elegance and tenderness of his verses, was born at Hawthornden House, 7
miles from Edinburgh, 1585, died 1649. He was educated at the University of
Edinburgh; after which he spent four years in foreign travels, residing for
a part of the time at Bourges, to study the civil law. On his return to
Scotland he retired to Hawthornden and gave himself up to the cultivation
of poetry and polite literature, and here he spent the most of his life. He
entertained Ben Jonson on the occasion of a visit which the English
dramatist made to Scotland in the winter of 1618-9, and took notes of
Jonson's conversation, first published in entirety in 1842 (_Notes of Ben
Jonson's Conversations with William Drummond_). He was the first Scottish
writer to abandon the native dialect for the language raised to supremacy
by the Elizabethan writers. His chief productions are: _The Cypress Grove_,
in prose, containing reflections upon death; _Flowers of Zion, or Spiritual
Poems_; _Tears on the Death of Moeliades_ (that is, Prince Henry); _Poems,
Amorous, Funeral, Divine, Pastoral, in Sonnets, Songs, Sextains,
Madrigals_; _The River Forth Feasting_ (on King James's visit to Scotland
in 1617); _Polemo-Middinia, or the Battle of the Dunghill: a Macaronic
Poem_; and _History of the Lives and Reigns of the Five Jameses, Kings of
Scotland_. As an historian he is chiefly remarkable for an ornate style,
and a strong attachment to the High Church principles of the Jacobites.
DRUMONT, ['E]douard, French journalist and anti-Semitic agitator, born at
Paris in 1844, died there in 1917. His work _Mon vieux Paris_ (1879) was
crowned by the Acad['e]mie Francaise. In 1886 he published _La France Juive
devant l'opinion_. He thus began a violent campaign against the Jews which
he continued until his death, especially in his organ _La Libre Parole_,
founded in 1892. In 1898 he was elected to the Chamber of Deputies,
retaining his seat till 1902. His other works include: _La fin d'un monde_
(1888), _Testament d'un Anti-S['e]mite_ (1891), _De l'or et de la boue du
Sang_ (1896), and _Les Juifs et l'affaire Dreyfus_ (1899).
DRUNKARDS, HABITUAL. The Habitual Drunkards Act of 1879 provided for the
licensing of retreats for receiving habitual drunkards, and for the regular
inspection of such retreats. An habitual drunkard desiring admission to a
retreat had to make a written application, accompanied by a declaration of
two persons that the applicant was an habitual drunkard, and attested by
two justices of the peace. No patient in a retreat was permitted to leave
before the expiration of the term stated in the application, such term not
to exceed one year. This Act was to expire in ten years; but another Act,
passed in 1888, made it permanent, with some modifications. The Inebriates
Act of 1898 introduced several important changes. It transferred the
licensing power in counties from justices of the peace to County Councils
and their committees, and in boroughs from magistrates to town councillors
or police commissioners. The maximum period of detention was extended to
two years, and the attestation of one justice was made sufficient for a
valid application. It also gave power to the Secretary of State to
establish State inebriate reformatories, or to grant certificates to
reformatories suitable for such a purpose. If an habitual drunkard, when
drunk, commit an offence punishable by imprisonment or penal servitude, the
court may, in addition to, or in substitution for, the ordinary sentence,
order him to be detained three years in a State or certified inebriate
reformatory. The proof that the accused is an habitual drunkard may consist
either in his own admission or in the jury's verdict after inquiry. The
Inebriates' Act of 1899 was very short, and made no important change in the
law. In Scotland habitual drunkenness is now a ground justifying judicial
separation of spouses, while under the Matrimonial Causes Bill, 1920, it is
proposed that in England, where one spouse has been granted a temporary
separation order on the ground of the incurable habitual drunkenness of the
other, and such order has been in force for at least three years, a divorce
should be granted.
DRUNKENNESS, the state of being drunk or overpowered by alcoholic liquor,
or the habit of indulging in intoxication. A similar condition may be
produced by numerous agents, but the term is always applied to the act or
habit of drinking alcoholics to excess. By the law of Britain drunkenness
is an offence against the public economy, and those found drunk are liable
to fine or imprisonment. Drunkenness is no excuse for any crime, but it
renders a contract invalid if either of the parties was in a state of
complete drunkenness when the contract was signed.
DRUNKEN PARLIAMENT, in Scottish history, a name given to the Privy Council
who, under their powers as representing the estates between sessions, met
at Glasgow and passed an Act (1st Oct., 1662) to remove the recusant
ministers from their parishes within a month. All the members were said to
have been drunk except Lockhart of Lee, who opposed the measure.
[Illustration: Longitudinal Section of Plum
S, Seed. E, Endocarp, or shell. M, Mesocarp, or intermediate layer. Ep,
Epicarp, or skin.]
DRUPE, in botany, a stone fruit; a fruit in which the outer part of the
pericarp becomes fleshy or softens like a berry while the inner hardens
like a nut, forming a stone with a kernel, as the plum, cherry, apricot,
and peach. The stone enclosing the kernel is called the _endocarp_, while
the pulpy or succulent part is called the _mesocarp_. In some fruits, as
those of the almond, the horse-chestnut, and coco-nut, the mesocarp is not
succulent, yet, from their possessing the other qualities of the drupe,
they receive the name. See _Berry_.
DRURY LANE THEATRE, one of the principal theatres in London, was
established by Thomas Killigrew in the reign of James I. In 1671 it was
burned down, and was rebuilt by Sir Christopher Wren between 1672 and 1674,
but again destroyed by fire in 1809. On this occasion it was rebuilt by B.
Wyatt, and was reopened on 10th Oct., 1812, with an address composed by
Lord Byron. It was in connection with this opening that James and Horace
Smith wrote the _Rejected Addresses_. Nearly all the great English actors
from Betterton and Garrick have been more or less connected with Drury
Lane.--Cf. J. Doran, _In and About Drury Lane_.
DRUSES, a curious people of mixed Syrian and Arabian origin, inhabiting the
mountains of Lebanon and Anti-Lebanon, and also the Hauran (south-west of
Damascus). In their faith are combined certain Jewish, Christian, and
Mohammedan doctrines. They describe themselves as followers of Khalif Hakim
Biamr-Allah, whom they regard as an incarnation of deity, the last prophet,
and the founder of the true religion. They are nearly all taught to read
and write. They maintain a semi-independence, and between 1840 and 1860
they engaged in bloody conflicts with their neighbours the Maronites. Their
total number is estimated at 100,000. They are very friendly to the
English, and some of them have been converted to Christianity. Cf. E. Sell,
_The Druses_.
DRUSUS, the name of several distinguished Romans, among whom were: _Marcus
Livius_, orator and politician; became tribune of the people in 122 B.C. He
opposed the policy of Gaius Gracchus, and became popular by planting
colonies.--_Marcus Livius_, son of the above, was early a strong champion
of the senate or aristocratic party, but showed great skill in manipulating
the mob. He rose to be tribune of the people, and was assassinated 91
B.C.--_Nero Claudius_, brother of the Emperor Tiberius, born 38 B.C. By a
series of brilliant campaigns he extended the Roman Empire to the German
Ocean and the River Elbe, and was hence called _Germanicus_. By his wife
Antonia, daughter of Mark Antony, he had a daughter, Livia, and two sons,
Germanicus and Claudius, the latter of whom afterwards became emperor. He
died in 9 B.C.
DRY'ADS, wood nymphs, in the Greek mythology; supposed to be the tutelar
deities of trees. Each particular tree or wood was the habitation of its
own special dryad.
DRYAS. See _Mountain Avens_.
DRY'BURGH ABBEY, a monastic ruin in Scotland, consisting of the nave's
western gable, the gable of the south transept, and a fragment of choir and
north transept of an abbey founded in 1150 on the banks of the Tweed, about
5 miles E.S.E. of Melrose. It is celebrated as the burial-place of Sir
Walter Scott and his family.
DRY CELL, originally a cell of the Leclanch['e] type, in which the solution
of sal-ammoniac was replaced by a paste containing this substance. The
formulae or recipes from which dry cells are now made up are numerous,
although the electrodes, as a rule, remain the same as in the Leclanch['e]
cell. The E.M.F. of the cell is about 1.5 volts, and three dry cells are
used to light up a small 'flash' lamp. A battery of dry cells forms a
convenient and portable means of supplying a small current at voltages up
to 100.
DRY'DEN, John, English poet, was descended from an ancient family, his
grandfather being Sir Erasmus Dryden of Canons Ashby, Northamptonshire.
Born near Aldwinkle, Northamptonshire, in 1631, he was admitted a King's
scholar at Westminster under the celebrated Dr. Busby, whence he went to
Trinity College, Cambridge, being elected to a scholarship there. After
leaving the university, he went to London, where he acted as secretary to
his cousin Sir Gilbert Pickering, a favourite of Cromwell; and on the death
of the Protector he wrote his _Heroic Stanzas_ on that event. At the
Restoration, however, he hailed the return of Charles II in _Astraea
Redux_, and from that time his devotion to the Stuarts knew no decay. In
1661 he produced his first play, _The Duke of Guise_; but the first that
was performed was _The Wild Gallant_, which appeared in 1663 and was not a
success. This was followed by _The Rival Ladies_, and _The Indian Queen_, a
tragedy on Montezuma in heroic verse, written in collaboration with Sir
Robert Howard, whose sister, Lady Elizabeth Howard, Dryden married in 1663.
He followed up _The Indian Queen_ with _The Indian Emperor_, which at once
raised Dryden to the highest pitch of public estimation, an elevation which
he retained till his death. The great fire of London put a stop for some
time to theatrical exhibitions. In the interval Dryden published the _Annus
Mirabilis_, an historical account of the events of the year 1666, one of
the most elaborate of his productions. In 1668 he also published his
celebrated _Essay on Dramatic Poesy_--the first attempt to regulate
dramatic writing. In 1668 _The Maiden Queen_, a tragi-comedy, was
represented. This was followed in 1670 by _The Tempest_, an alteration from
Shakespeare, in which he was assisted by Sir William Davenant. It was
received with general applause, notwithstanding the very questionable taste
and propriety of the added characters. Dryden was shortly afterwards
appointed to the offices of Historiographer Royal and Poet Laureate, with a
salary of L200 a year. He now became professionally a writer for the stage,
and produced many pieces, some of which have been strongly censured for
their licentiousness and want of good taste. The first of his political and
poetical satires, _Absalom and Achitophel_ (Monmouth and Shaftesbury), was
produced in 1681, and was followed by _The Medal_, a satire against
sedition; and _Mac Flecknoe_, a satire on the poet Shadwell. In 1682 he
published a poem called _Religio Laici_, wherein he maintained the
doctrines of the Church of England. On the accession of James in 1685
Dryden became a Roman Catholic, a conversion the sincerity of which has
been not unreasonably regarded with suspicion, considering the time at
which it occurred. At court the new convert was received with open arms, a
considerable addition was made to his pension, and he defended his new
religion at the expense of the old one in a poem, _The Hind and the
Panther_. Among his other services to the new king were a savage reply to
an attack by Stillingfleet, and panegyrics on Charles and James under the
title of _Britannia Rediviva_. At the Revolution Dryden was deprived of the
offices of Poet Laureate and Historiographer, and of the certain income
which these offices secured him. During the remaining ten years of his life
he produced some of his best work, including his admirable translations
from the classics. He published, in conjunction with Congreve, Creech, and
others, a translation of Juvenal, and one of Persius entirely by himself.
About a third part of Juvenal was translated by Dryden, who wrote an essay
on satire which was prefixed to the whole. His poetic translation of Virgil
appeared in 1697, and, soon after, the well-known lyric _Alexander's
Feast_, and his _Fables_. He died 1st May, 1700, in the sixty-ninth year of
his age, and was buried in Westminster Abbey. Dryden is unequalled as a
satirist among English poets, and the best of his tragedies are unsurpassed
by any since written. His poetry as a whole is more remarkable for vigour
and energy than beauty, but he did much to improve English verse. He was
also an admirable prose writer. Personally he was modest and kindly. The
whole of his works, edited by Sir W. Scott, were published in 1818 (18
vols. 8vo); they were republished with additional notes, &c., by Professor
Saintsbury (1882-93).--BIBLIOGRAPHY: R. Garnett, _Age of Dryden_; Sir A. W.
Ward, _History of English Dramatic Literature_; _Cambridge History of
English Literature_ (vol. viii).
DRYING-MACHINE, a machine consisting of any number of steam-heated
cylinders up to thirty or even more, each about 22 inches in diameter, and
used in bleachworks, dye-houses, and in cloth-finishing departments; used
as a separate machine to dry fabrics which contain a certain amount of
moisture left in at some previous operation, but often used in conjunction
with a starching-mangle or similar apparatus. All the cylinders are in a
horizontal plane, and usually in two rows, but such rows may be disposed
either in horizontal or vertical frames. Floor-space is economized in the
latter arrangement, and two or more groups of two rows per group may be
provided for. Each cylinder is provided with some type of safety air-valve,
which yields to allow air to enter in proportion as the steam is condensed
in the cylinder, and so prevents the latter from collapsing. The condensed
steam is withdrawn either by means of siphons or revolving scoops, so that
the interior may be as dry as possible. The long length of cloth, either
from the squeezing-rollers of the starch-mangle or from a loose or rolled
state of cloth from some other machine, is conducted over guide-rollers,
then under and over the two rows of steam-heated cylinders, and finally led
from the last cylinder to the roller of a plaiting-down apparatus, or
otherwise delivered. Both sides of the cloth thus come into direct contact
with half the number of cylinders as it is drawn through the machine, and
the dried cloth is ultimately delivered by the plaiting-down apparatus in
folds ready for the subsequent operations.
DRYING-OILS, linseed and other oils, which are the bases of many paints and
varnishes. When exposed to the air, they absorb oxygen, and are converted
into a transparent, tough, dry mass or varnish.
DRY-POINT, a method of engraving generally regarded as part of etching, but
more closely allied to line engraving. Instead of the copper being covered
with etching ground and the lines bitten with acid, a pointed instrument is
drawn across it, which incises a fine line with a more distinct burr on
each side than that raised by a graver. This burr helps to give a
characteristic quality to the line, but is rapidly worn away by printings.
Dry-point may be used by itself, but is frequently combined with etching
proper.
[Illustration: Dry-rot Fungus (_Merulius lacrymans_)]
DRY-ROT, a well-known disease affecting timber, occasioned by various
species of Fungi, the mycelium of which penetrates the timber, destroying
it. _Merulius lacrymans_, which is found chiefly in fir-wood, is the most
common and most formidable dry-rot fungus in Britain; while _Polyp[)o]rus
destructor_ is equally destructive in Germany. _P. vaporarius_ may also
cause dry-rot. Damp, unventilated situations are most favourable to the
development of dry-rot Fungi. Various methods have been proposed for the
prevention of dry-rot; that most in favour is thoroughly saturating the
wood with creosote, which makes the wood unfit for vegetation, but proper
ventilation is the surest safeguard.
DUAL, in grammar, that number which is used, in some languages, to
designate two things, whilst another number (the plural) exists to express
many. The Greek, Sanskrit, and Gothic among ancient languages, and the
Lithuanian and Arabic among modern, possess forms of the verb and noun in
which two persons or things are denoted, called the _dual_ numbers.
DU'ALISM, the philosophical exposition of the nature of things by the
hypothesis of two dissimilar primitive principles not derived from each
other. Dualism in religion is chiefly confined to the adoption of a belief
in two fundamental beings, a good and an evil one, as is done in some
Oriental religions, especially that of Zoroaster. In metaphysics, dualism
is the doctrine of those who maintain the existence of matter and form, or
mind and matter, as distinct substances, in opposition to idealism, which
maintains that we have no knowledge or assurance of the existence of
anything but our own ideas or sensations. Dualism may correspond with
realism in maintaining that our ideas of things are true transcripts of the
originals, or rather of the qualities inherent in them, the spirit acting
as a mirror and reflecting their true images; or it may hold that, although
produced by outward objects, we have no assurance that in reality these at
all correspond to our ideas of them, or even that they produce the same
idea in two different minds. Among modern philosophers Professor W.
McDougall and Bergson have defended the doctrine of dualism. See
_Monism_.--BIBLIOGRAPHY: J. Ward, _The Realm of Ends_; W. James, _Essays in
Radical Empiricism_; H. Bergson, _Matter and Memory_.
DUBAIL, Augustin Edmond, French general, born at Belfort 15th April, 1851.
He served in the Franco-Prussian War, and was for many years colonel of a
Zouave regiment in Algeria. Chief of the Staff of the French army in 1914,
he commanded the First Army operating in Alsace-Lorraine, and successfully
defended Nancy. Appointed Military Governor of Paris in 1915, he held this
post until June, 1918.
DU BARRY, Marie Jeanne B['e]cu, Comtesse, mistress of Louis XV, was born at
Vaucouleurs in 1743. She came young to Paris, and was presented to the king
in 1769, who had her married for form's sake to the Comte du Barry. She
exercised a powerful influence at court, and with some of her confidants
completely ruled the king. Important offices and privileges were in her
gift, and the courtiers abased themselves before her. After the death of
Louis she was dismissed from court and sent to live in a convent near
Meaux. She received a pension from Louis XVI. During the reign of terror
she was arrested as a Royalist and executed, Nov., 1793.--Cf. N. Williams,
_Madame du Barry_.
DUBIT'ZA, a fortified town of Bosnia, in Yugo-Slavia, on the right bank of
the Unna, about 10 miles from its confluence with the Save. In the
sixteenth and seventeenth centuries it was a frequent point of contention
between Austria and Turkey. In 1878, with the rest of Bosnia, it passed
under Austrian administration. Pop. 3260.--_Dubitza_, in Croatia, on the
opposite bank of the Unna, has 6660 inhabitants.
DUB'LIN, the metropolis of Ireland, is situated in County Dublin, on the
east coast of the island, at the mouth of the Liffey, the banks of which
for more than 2 miles from the sea are lined with quays. The river, which
divides the city into two unequal parts, is crossed by numerous bridges. In
the old part of the city the streets are irregular, narrow, and filthy; in
the more modern and aristocratic quarters there are fine streets, squares,
and terraces, but with little pretension to architectural merit. The public
buildings, however, are especially numerous and handsome. The main
thoroughfare, east to west, is by the magnificent quays along the Liffey.
The principal street at right angles to the river is Sackville Street, a
splendid street 650 yards long and 40 yards wide, forming a thoroughfare
which is continued across the river by O'Connell Bridge, a magnificent
structure the same width as Sackville Street. The principal public secular
buildings are the castle, the official residence of the viceroy; the Bank
of Ireland, formerly the Irish Parliament House; Trinity College; the
custom-house, destroyed in 1921; the King's Inns; the post office; rotunda;
corn exchange; commercial buildings; the mansion house; and the city hall
or corporation buildings. The most important literary and scientific
institutions are Trinity College (Dublin University); the National
University of Ireland; the Royal College of Science; the Catholic
University; the College of Surgeons; the Royal Dublin Society; the Royal
Hibernian Academy of Painting, Sculpture, and Architecture; the Royal Irish
Academy for Promoting the Study of Science, Literature, and Antiquities;
the Archaeological Society; and the Royal Zoological Society. Dublin
contains two Protestant Episcopal cathedrals--St. Patrick's Cathedral,
erected in 1190, and thoroughly restored between 1860 and 1865, through the
munificence of Sir Benjamin Lee Guinness; and Christ's Church, built in
1038 and restored between 1870 and 1877, the restoration being carried out
at the expense of Henry Roe. The Roman Catholic Cathedral is a very large
edifice. The charitable institutions are numerous, and some of them possess
splendid buildings. There are several extensive military and constabulary
barracks in the city and vicinity. A little north-west of the city, up the
Liffey, is the Phoenix Park, with an area of 1759 acres. In it are the
Viceregal Lodge, the usual residence of the King's representative; the
Chief Secretary's and Under-Secretary's official residences; the Royal
Hibernian Military School; and the depot of the Royal Irish Constabulary;
as also the gardens of the Royal Zoological Society. The manufactures
carried on are of little note: poplins, for which Dublin has been long
celebrated, are still in some request, and brewing and distilling are
largely carried on. Since 1918 Dublin returns seven members to the House of
Commons. The Sinn Fein members, however, elected in 1918, never attended
the Imperial Parliament. Serious risings occurred in Dublin at Easter 1916,
in 1919, and 1920, and there were also disorders in May 1921. Dublin is an
ancient town, but its early history is obscure. It was held by the Danes
for more than three centuries from 836. Pop. 399,000 (1919). The county,
which is in the province of Leinster, on the east coast of the island, has
an area of 218,873 acres, about a third of it under crops of various kinds,
chiefly grass and clover. The surface on the whole is flat, but the ground
rises at its southern boundary into a range of hills, the highest of
which--Kippure--is 2473 feet above the sea. There is about 70 miles of
sea-coast, the chief indentation being Dublin Bay. The principal stream is
the Liffey, which intersects the county west to east. Important water
communications are the Royal and the Grand Canals, both centering in
Dublin, and uniting the Liffey with the Shannon. The manufactures are
unimportant, but the fisheries are extensive. Since 1918 the county returns
four members to the House of Commons. Pop. 172,394; Dublin (county
borough), 304,802.--Cf. D. A. Chart, _The Story of Dublin_.