fine state of division. Spores of plants, bacteria,
&c., are found in the atmosphere, but in general organic particles are
numerous only over thickly populated districts. Inorganic particles are
derived from various sources. Where the soil is dry, dust is whirled aloft
by the winds, this cause giving rise to the great sand-storms of tropical
desert regions. Volcanoes in eruption eject large quantities of dust. It is
estimated that millions of meteors are encountered by the earth per day.
Most of these are excessively minute. They are speedily disintegrated, and
generally entirely reduced to dust at high levels. Evaporation is almost
always proceeding over seas and oceans, and from foam thrown up and swept
along by the winds the dissolved salts are liberated as solid particles.
Again vast quantities of dust are produced in the consumption of fuel.
The late Dr. John Aitken, F.R.S., of Falkirk, Stirlingshire, contrived a
means of gauging the dust contents of the atmosphere. This consists of a
glass box about a centimetre in thickness. Two pieces of wet filter paper
inside serve to keep the contained air damp. The bottom of the box is a
micrometer plate, divided rectangularly in millimetres. It can be examined
from above by a lens. An air-pump can withdraw definite volumes of air as
desired. When the air is partially withdrawn, the expansion of the
remainder produces cooling. The dust particles form nuclei for condensation
of the vapour. They are thus precipitated on the plate, and counted,
leaving the air dust-free. A measured quantity of the air to be tested is
next drawn in and shaken up. Further operation of the air-pump causes its
expansion, and the deposition of its dust particles, which can then be
counted. Dr. Aitken found the proportion of dust on Ben Nevis to vary at
different times from under 100 particles to over 14,000 per cubic
centimetre. Over oceans the numbers were from about 500 on the Indian to
2000 on the Atlantic. But over cities 100,000 per cubic centimetre are
frequently present. A puff of cigarette smoke was estimated to contain
4,000,000,000 particles.
Many phenomena are connected with the existence of dust in the atmosphere.
As a result of Dr. Aitken's discoveries the belief largely prevailed that
the formation of fog, of rain, and other varieties of precipitation, was
necessarily dependent on dust particles as nuclei of condensation. Though
they certainly function to a preponderating extent, it has been shown that
gaseous particles can act similarly, particularly when air is ionized. Dust
is the main cause of the scattering of the sun's rays which produces
twilight, the blue of the sky, the gorgeous red and golden hues of sunrise
and sunset, and the purple lights of advancing dusk. After the great
Krakatoan eruptions of 1883, dust was carried in the upper atmosphere
several times round the earth, and caused extraordinary colour effects. To
a lesser degree similar phenomena followed the West Indian eruptions of
1902. The unusual sunlessness of the summer of 1912 was attributed to dust
expelled in the preceding great eruptions at Katmai, Alaska.
DUTCH CLOVER, _Trifolium repens_, commonly called white clover, a valuable
pasture plant. It has a creeping stem; the leaflets are broad, obovate,
with a horse-shoe mark in the centre; the white or pinkish flowers are in a
globular head.
DUTCH EAST INDIES, forming a large and important colonial possession of the
Netherlands Government, lie between 6deg N. and 11deg S., and 95deg E. and
141deg E. The colony includes Java and Madura, with the 'Outposts', which
comprise Sumatra, the south-east and west portions of Borneo, Banca,
Billiton, Celebes, the Timor and Riau-Lingga Archipelagos, the smaller
Sunda Islands, and the north and west of New Guinea. The total area is
about 735,000 sq. miles; the population of about 47,000,000 is composed of
46,000,000 natives of Malay race, 832,000 Arabs, Chinese, and other
Orientals, and some 80,000 whites. The origin of the colony may be traced
to the treaty made by the Dutch with the Sultan of Bantam in Sumatra
(1595), which was followed by the formation of the Dutch East India Company
(1602), the establishment of Batavia (1619) on the ruins of the native town
of Jacatra, and the settlement in Sumatra (1677). The Dutch East India
Company was dissolved in 1798, since which date the colony has been
administered from the Netherlands by a Governor-General, who, assisted by a
Council of five members nominated by the queen, has the power to pass laws,
subject to the general regulations adopted in 1854. Some of the outlying
islands are, however, administered by their native princes under the
'advice' of a Netherlands Resident. Batavia (population about 234,000), a
town in the province of the same name on the north-west coast of Java, is
the administrative capital and an important centre of trade. Java and
Sumatra, containing about three-fourths of the total population of the
colony, are self-supporting as regards food, besides producing for European
consumption large quantities of tobacco, tea, coffee, sugar, cinchona, tin,
rubber, and copra. The colonial army numbers some 1200 officers and 40,000
men; compulsory service for white men within certain age-limits was adopted
in 1918. There is also a small naval force.--BIBLIOGRAPHY: Bemmelen and
Hooyer, _Guide to the Dutch East Indies_; W. Cool, _With the Dutch in the
East_; J. M. Brown, _The Dutch East_.
DUTCH METAL, an alloy containing 84.5-84.7 per cent of copper and 15.5-15.3
per cent of zinc, with a fine golden-yellow colour, ductile, malleable, and
tenacious. When beaten out by a process analogous to that for gold-leaf,
until the sheets are less than 1/50,000th part of an inch thick, it
constitutes Dutch leaf or Dutch foil, and is used as a cheap substitute for
gold-leaf for ornamental purposes.
DUTCH PINK, a bright yellow colour used in distemper, for staining
paper-hangings, and for other ordinary purposes. It is composed of chalk or
whiting coloured with a decoction of birch leaves, French berries, and
alum.
DUTCH RUSH, _Equis[=e]tum hyem[=a]le_, one of the plants known as
horse-tails, with a firm texture and so large an amount of silica in the
cuticle that it is employed as a fine sand-paper for polishing delicate
woodwork. The plant is found in marshes and woods in Britain, but for
economic use it is imported from Holland, whence its popular name.
DUTROCHET (d[.u]-tro-sh[=a]), Ren['e] Joachim Henri, a French physiologist,
born in Poitou in 1776, died at Paris in 1847. He served for some time as
medical attendant to Joseph Bonaparte during the Spanish campaign 1808-9;
but afterwards returned to France, and retired to the estate of
Ch[^a]teaurenault, where he devoted himself exclusively to physical and
physiological studies. His chief works have been published in a collective
form with the title _M['e]moires pour servir [`a] l'Histoire Anatomique et
Physiologique des V['e]g['e]taux et des Animaux_ (1837, 2 vols.).
DVINA, NORTHERN, a Russian river formed by the union of two small streams
in the government of Vologda. It flows in a north-westerly direction, and
falls by four mouths into the White Sea. At Archangel, before it divides,
it is 4 miles broad. It is navigable as far as Suchona, and is connected
with the Volga and Neva by canal.
DVO[VR]['A]K (dvor-sh[:a]k'), Anton, a Bohemian musical composer, born in
1841, died in 1904. He studied at the Prague Conservatoire, and composed
several operas on national Bohemian subjects, songs, orchestral
arrangements of Bohemian dances, several symphonies, a _Stabat_ _Mater_, a
cantata (_The Spectre Bride_), and an oratorio (_St. Ludmila_). In 1892 he
was director of the New York National Conservatory, and after 1895 he lived
in Prague, where he wrote, in 1889, the opera _Der Teufel und die wilde
K[:a]tze_.
DWARF, a term applied to any animal or plant greatly below the usual size
of its kind, particularly to a human being of small dimensions. Strictly
speaking, the term should be used with reference to individuals and not to
races. When a whole population consists of people of small stature, the
proper term to apply to them is pigmies, not dwarfs. Accounts of pigmy
tribes have been common from early times, such tribes being located
especially in Africa; and it would appear from the accounts of Du Chaillu,
Schweinfurth, and other travellers that there are several pigmy tribes
throughout this continent. The Obongo, a race of dwarfs, are described as
living in woods near the Okanda River, in wretched huts made of branches.
Other races are the Mabongo, and the Akka dwarfs of Central Africa (see
_Akkas_); and a race exists in the Congo State, not as a distinct
community, however, but mixed with other tribes. Individual dwarfs occur in
all races, and were formerly a fashionable appendage to the courts of
princes and the families of nobles. Jeffery Hudson, the favourite dwarf of
Charles I, at the age of thirty is said to have been only 18 inches high,
though he afterwards grew to 3 feet 9 inches. B['e]b['e], the celebrated
dwarf of Stanislas of Poland, was 33 inches; Wybrand Lolkes, a Dutch dwarf,
when sixty years of age was only 27 inches; Charles H. Stratton, 'General
Tom Thumb', was 31 inches high at the age of twenty-five; Francis Flynn,
'General Mite', was only 21 inches at sixteen. In most of the extreme cases
the dwarfing is the result of some defect in the ductless glands which
regulate the normal growth of the body. Stories of dwarfs and brownies are
to be found in the folk-lore of many tribes on earth.--BIBLIOGRAPHY: E. J.
Wood, _Giants and Dwarfs_; E. Tyson, _Philological Essay concerning Pygmies
of the Ancients_.
DWARFING, the process of training up trees or shrubs for ornament in houses
so as to cause them never to reach more than a very small size, by keeping
them in poor soil, giving them little water, pinching off strong shoots,
&c. It is much practised among the Chinese and Japanese.
DWIGHT (dw[=i]t), Timothy, American divine, born in Massachusetts 1752,
died 1817. His father was Colonel Timothy Dwight, and his mother was a
daughter of Jonathan Edwards. He served as chaplain in the revolutionary
army, and ultimately became president of Yale College. His _Theology
Explained and Defended_ (1818) was for long a standard work both in Britain
and in America.
DY'AKS, the aborigines of Borneo, chiefly inhabiting the interior of the
island. They are a finely formed race, of a yellow complexion, and are
described as docile, industrious, and superior to the Malays. The more
advanced of them practise agriculture and dwell in neatly-constructed and
tolerably comfortable houses. In Sarawak they have made considerable
advances in civilization. The practice of head-hunting (hunting their
enemies to make trophies of their heads) is practised among them, but has
been abolished where European influence prevails.--Cf. Hose and McDougall,
_The Pagan Tribes of Borneo_ (2 vols.).
DYAUS (dyous), the god of the sky in the older mythology of the Hindus. His
name is etymologically connected with that of the Greek Zeus.
DYCE (d[=i]s), Alexander, Shakespearean editor, born at Edinburgh 30th
June, 1798, died 15th May, 1869. He was educated at Edinburgh and Oxford,
but in 1827 settled in London, where most of his life was passed. He first
became known by his editions of Collins, Peele, Webster, Marlowe, and
Skelton, accompanied by notes and biographies of the authors. His chief
work was an edition of Shakespeare in six volumes, with notes (1853-8).
DYCE, William, painter, born at Aberdeen in 1806, died near London, 1864.
He studied in London and Rome, and practised his art in Edinburgh. In 1840
he became director of the School of Design in London, and in 1844 was
appointed professor of fine art in King's College, London. He was elected a
Royal Academician in 1848. Amongst his chief works are: _Francesca da
Rimini_ (1837): _Joash shooting the Arrow of Deliverance_ (1844); _King
Lear in the Storm_ (1851); _Christabel_ (1855); _The Good Shepherd_ (1856);
_The Baptism of Ethelbert_, a large fresco for the Houses of Parliament,
and a series of frescoes illustrative of the legends relating to King
Arthur, for the same. He also executed for the Prince Consort, at Osborne,
the fresco _Neptune giving the Empire of the Sea to Britannia_.
DYEING is the art of colouring textile and other materials in such a way
that the colours are not readily removed by the action of light, washing,
&c. Like spinning and weaving, it was originally a home industry, as it
still is in many places. The natural dyes formerly employed are now largely
displaced by dyes derived from coal-tar products, the first discovery of
which was made by Perkin in 1856; a few mineral colours are employed in
cotton dyeing. Before dyeing, the materials have generally to be cleansed
or bleached to get rid of undesirable colouring matters or impurities; and
frequently a textile material is subjected to some subsidiary treatment in
order to obtain special effects. For example, cotton yarn may be subjected
to the action of strong caustic soda ('mercerizing' process) while in a
state of great tension, in order to give it a permanent silky lustre.
Dyeing is not only an art, it is also a branch of applied chemistry. One
fundamental principle is, that the colouring matter and other necessary
substances must be applied in a state of solution, and while in direct
contact with the fibre they must be rendered insoluble, so that they are
precipitated within or upon the fibre and fixed permanently. The method of
effecting this varies greatly, according to the fibre and the colouring
matter employed. As a rule, the vegetable and the animal fibres are dyed by
very different methods. The affinity of the animal fibres for certain
colouring matters is often so great that they are readily dyed by simple
immersion in hot colour solutions; but this simple process is not generally
sufficient. According to the method of their application in dyeing, the
following groups of dye-stuffs may be distinguished: _Acid Dyes_, _Basic
Dyes_, _Direct Dyes_, _Developed Dyes_, _Mordant Dyes_, _Vat Dyes_. A dye
is _substantive_ to a particular fibre when it dyes that fibre directly,
and _adjective_ when the presence of a third substance known as a _mordant_
is necessary.
The _acid dyes_ are so called because they are of an acid character and are
applied in an acid dye-bath. As a rule, they are only suitable for dyeing
the animal fibres, e.g. wool and silk, also leather, horn, feathers, &c.,
and they are substantive to these materials. The purple vegetable dyestuff
_orchil_ belongs to this class. The acid dyes derived from coal-tar are
very numerous, and yield a great variety of hues--red, orange, yellow,
green, blue, violet, brown, and black. The _basic dyes_ are so called
because their essential constituents, to which they owe their dyeing power,
are organic bases. The bases themselves are colourless and too insoluble in
water to be of use, hence they are employed in the form of their soluble
coloured salts, usually the hydrochlorides of the colour-bases. Their
solutions are precipitated by tannic acid, because it combines with the
colour-bases to form insoluble tannates. Wool, silk, and animal substances
generally have a direct attraction for colour-bases, and hence these fibres
are readily dyed by simple immersion in hot aqueous solutions of the basic
dyes. Cotton and linen, on the other hand, are not dyed so readily; they
need first to be mordanted or impregnated with the _mordant_ tannic acid.
Most of the colours of this class are fugitive to light, and all but one,
viz. _barberry root_, are derived from coal-tar products.
The _direct dyes_ are so called because they dye cotton without the aid of
any mordanting process. The first of this class derived from coal-tar was
_congo red_, discovered in 1884; at present this group includes a very
great variety of fast colours, and forms, indeed, one of the most important
and valuable series of dye-stuffs employed. Cotton, linen, and the
vegetable fibres generally are dyed in the simplest possible manner by
merely boiling them in a solution of the dye-stuff, with or without the
addition of a little soap, carbonate or sulphate of soda, &c. Wool and silk
are frequently dyed in the same manner as cotton. Very few vegetable
dye-stuffs belong to the direct colours, e.g. _Safflower_, _Turmeric_,
_Saffron_, _Annatto_ (see the articles). They are all fugitive, and are now
of little or no importance to the dyer. The coal-tar colours of this class,
on the other hand, are extremely numerous. The _developed dyes_ are formed
_in situ_ upon the fibre by the successive application of two or more
substances. They include _aniline black_, a permanent black produced by the
oxidation of aniline, and the _ice colours_, which are _azo dyes_ derived
from certain coal-tar products containing nitrogen.