occurring in vast flocks along sandy shores. It is about 8 inches in length
from the point of the bill to the extremity of the tail, and its plumage
undergoes marked variations in summer and winter, the back passing from
black with reddish edges to each feather, to an ashen grey, and the breast
from mottled black to pure white. During the winter it migrates to Asia,
Africa, the Canaries, West Indies, and California.
DUNMOW', GREAT and LITTLE, two villages, England, county of Essex. The
latter is remarkable for the ancient custom, revived in 1855, of giving a
flitch of bacon to any couple who, a year and a day after their marriage,
could swear that they had neither quarrelled nor repented. The prize,
instituted in 1244 by Robert de Fitzwalter, was first claimed in 1445.
DUN'NAGE, faggots, boughs, or loose wood laid in the hold of a ship to
raise heavy goods above the bottom to prevent injury from water; also loose
articles wedged between parts of the cargo to hold them steady.
DUNNE, Finley Peter, American humorist, born in Chicago in 1867. After
serving as reporter on various papers, he became editor of the _Evening
Journal_ (1897-1900). Dunne first attracted attention by a series of
sketches in the _Times-Herald_, where he humorously commented upon all
sorts of subjects in the name of one Martin Dooley, publican of Archey
Road. His works include: _Mr. Dooley in Peace and War_ (1898), _Mr.
Dooley's Philosophy_ (1900), _Observations by Mr. Dooley_ (1902), and _Mr.
Dooley Says_ (1910).
DUNNET HEAD, a bold rock promontory in Caithness, with sandstone cliffs 100
to 300 feet high, the most northerly point of the mainland of Scotland,
crowned by a lighthouse visible at a distance of 25 miles.
DUNNOT'TAR CASTLE, an extensive ruin on the coast of Kincardineshire,
Scotland, on a precipitous rock rising from the sea. It dates from the
close of the fourteenth century, and was long the stronghold of the Keiths,
earls marischal. During the Commonwealth this castle was selected for the
preservation of the Scottish regalia; and in 1685 it was used as a State
prison for Covenanters. It was dismantled in 1720.
DUNOIS (d[.u]-nw[:a]), Jean, Count of Orleans and of Longueville; a French
hero, natural son of Louis, Duke of Orleans, born 1402, died 1468. Dunois
made the name 'Bastard of Orleans' illustrious by his military exploits. He
began his career with the defeat of Warwick and Suffolk, whom he pursued to
Paris. Being besieged by the English, he defended Orleans until relieved by
the Maid of Orleans. In 1450 he had completely freed France from the
English, and was rewarded by the title of 'deliverer of his country', the
county of Longueville, and the dignity of High Chamberlain of France.
DUNOON', a town, police burgh, and watering-place of Scotland, in
Argyleshire, on the shore of the Firth of Clyde, 27 miles by river from
Glasgow. It extends for about 3 miles S.S.W. from the Holy Loch, and
consists of Hunter's Quay to the N., Kirn and Dunoon proper to the S.; each
with its separate steamboat pier. On a green rocky knoll are remains of the
castle of Dunoon, once a residence of the family of Argyll. Pop. 9860.
DUNS, John, commonly called _Duns Scotus_, an eminent scholastic divine,
born 1265 or 1274, but whether in England, Scotland, or Ireland is
uncertain. He was admitted when young into an institution belonging to the
Franciscan friars at Newcastle, whence he was sent to Merton College,
Oxford. In 1301 he was appointed divinity professor at Oxford, and the fame
of his learning and talents drew crowds of scholars from all parts. In 1304
he went to Paris, and was appointed professor and regent in the theological
schools, in which situation he acquired the title of _Doctor Subtilis_,
'the subtle doctor'. He opposed Thomas Aquinas on the subject of grace and
free-will; and hence the _Scotists_ are opposed to the _Thomists_. Duns
Scotus was the apostle of _realism_, which was opposed to the systems of
_nominalism_ and _conceptualism_ promulgated by the other sections into
which the schoolmen were divided. He died, it is said, at Cologne in 1308,
leaving behind him numerous works. He was a genuine scholastic philosopher,
who worked out ideas taken from Aristotle, St. Augustine, and the preceding
scholastics.--BIBLIOGRAPHY: W. J. Townsend, _The Great Schoolmen_; C. R.
Hagenbach, _History of Doctrines_; E. Pluzanski, _Essai sur la philosophie
de Duns Scot_; and article in _Dictionary of National Biography_.
DUNS, or DUNSE (dunz, duns), police burgh and county town of Berwickshire,
Scotland, on the Whitadder; has manufactures of linen, and paper-mills.
Pop. 3040. On Duns Law (700 feet) are traces of a camp formed by Leslie's
Covenanters in 1639.
DUNSIN'ANE, a hill in Scotland, one of the Sidlaws, 1012 feet high, about 7
miles N.E. of Perth, with vestiges of a hill-fort locally called Macbeth's
Castle, and immortalized by Shakespeare in _Macbeth_.
DUN'STABLE, a town, England, county of Bedford, 32 miles north-west of
London. It was an important Roman station, and had a palace and a priory
founded by Henry I in 1131. Part of the latter is used as the parish
church. It has a grammar school, founded in 1715. Dunstable is famous for
its manufactures of straw-plait. Pop. 8057.
DUN'STAN, ST., an English archbishop and statesman, was born at Glastonbury
in 925, died at Canterbury 988. As a youth he was remarkable for his
learning and his skill in music, painting, carving, and working in metals.
He entered the Benedictine order, became an anchorite at Glastonbury, and
in 945 was made abbot by King Edmund. After the death of Edmund, Edred, the
next king, made him his Prime Minister and principal director in civil and
ecclesiastical affairs. In the reign of Edwy he was banished, but was
recalled by Edgar, and made Archbishop of Canterbury. He was again deprived
of power on the accession of Ethelred in 978, and devoted the last years of
his life to his diocese and the literary and artistic pursuits of his
earlier days. He did much to improve education and to raise the standing
and character of the priesthood. The old biographies of him have all a
large legendary element.--Cf. W. Stubbs (editor), _Memorials of St.
Dunstan_ (Rolls Series, 1874).
DUODECIMAL SYSTEM, in numeration, a system of numbers the scale of which is
twelve. _Duodecimals_ is a term applied to an arithmetical method of
ascertaining the number of square feet, &c., in a rectangular area or
surface, whose sides are given in feet, inches, and lines. The method is
similar to that of ordinary decimals, the scale being twelve instead of
ten.
DUODEC'IMO (often contracted 12_mo_) is that form of volume in which each
leaf forms a twelfth part of the sheet.
DUODE'NUM (Lat. _duodeni_, by twelves), the commencement of the intestinal
canal, the first of the smaller intestines, so called because its length is
about twelve fingers' breadth.
DUPANLOUP (d[.u]-p[:a]n-l[=o]), F['e]lix Antoine Philibert, French prelate,
born at St. F['e]lix, in Savoy, 1802; became a French subject by
naturalization in 1838; died at Paris 1878. He was ordained in 1825,
appointed professor of theology at the Sorbonne in 1841, and Bishop of
Orleans in 1849. From that time he took a prominent part in all the
political and religious discussions in France. He belonged to the Gallican
party, but submitted to the decisions of the council of the Vatican; and
was a strenuous advocate of free education. He wrote: _La Pacification
R['e]ligieuse, De l'['e]ducation_, and _De la haute ['e]ducation_.
DUPLEIX (d[.u]-pl[=a]), Joseph, a French leader in India, born 1697, died
1763. He accumulated a fortune by commercial operations in India, and in
1742 was appointed Governor of Pondicherry for the French East India
Company. He formed the project of founding a French Empire in India, and
soon made himself master of the Carnatic partly by conquest and partly by
political intrigue. He was opposed by Clive, and a long string of British
successes caused the complete overthrow of all his plans. Recalled in 1753,
he died in want and obscurity in Paris.
DUPONT (d[.u]-p[=o]n), Pierre, French poet and song-writer, born at Lyons
1821, died at St. ['E]tienne (Loire) 1870. He was educated by his
godfather, a priest, and began to write and compose songs at an early age.
After issuing a volume of poems in 1844, he went to Paris and obtained a
place in the office of the secretary of the Institute. Some of his songs,
such as _Song of Bread_ and _Song of the Workers_, had a Socialistic ring
which proved obnoxious to the Government which came into power in Dec.,
1852. He was arrested, imprisoned, and condemned to be banished for seven
years; but his release was soon procured. His poems have been collected
under the titles _Cahiers de Chansons_, _La Muse Populaire_, _Chants et
Chansons_, _Po['e]sie et Musique_, and _['E]tudes Litt['e]raires_.
DUPONT DE NEMOURS (d[.u]-p[=o]n d[.e] n[.e]-m[:o]r), Pierre Samuel, French
political economist, born at Paris, Dec., 1739; died in America 1817. He
early gained a reputation for his writings on commerce, and his exposition
of the theories of the physiocrats, and was employed by Turgot and
Vergennes in the public service. During the ministry of Calonne he became
Councillor of State, and in 1787 was secretary to the Assembly of the
Notables. He was twice president of the National Assembly. During the
Revolution he opposed the extreme republicans, and narrowly escaped the
guillotine at the downfall of Robespierre. From 1798 to 1802 he was in
America, and on his return to France he refused all public office. He
finally returned to America in 1815. Among his writings are: _Philosophie
de l'Univers_, _Vie de Turgot_, and a translation of Ariosto.
D[:U]PPEL (d[.u]p'l), a fortified village in Schleswig-Holstein, on the
coast of the Little Belt. The place is of considerable strategical
importance, and has been the scene of some severe struggles between the
Danes, to whom it formerly belonged, and the Germans. It was captured by
the Prussians in 1864, after a siege and bombardment which lasted nearly
two months.
DUPUY, Charles Alexander, French statesman, born at Le Puy, Haute-Loire, in
1851. Educated at the Lyc['e]e of Le Puy and the Lyc['e]e Charlemagne in
Paris, he was professor of philosophy at the colleges of Nantes and
Aurillac, and afterwards vice-rector of the Corsican College at Ajaccio. He
entered the Chamber of Deputies in 1885, was Minister of Public Instruction
in 1889, and succeeded Ribot as Premier in 1893, but resigned and became
President of the Chamber of Deputies. He was again Premier from 1894 to
1895, and from 1898 to 1899, and was elected to the Senate in 1900. He was
Minister of Labour from 1912 to 1914.
DUPUYTREN (d[.u]-p[.u]-i-tr[:a]n), Guillaume, Baron, French surgeon and
anatomist, born in 1777, died at Paris 1835. In 1812 he became professor of
surgery, and in 1815 first surgeon to the H[^o]tel Dieu, Paris. In 1823 he
was appointed first physician to Louis XVIII, and retained the same
situation under Charles X. He was considered the first French surgeon of
his day, made important discoveries in morbid anatomy, and invented several
useful surgical instruments.
DUQUESNE (d[.u]-k[=a]n), Abraham, French admiral, born 1610, died 1688. In
his seventeenth year he was in the sea-fight off Rochelle, and
distinguished himself during and after the year 1637 in the war against
Spain. In 1647 he commanded the expedition against Naples. In the Sicilian
War he thrice defeated the combined fleets of Holland and Spain, under the
renowned De Ruyter. After he had reduced Algiers and Genoa, Louis XIV
conferred upon him the fine estate of Bouchet, and made it a marquisate,
with the title of Duquesne. He was a Protestant, and the only person
exempted from the banishment of his sect, occasioned by the repeal of the
Edict of Nantes.
DURA'MEN, the name given by botanists to the central wood or heart-wood in
a tree trunk. It is harder than the newer wood that surrounds it, and is
often dark-coloured from being impregnated with tannin and other antiseptic
substances.
DURANCE (d[.u]-r[:a]ns), a river of France, which rises in the Cottian
Alps, and, after a course of about 180 miles, joins the Rhone about 4 miles
below Avignon. Marseilles is supplied with water from the Durance.
DURAN'GO, a town in Mexico, capital of the state of Durango, about 500
miles N.W. of Mexico, on an elevation 6845 feet above the sea. It is well
built, has a cathedral, a mint, manufactures of cotton and woollen goods
and leather. Pop. 34,085.--The state (area, 42,272 sq. miles) is partly
mountainous and unproductive, but has valuable gold-, silver-, and
iron-mines, and also fertile tracts. Pop. 436,147 (1910); estimated pop. in
1919, 509,585.
DURANTE (d[:o]-r[.a]n't[=a]), Francesco, Italian musician, born 1684, died
1755. He attained a high degree of eminence in vocal church music, and he
trained the most celebrated musical masters of the eighteenth century in
Naples--Pergolese, Sacchini, Piccini, Guglielmi, and Jomelli.
DURAZZO (d[:o]-r[:a]t's[=o]; ancient DYRRHACHIUM, or EPIDAMNUS), a seaport
of Albania, on the Adriatic, 50 miles south by west of Scutari. It is
fortified, and has a good harbour. For four centuries the town remained
under Turkish rule and lost all importance, but in 1912, during the Balkan
War, it came again into prominence. It was occupied by the Serbians on 28th
Nov., 1912, and in 1913 was incorporated in the newly created Principality
of Albania. During the European War Durazzo was captured by the Austrians
in Feb., 1916, but was reoccupied by the Italians on 14th Oct., 1918. Pop.
5000.
DUR'BAN, chief port of Natal, on a land-locked bay (Port Natal). It is well
laid out, has a fine town hall, handsome churches, post office, hospital,
electric tramways, and parks and gardens, and is connected by railway with
Maritzburg and the interior. The harbour now admits large vessels. Founded
in 1834, it was named after a governor of the Cape. Pop. 48,475.
DURBAR (d[u:]r-b[:a]r'; Pers. _dar_, door, and _bar_, court, admittance), a
term signifying the court, council-chamber, or audience-room in the palaces
of the native princes of India; hence, a general reception by a ruler in
British India or by any officer of rank. Durbars were held on a ridge at
Delhi on the proclamation of Queen Victoria (1877), of King Edward VII
(1903), and of King George V (1911).
D[:U]REN (d[:u]'ren), a town in the Rhine province, on the right bank of
the Roer, 16 miles E. by N. of Aix-la-Chapelle. It has important
manufactures of woollens, paper, leather, rails, and hardware, and an
extensive trade. Pop. 32,511.
D[:U]RER (d[:u]'r[.e]r), Albrecht, German painter, designer, sculptor, and
engraver on wood and metal, born at N[:u]rnberg 1471, died there 1528. His
father was a skilful goldsmith of Hungary. In 1486 he left his father's
trade and became an apprentice of Michael Wohlgemuth, then the best painter
in N[:u]rnberg. Having finished his studies, he entered upon his
'wanderjahre', the usual course of travels of a German youth. On his return
to N[:u]rnberg he married Agnes, the daughter of Hans Frey, a mechanic, who
has been falsely accused for centuries of embittering his life and bringing
him to his grave. In 1505 he went to Venice to improve himself in his art.
His abilities excited envy and admiration. He painted the _Martyrdom of
Bartholomew_ for St. Mark's church, which painting was purchased by the
Emperor Rudolph and removed to Prague. He also travelled to Bologna, to
improve his knowledge of perspective. On his return to N[:u]rnberg his fame
spread far and wide. Maximilian I appointed him his court-painter, and
Charles V confirmed him in this office. All the artists and learned men of
his time honoured and loved him, and for many years he was one of the chief
burghers of his native town. Profound application and great facility in the
mechanical part of his art were the characteristics of D[:u]rer, and
enabled him to exert a great influence on German art. He was the first in
Germany who taught the rules of perspective, and of the proportions of the
human figure. He not only made use of the burin, like his predecessors, but
was also among the first to practise etching. He also invented the method
of printing woodcuts in two colours. Among his masterpieces in painting are
a _Crucifixion_, _Adam and Eve_, an _Adoration of the Magi_, and portraits
of Raphael, Erasmus, and Melanchthon, who were his friends. Among his best
engravings on copper are his _Fortune_, _Melancholy_, _Adam and Eve in
Paradise_, _St. Hubert_, _St. Jerome_, and _The Smaller Passion_, in
sixteen plates. Among his best engravings on wood are _The Greater Passion_
(so called), in thirteen plates; _The Smaller Passion_, with the
frontispiece, thirtyseven pieces; _The Revelation of St. John_, with the
frontispiece, fifteen plates; _The Life of Mary_, two prints, with the
frontispiece. D[:u]rer has also much merit as a writer, and published works
on _Human Proportion_, _Fortification_, and the _Use of the Compass and
Square_.--BIBLIOGRAPHY: Thausing, _D[:u]rer, Geschichte seines Lebens und
seiner Kunst_ (2 vols.; English translation by F. A. Eaton); L. Cust,
_Albrecht D[:u]rer: a Study of his Life and Works_; F. N[:u]chter, _Life
and Selection from Works_.
DU'RESS (Lat. _duritia_, severity, from _durus_, hard), in law, restraint
or compulsion, is of two kinds: _duress of imprisonment_, which is
imprisonment or restraint of personal liberty; and _duress_ by menaces or
threats (_per minas_), when a person is threatened with loss of life, or
with some kind of injury. An act done under duress is voidable or
excusable.
D'URFEY (dur'fi), Thomas, an English poet and wit, the grandson of a French
Protestant refugee, was born at Exeter in 1653, and died in 1723. He
abandoned law for literature, and wrote a large number of comedies of a
licentious character. His bombastic tragedy _The Siege of Memphis_ appeared
in 1676. D'Urfey's name is now principally remembered in connection with
his _Pills to Purge Melancholy_, a collection of songs and ballads, partly
his own, and many of them coarse or licentious. His society was generally
courted by the witty, and he enjoyed the favour of four successive
monarchs.
[Illustration: Durga]
DURGA (d[u:]r'g[:a]), a Hindu divinity, one of the names given to the
consort of Siva. She is generally represented with ten arms. In one hand
she holds a spear, with which she is piercing Mahisha, the chief of the
demons, the killing of whom was her most famous exploit; in another a
sword; in a third the hair of the demon chief; and in others, the trident,
discus, axe, club, and shield. A great festival in her honour, the _Durga
puja_, is celebrated annually, lasting for ten days.
DURHAM, SIMEON OF, English chronicler of the twelfth century; wrote _Annals
of England to the Reign of Henry I_, particularly valuable for events
connected with the north of England. They were continued by John of Hexham.
DURHAM (du'ram), an ancient city, capital of the county of the same name,
on the River Wear, which is crossed here by four bridges, 14 miles S. of
Newcastle. The principal public buildings are the ancient castle--now
appropriated to the uses of the university--the cathedral and other
churches, the town hall, county prison, and grammar-school. The educational
institutions comprise the university, opened in 1833, the grammar-school, a
training-school for school-mistresses, and other schools. There are
manufactures of carpeting and mustard. The cathedral occupies a height
overlooking the Wear. The larger portion of it is Norman in style, with
insertions in all the English styles. Three magnificent and elaborately
ornamental towers spring up from the body of the building, one from the
centre 212 feet high, and two together from the west end each 143 feet
high; the entire length is 420 feet. It was founded by William de St.
Carilef, assisted by Malcolm, King of Scotland, in 1093. A parliamentary
borough until 1918, Durham returned two members to the House of Commons
from 1673 to 1885, and one member from 1885 to 1918. Pop. 17,500.
DURHAM BOOK, a Latin text of the gospels written by Bishop Eadfrith of
Lindisfarne, with an interlinear Saxon gloss, finished in the year 720; now
in the British Museum.
DURHAM, COUNTY OF, a county on the N.E. coast of England, having on the E.
the North Sea, on the N. Northumberland, from which it is divided by the
Rivers Tyne and Derwent, Cumberland on the W., and Yorkshire on the S., the
River Tees parting the two counties. Its area is 647,592 acres, of which
two-thirds are under cultivation. The western portion of the county is
hilly, enclosing fertile valleys, the eastern portion is more level, and
the centre contains extensive coal-fields. Durham is the chief coal county
in England, and also produces fire-clay. The chief crops are wheat, oats,
turnips, and potatoes. The cattle are esteemed both for the dairy and for
fattening. In connection with the commerce of the county may be noticed its
foundries, ironworks, potteries, glass-houses, iron-shipbuilding, engine
and machine works, and chemical works. For parliamentary purposes it is
divided into eleven divisions, each of which sends one member to the House
of Commons. It was formerly one of the three counties called counties
_palatine_. The chief towns besides Durham are Sunderland, Gateshead, South
Shields, Stockton, Darlington, and Hartlepool. Pop. 1,369,860.-- Cf.
_Victoria History of the County of Durham_.
DURHAM UNIVERSITY, founded in 1832, opened in 1833, incorporated by royal
charter in 1837. It is connected with the bishopric of Durham, the office
of warden being annexed to the deanery of Durham, and a canonry in the
cathedral being annexed to each of the professors of divinity and classical
literature. There are also professors of mathematics, Hebrew, medicine, &c.
The students mostly reside within the university buildings, but in 1870 a
regulation was passed dispensing with the necessity of residing in any
college, hall, or house connected with the university in order to be
admitted as a member. The management of the university is entrusted, under
the Bishop of Durham as visitor, to the dean and chapter of the cathedral
as governors, and to the warden, senate, and convocation, the last
including all persons regularly admitted since the opening of the
university to the degrees of Doctor in Divinity, Civil Law, and Medicine,
and to the degree of Master of Arts. The academical year is divided into
three terms--Michaelmas, Epiphany, and Easter. For the degree of B.A., or a
licence in theology, a residence of two years (of six months each) is
necessary. The M.A. degree may be obtained by a graduate who is of the
standing of nine terms since taking his degree of B.A. Armstrong College,
founded in 1874, and the College of Medicine, both at Newcastle-on-Tyne,
form part of the University of Durham.
[Illustration: Durian and Section of Fruit]
DURIAN, or DURION (_Durio zibeth[=i]nus_), a large and lofty tree growing
in the Malayan Archipelago. The largish flowers, of a yellow-green colour,
are produced on the stem or main branches, and are followed by the large
fetid fruit, which is of the size of a man's head, and is a favourite food
of the natives during the time (May and June) when it is in season. There
is usually a second crop in November. The smell is offensive, like putrid
animal matter, but with this is associated the most delicious flavour,
which places it, notwithstanding the odour, in the opinion of many, in the
foremost place among tropical fruits.
D[:U]RKHEIM (d[.u]rk'h[=i]m), an old town in Rhenish Bavaria (the
Palatinate), 14 miles W.S.W. of Mannheim, well known for its mineral water.
The town was destroyed by the French in 1689. Pop. 6523.