letters-patent, was granted by Queen Elizabeth for the incorporation of the
"College of the Holy and Undivided Trinity", the University and Trinity
College being practically the same. The corporation now consists of a
provost, seven senior fellows, twenty-six junior fellows, and seventy
foundation scholars. The Senate of the university consists of "the
chancellor of the university, or in his absence, of the vice-chancellor,
and such doctors or masters of the university as shall have and keep their
names on the books of Trinity College". The Senate possesses the right of
electing the chancellor of the university; it is also the body which grants
degrees. The fellows are appointed for life, after an examination. The
scholars are chosen from among the undergraduates, after an examination in
mathematics and logic, or in Greek, Latin, and logic. The scholarships are
tenable for five years, or till the degree of M.A. is attained. The course
of general instruction extends over four years. The academical year is
divided into three terms--Michaelmas, Hilary, and Trinity--and every
student must keep at least two terms in each year in order to obtain a
degree. The system of instruction is superintended by the fellows, both
junior and senior, together with a large staff of professors in the various
departments of science and literature. Eighteen of the junior fellows act
as tutors, and every student must place himself under one of these on
entering the college. The B.A. degree is given after examination in the
usual subjects, and may be a pass or honours degree; the M.A., as at Oxford
and Cambridge, is gained by the payment of a fee after a certain time has
elapsed. There are also a law school, a medical school, and a school of
engineering, and degrees are granted in these subjects, as well as in arts
and divinity. The college possesses a library of about 285,000 printed
volumes and 1700 manuscripts. It has also a botanic garden and museum. In
1613 James I granted to the university the right of returning two members
to Parliament. One was taken away at the Union, but was restored by the
Reform Bill of 1832. The number of students in 1920 was 1350.--Cf. _Dublin
University Calendar_.
DUBNO, a town of the Ukraine, government of Volhynia. It was a place of
some importance before the annexation of Western Poland by Russia. During
the European War it was recaptured in the Russian advance in June, 1916.
Pop. 14,000.
DUBOIS (d[.u]-bw[:a]), Guillaume, a French cardinal, was the son of an
apothecary, born in 1656, died 1723. He became tutor to the Duke of
Chartres, afterwards Duke of Orleans and Regent, and maintained his
influence by pandering to the vices of his pupil. He became Privy
Councillor and overseer of the duke's household, and Minister for Foreign
Affairs under the regency. The archbishopric of Cambrai having become
vacant, Dubois ventured to request it of the regent, although he was not
even a priest. The regent was astonished at his boldness; but he obtained
the post, having in one morning received all the clerical orders, and, a
few days after, the archbishopric. By his consummate address he obtained a
cardinal's hat, and in 1721 was appointed Prime Minister. Dubois was an
avaricious, lying, licentious creature, yet clever and industrious, and
able to make himself very agreeable where it suited his interest.
DUBOIS (d[.u]-bw[:a]), Paul, French sculptor, born 1829, died in 1905. He
first studied law, but from 1856 to 1858 gave himself up to sculpture under
Toussaint at Paris, and then went to Italy, where the sculptors of the
early Renaissance, Donatello and Luca Della Robbia, had a decided influence
upon him. Among his works are a _St. John_, a _Narcissus_, a _Madonna and
Child_, _Eve Awakening to Life_, a figure of _Song_ for the opera-house at
Paris, and numerous busts; but his greatest work is the monument of General
Lamorici[`e]re in the Cathedral of Nantes, with figures of _Military
Courage_, _Charity_, _Faith_, and _Meditation_, which rank among the best
products of French plastic art. He is also distinguished as a painter of
portraits. He was director of the ['E]cole des Beaux Arts from 1878 until
his death, and received the grand cross of the Legion of Honour.
DU BOIS-REYMOND (d[.u] bw[:a]-r[=a]-m[=o][n.]), Emil, German physiologist,
and an especial authority on animal electricity, born at Berlin 1818, died
in 1896. He studied theology, geology, and afterwards anatomy and
physiology, and became professor of physiology in the University of Berlin
in 1858. His principal publication is _Researches in Animal Electricity_.
DUBOV'KA, a town of South Russia, government of Saratov, on the Volga; it
has an extensive river trade in wool, iron, oil, and grain. Pop. 16,530.
DUBUQUE (du-b[=u]k'), a city of Iowa, United States, on the right bank of
the Mississippi. It occupies an important commercial position as a railway
centre and entrep[^o]t for the agricultural and mineral products of the
northern half of Iowa, and the timber of Wisconsin, and also from the
valuable lead-mines in its vicinity. Pop. 39,428.
DUCANGE (d[.u]-k[:a]nzh), Charles Dufresne, Sieur, a French historian and
linguist, was born in 1610 near Amiens, died at Paris 1688. He studied in
the Jesuits' College at Amiens, afterwards at Orleans and Paris. At this
last place he became Parliamentary Advocate in 1631, and in 1645 Royal
Treasurer at Amiens, from which place he was driven by a pestilence, in
1668, to Paris. Here he devoted himself entirely to literature, and
published his great works, viz. his _Glossaries of the Greek and Latin
peculiar to the Middle Ages and the Moderns_, his _Historia Byzantina_, the
_Annals of Zonaras_, the _Numismatics of the Middle Ages_, and other
important works.
DUCAS, Michael, Byzantine historian, flourished in the fifteenth century.
His _Historia Byzantina_, which contains a reliable account of the siege
and sack of Constantinople, was largely used by Gibbon.
DUC'AT (Lat. _duc[=a]tus_, a duchy), a coin formerly common in several
European states. They were either of silver or gold: value of the former,
3s. to 4s., of the latter about 9s. 4d. They were named from being first
coined in one of the Italian duchies.
DUCATOON', formerly a Dutch silver coin worth 3 gulden 3 stivers, or 5s.
3d. sterling. There were coins of the same name in Italy. In Tuscany its
value was about 5s. 5d., in Savoy slightly more, and in Venice about 4s.
9d.
DU CHAILLU (d[.u]-sh[=a]-y[:u]), Paul Belloni, traveller, born in Paris
1835, died 1903. He spent his youth in the French settlement at the Gaboon,
on the west coast of Africa, where his father was a merchant. In 1852 he
went to the United States, of which he afterwards became a naturalized
citizen. In 1855 he began his first journey through Western Africa, and
stayed till 1859 alone among the different tribes, travelling on foot
upwards of 8000 miles. He collected several gorillas, never before hunted,
and rarely, if ever, before seen by any European. An account of this
journey, _Explorations and Adventures in Equatorial Africa_, was published
in 1861. A second expedition was made in 1863, an account of which, under
the title _A Journey to Ashango Land_, appeared in 1867. _The Land of the
Midnight Sun_, an account of a tour in Northern Europe (1881), had a
considerable success. He published a number of books intended for boys, and
based on his travels. One of his works is _The Viking Age_ (1889), on the
ancestors of the English-speaking peoples.
DUCHESNE, or DU CHESNE (d[.u]-sh[=a]n), Andr['e], French historian, born in
1584, died in 1640. His most important works are his collection of French
historians--_Historiae Francorum Scriptores_; _Historiae Normanorum
Scriptores 838-1220_; _Histoire d'Angleterre, d'['E]cosse, et d'Irlande_;
_Histoire des Papes_.
DUCIS (d[:u]-s[=e]s), Jean Francois, French dramatic writer, born at
Versailles 1733, died 1816. Of his original works, the tragedy _Abufar_ was
much admired; but he is now best known for his adaptations of Shakespeare
to the Parisian stage.
[Illustration: Mallard or Wild-duck]
DUCK, the name given to web-footed birds constituting the sub-family
Anatinae of the family Anatidae, which also includes swans and geese. The
ducks are very numerous as species, and are met with all over the world.
They are often migratory, going northward in summer to their
breeding-places. Their food is partly vegetable, partly animal. The common
mallard or wild-duck (_Anas boschas_) is the original of the domestic duck.
In its wild state the male is characterized by the deep green of the
plumage of the head and neck, by a white collar separating the green from
the dark chestnut of the lower part of the neck, and by having the four
middle feathers of the tail recurved. The wild-duck is taken in large
quantities by decoys and other means. Some tame ducks have nearly the same
plumage as the wild ones; others vary greatly, being generally duller or
pure white, but all the males have the four recurved tail-feathers. There
are several favourite varieties of the domestic duck, those of Normandy and
Picardy in France, and the Aylesbury ducks in England, being remarkable for
their great size and delicacy of flesh. Other species of the sub-family
are: shoveller (_Spatula clypeata_), garganey (_Querquedula circia_),
pintail or sea-pheasant (_Dafila acuta_), teal (_Nettion crecca_), widgeon
(_Mareca penelope_), gadwall (_Chaulelasmus streperus_), sheldrake
(_Tadorna cornuta_), tree-ducks (species of Dendrocygna). In a wider sense
the name 'duck' is applied to species of other sub-families of the Anatidae
as follows: Merganettinae: blue duck (_Hymenolaemus malacorhynchus_) of New
Zealand. Erismaturinae: musk duck (_Biziura lobata_) of Tasmania and
Australia. Lake ducks (species of Erismatura). Fuligulinae: eider duck
(_Somateria mollissima_), q.v.; scoter or black duck (_Oedemia nigra_);
harlequin duck (_Cosmonetta histrionica_); logger-head or steamer duck
(_Tachyeres cinereus_) of South America: scaup (_Fuligula marila_); canvas
back (_F. vallisneria_), q.v.; pochard (_Nyroca ferina_). Plectopterinae:
summer duck (_Aix sponsa_) of N. America and Cuba; mandarin duck (_A.
galericulata_) of E. Asia; Muscovy or musk duck (_Cairina moschata_),
ranging from Mexico to the Argentine.--BIBLIOGRAPHY: Nourse, _Turkeys,
Ducks, and Geese_; Rankin, _Natural and Artificial Duck Culture_; J. G.
Millais, _British Diving Ducks_.
DUCKING-STOOL, a stool or chair in which common scolds were formerly tied
and plunged into water. They were of different forms, but that most
commonly in use consisted of an upright post and a transverse movable beam
on which the seat was fitted or from which it was suspended by a chain. The
ducking-stool is mentioned in _Domesday Book_ (Chester): it was extensively
in use throughout the country from the fifteenth till the beginning of the
eighteenth century, and in one case--at Leominster--was used as late as
1809.
DUCKWEED, the popular name of several species of Lemna, nat. ord.
Lemnaceae, plants growing in ditches and shallow water, floating on the
surface, and serving as food for ducks and geese. Five species are known in
Britain, and others are common in America. They consist of small fronds
bearing naked unisexual flowers.
DUCKWORTH, Sir John Thomas, a British admiral, born in 1748, died 1817. He
joined the navy when eleven years of age; and was post-captain in 1780. In
1793, on the breaking out of the French war, he was appointed to the
command of the _Orion_, 74, forming part of the Channel fleet under Lord
Howe, and distinguished himself in 1794 in the great naval victory on 1st
June. In 1798 he aided in the capture of Minorca. From 1800 to 1806 he
rendered important services on the West India station, in particular
gaining a complete victory over a French squadron, for which he received a
pension of L1000 a year and the thanks of both Houses of Parliament. In
1807, having been ordered to Constantinople, he forced the passage of the
Dardanelles, but suffered severely from the Turkish batteries in returning.
From 1810 to 1814 he commanded the Newfoundland fleet, and in 1817 he was
appointed to the chief command at Plymouth. In 1813 he was created a
baronet.
DUCLOS (d[.u]-kl[=o]), Charles Pinot, a French novelist, writer of memoirs,
and grammarian, born in 1704 at Dinant, died at Paris 1772. He became
secretary of the French Academy, and on the resignation of Voltaire he was
appointed to the office of historiographer of France. His writings are
lively and satirical. Among the best are: _Confessions du Comte de * * *_
(1741), _Consid['e]rations sur les Moeurs de ce Si[`e]cle_, _M['e]moires
secrets sur les R[`e]gnes de Louis XIV et XV_, and _Remarques sur la
Grammaire g['e]n['e]rale de Port-Royal_.
DUCTIL'ITY, the property of solid bodies, particularly metals, which
renders them capable of being extended by drawing, while their thickness or
diameter is diminished, without any actual fracture or separation of their
parts. The following is nearly the order of ductility of the metals which
possess the property in the highest degree, that of the first mentioned
being the greatest: gold, silver, platinum, iron, copper, nickel,
palladium, cadmium, zinc, tin, lead. Dr. Wollaston succeeded in obtaining a
wire of platinum only 1/30000th of an inch in diameter. The ductility of
glass at high temperatures seems to be unlimited, while its flexibility
increases in proportion to the fineness to which its threads are drawn.
DUDDON, an English river which flows 20 miles along the boundaries of
Cumberland and Lancashire to the Irish Sea, and is the subject of a series
of sonnets by Wordsworth, written in 1820.
DU DEFFAND, Madame. See _Deffand_.
DUDERSTADT (d[:o]'d[.e]r-st[.a]t), an old German town, province of Hanover,
10 miles east of G[:o]ttingen, formerly a member of the Hanseatic League
and a place of some importance. Pop. 5380.
DUDEVANT, Madame. See _Sand, George_.
DUD'LEY, Sir Edmund, born 1462, executed 1510, noted in English history as
an instrument of Henry VII in the arbitrary acts of extortion by the
revival of obsolete statutes and other unjust measures practised during the
latter years of his reign. On the accession of Henry VIII he was arrested
for high treason, and perished on the scaffold with his associate Sir
Richard Empson.
DUDLEY, Lord Guildford, son of John, Duke of Northumberland, was married in
1553 to Lady Jane Grey, whose claim to the throne the duke intended to
assert on the death of Edward VI. On the failure of the plot Lord Guildford
was condemned to death, but the sentence was not carried into effect till
the insurrection of Wyatt induced Mary to order his immediate execution
(1554).
DUDLEY, John, Duke of Northumberland, son of Sir Edmund Dudley, minister of
Henry VII, was born in 1502, beheaded 1553. He was left by Henry VIII one
of the executors named in his will, as a kind of joint-regent during the
minority of Edward VI. Under that prince he manifested the most insatiable
ambition, and obtained vast accessions of honours, power, and emoluments.
The illness of the king, over whom he had gained complete ascendency,
aroused his fears, and he endeavoured to strengthen his interest by
marrying his son Lord Guildford Dudley to Lady Jane Grey, descended from
the younger sister of Henry VIII, and persuaded Edward to settle the crown
on his kinswoman by will, to the exclusion of his two sisters, the
Princesses Mary and Elizabeth. The attempt to place Lady Jane Grey on the
throne failed, and many of the conspirators were executed.
DUDLEY, Robert, Earl of Leicester. See _Leicester_.
DUDLEY, a town and parliamentary borough of England, in an isolated part of
Worcestershire enclosed by Staffordshire, 8 miles west by north of
Birmingham. It is situated in the midst of the 'black country', and has
extensive coal-mines, iron-mines, ironworks, and limestone quarries. It
produces nails, chain-cables, anchors, vices, boilers, fire-irons, and has
also glassworks, brickworks, and brass-foundries. There are the remains of
a castle, said to have been founded in the eighth century by a Saxon prince
called Dud, who has given the town its name. Dudley returns one member to
Parliament. Pop. of municipal borough, 51,079.
DUDLEY LIMESTONE, a highly fossiliferous limestone belonging to the
Silurian system, occurring near Dudley, and equivalent to the Wenlock
limestone. It abounds in beautiful masses of coral, shells, and trilobites.
DUEL (Lat. _duellum_, from _duo_, two), a premeditated and prearranged
combat between two persons with deadly weapons, for the purpose of deciding
some private difference or quarrel. The combat generally takes place in the
presence of witnesses called seconds, who make arrangements as to the mode
of fighting, place the weapons in the hands of the combatants, and see that
the laws they have laid down are carried out. The origin of the practice of
duelling is referred to the trial by 'wager of battle' which obtained in
early ages. This form of duel arose among the Germanic peoples, and a
judicial combat of the kind was authorized by Gundebald, King of the
Burgundians, as early as A.D. 501. When the judicial combat declined, the
modern duel arose, being probably to some extent an independent outcome of
the spirit and institutions of chivalry. France was the country in which it
arose, the sixteenth century being the time at which it first became
common, especially after the challenge of Francis I to Charles V in 1528.
Upon every insult or injury which seemed to touch his honour, a gentleman
thought himself entitled to draw his sword, and to call on his adversary to
give him satisfaction, and it is calculated that 6000 persons fell in duels
during ten years of the reign of Henri IV. His minister, Sully,
remonstrated against the practice; but the king connived at it, supposing
that it tended to maintain a military spirit among his people. In 1602,
however, he issued a decree against it, and declared it to be punishable
with death. Many subsequent prohibitions were issued, but they were all
powerless to stop the practice. During the minority of Louis XIV, more than
4000 nobles are said to have lost their lives in duels. The practice of
duelling was introduced into England from France in the reign of James I;
but it was never so common as in the latter country. Cromwell was an enemy
of the duel, and during the Protectorate there was a cessation of the
practice. It came again into vogue, however, after the Restoration, thanks
chiefly to the French ideas that then inundated the court. As society
became more polished duels became more frequent, and they were never more
numerous than in the reign of George III. Among the principals in the chief
duels of this period were Charles James Fox, Sheridan, Pitt, Canning,
Castlereagh, the Duke of York, the Duke of Richmond, and Lord Camelford.
The last mentioned was the most notorious duellist of his time, and was
himself killed in a duel in 1804. A duel was fought between the Duke of
Wellington and Lord Winchelsea in 1829, but the practice was dying out. It
lasted longest in the army. By English law fatal duelling is considered
murder, no matter how fair the combat may have been, and the seconds are
liable to the same penalty as the principals. In 1813 the principal and
seconds in a fatal duel were sentenced to death, though afterwards
pardoned. An officer in the army having anything to do with a duel renders
himself liable to be cashiered. In France duelling still prevails to a
certain extent; but the combats are usually very bloodless and ridiculous
affairs. In the German army until 1918 it was common, and was recognized by
law. The duels of German students, so often spoken of, seldom cause serious
bloodshed.--BIBLIOGRAPHY: Millingen, _History of Duelling_; Steinmetz,
_Romance of Duelling_; G. Letainturier-Fradin, _Le duel [`a] travers les
[^a]ges_; C. A. Thimm, _Bibliography of Fencing and Duelling_; A. Hutton,
_The Sword and the Centuries_.
DUEN'NA, the chief lady-in-waiting on the Queen of Spain. In a more general
sense, an elderly woman holding a middle station between a governess and
companion, appointed to take charge of the young daughters of Spanish and
Portuguese families.
DUFAURE (d[.u]-f[=o]r), Jules Armand Stanislas, French orator and
statesman, born 1798, died 1881. He practised law at Bordeaux; entered the
Chamber of Deputies in 1834, and became an influential leader of the
Liberal party. Under the Republic he was Minister of the Interior, but was
driven from the public service by the _coup d'['e]tat_ of 1851, and for the
next twenty years devoted himself closely to his Bar practice and pamphlet
writing. Under the Government of Thiers he acted as Minister of Justice;
and in 1876, and again from 1877 to 1879, he was head of the Cabinet.
DUFF, Alexander, Scottish missionary, born 1806, died 1878. Educated at St.
Andrews University, in 1829 he set out for India as the first Church of
Scotland missionary to that country, and reached Calcutta after being twice
shipwrecked. He opened a school in which he taught successfully the
doctrines of Christianity, as well as general knowledge, but on his
secession (along with the other missionaries of the Church) from the Church
of Scotland in 1843, he had to give up the school and begin again. In 1849
he visited Scotland, where he remained until 1856. He assisted in founding
the University of Calcutta, and, having been obliged to return home for
reasons of health, he raised L10,000 to endow a missionary chair in the New
College, Edinburgh, becoming himself its first occupant. His chief writings
are: _The Church of Scotland's India Mission_ (1835); _Vindication of the
Church of Scotland's India Mission_ (1837); _India and India Missions_
(1840); _The Jesuits_ (1845); and _The Indian Mutiny: its Causes and
Results_ (a series of letters published in 1858).
DUFF, Sir Mountstuart Elphinstone Grant, writer on political and other
subjects, born in Aberdeenshire in 1829, died in 1906. He was educated at
Edinburgh Academy, The Grange, Bishop Wearmouth, and Balliol College,
Oxford, was called to the Bar at the Inner Temple in 1854, and in 1857
entered the House of Commons as Liberal member for the Elgin Burghs, which
constituency he continued to represent until 1881. He was Under-Secretary
for India in W. E. Gladstone's ministry from 1868 to 1874, and
Under-Secretary for the Colonies from 1880 to 1881, in which latter year he
was appointed Governor of Madras. His Indian administration was most
successful, and on his retirement in 1886 he was made a G.C.S.I. He was
president of the Royal Geographical Society from 1889 to 1893, and of the
Royal Historical Society from 1892 to 1899, and was also a trustee of the
British Museum. His published works include: _Studies in European Politics_
(1866); _A Political Survey_ (1868); _Elgin Speeches_ (1871); _Notes of an
Indian Journey_ (1876); _Miscellanies, Political and Literary_ (1879);
_Memoir of Sir H. S. Maine_ (1892); _Ernest Renan_ (1893); and _Notes from
a Diary_ (7 vols., 1897-1905).