In this manner consider well how the Book of Job discusses the problem,

which has perplexed many people, and led them to adopt in reference to

Divine Providence some one of the theories which I have explained

above; all possible different theories are mentioned therein. The

problem is described either by way of fiction or in accordance with

real fact, as having manifested itself in a man famous for his

excellency and wisdom. The view ascribed to Job is the theory of

Aristotle. Eliphaz holds the opinion taught in Scripture, Bildad’s

opinion is identical with that of the Muʻtazilah, whilst Zofar defends

the theory of the Asha’riyah. These were the ancient views on

Providence; later on a new theory was set forth, namely, that ascribed

to Elihu. For this reason he is placed above the others, and described

as younger in years but greater in wisdom. He censures Job for his

foolishly exalting himself, expressing surprise at such great troubles

befalling a good man, and dwelling on the praises of his own deeds. He

also tells the three friends that their minds have been weakened by

great age. A profound and wonderful discourse then follows. Reflecting

on his words we may at first thought be surprised to find that he does

not add anything to the words of Eliphaz, Bildad, and Zofar; and that

he only repeats their ideas in other terms and more explicitly. For he

likewise censures and rebukes Job, attributes justice to God, relates

His wonders in nature, and holds that God is not affected by the

service of the worshipper, nor by the disobedience of the rebellious.

All this has already been said by His colleagues. But after due

consideration we see clearly the new idea introduced by Elihu, which is

the principal object of his speech, an idea which has not been uttered

by those who spoke before him. In addition to this he mentions also

other things set forth by the previous speakers, in the same manner as

each of the rest, viz., Job and his three friends, repeat what the

others have said. The purpose of this repetition is to conceal the

opinion peculiar to each speaker, and to make all appear in the eyes of

the ordinary reader to utter one and the same view, although in reality

this is not the case. The new idea, which is peculiar to Elihu and has

not been mentioned by the others, is contained in his metaphor of the

angel’s intercession. It is a frequent occurrence, he says, that a man

becomes ill, approaches the gates of death, and is already given up by

his neighbours. If then an angel, of any kind whatever, intercedes on

his behalf and prays for him, the intercession and prayers are

accepted; the patient rises from his illness, is saved, and returns to

good health. This result is not always obtained; intercession and

deliverance do not always follow each other; it happens only twice, or

three times. Elihu therefore says: “If there be an angel with him, an

interpreter, one among a thousand, to show unto man his uprightness,”

etc. (xxxiii. 29). He then describes man’s condition when convalescent

and the rejoicing at his recovery, and continues thus: “Lo, all these

things worketh God twice, three times with man” (ibid. 29). This idea

occurs only in the words of Elihu. His description of the method of

prophecy in preceding verses is likewise new. He says: “Surely God

speaketh in one way, yea in two ways, yet man perceiveth it not. In a

dream, in a vision of the night, when deep sleep falleth upon man, in

slumberings upon the bed” (ibid. 14, 15). He afterwards supports and

illustrates his theory by a description of many natural phenomena, such

as thunder, lightning, rain, and winds; with these are mixed up

accounts of various incidents of life, e.g., an account of pestilence

contained in the following passage: “In a moment they die, and at

midnight; the people become tumultuous and pass away” (xxxiv. 20).

Great wars are described in the following verse: “He breaketh in pieces

mighty men without number, and setteth others in their stead” (ibid.

24). There are many more passages of this kind. In a similar manner the

Revelation that reached Job (chap. xxxviii., chap. xli.), and explained

to him the error of his whole belief, constantly describes natural

objects, and nothing else; it describes the elements, meteorological

phenomena, and peculiarities of various kinds of living beings. The

sky, the heavens, Orion and Pleiades are only mentioned in reference to

their influence upon our atmosphere, so that Job’s attention is in this

prophecy only called to things below the lunar sphere. Elihu likewise

derives instruction from the nature of various kinds of animals. Thus

he says: “He teacheth us through the beasts of the earth, and maketh us

wise through the fowls of heaven” (xxxv. 11). He dwells longest on the

nature of the Leviathan, which possesses a combination of bodily

peculiarities found separate in different animals, in those that walk,

those that swim, and those that fly. The description of all these

things serves to impress on our minds that we are unable to comprehend

how these transient creatures come into existence, or to imagine how

their natural properties commenced to exist, and that these are not

like the things which we are able to produce. Much less can we compare

the manner in which God rules and manages His creatures with the manner

in which we rule and manage certain beings. We must content ourselves

with this, and believe that nothing is hidden from God, as Elihu says:

“For his eyes are upon the ways of man, and he seeth all his goings.

There is no darkness nor shadow of death, where the workers of iniquity

may hide themselves” (xxxiv. 21, 22). But the term management, when

applied to God, has not the same meaning which it has when applied to

us; and when we say that He rules His creatures we do not mean that He

does the same as we do when we rule over other beings. The term “rule”

has not the same definition in both cases; it signifies two different

notions, which have nothing in common but the name. In the same manner,

as there is a difference between works of nature and productions of

human handicraft, so there is a difference between God’s rule,

providence, and intention in reference to all natural forces, and our

rule, providence, and intention in reference to things which are the

objects of our rule, providence, and intention. This lesson is the

principal object of the whole Book of Job; it lays down this principle

of faith, and recommends us to derive a proof from nature, that we

should not fall into the error of imagining His knowledge to be similar

to ours, or His intention, providence, and rule similar to ours. When

we know this we shall find everything that may befall us easy to bear;

mishap will create no doubts in our hearts concerning God, whether He

knows our affairs or not, whether He provides for us or abandons us. On

the contrary, our fate will increase our love of God; as is said in the

end of this prophecy: “Therefore I abhor myself and repent concerning

the dust and ashes” (xlii. 6); and as our Sages say: “The pious do

everything out of love, and rejoice in their own afflictions.” (B. T.

Shabb. 88b.) If you pay to my words the attention which this treatise

demands, and examine all that is said in the Book of Job, all will be

clear to you, and you will find that I have grasped and taken hold of

the whole subject; nothing has been left unnoticed, except such

portions as are only introduced because of the context and the whole

plan of the allegory. I have explained this method several times in the

course of this treatise.

CHAPTER XXIV

The doctrine of trials is open to great objections; it is in fact more

exposed to objections than any other thing taught in Scripture. It is

mentioned in Scripture six times, as I will show in this chapter.

People have generally the notion that trials consist in afflictions and

mishaps sent by God to man, not as punishments for past sins, but as

giving opportunity for great reward. This principle is not mentioned in

Scripture in plain language, and it is only in one of the six places

referred to that the literal meaning conveys this notion. I will

explain the meaning of that passage later on. The principle taught in

Scripture is exactly the reverse; for it is said: “He is a God of

faithfulness, and there is no iniquity in him” (Deut. xxxii. 4).

The teaching of our Sages, although some of them approve this general

belief [concerning trials], is on the whole against it. For they say,

“There is no death without sin, and no affliction without

transgression.” (See p. 285.) Every intelligent religious person should

have this faith, and should not ascribe any wrong to God, who is far

from it; he must not assume that a person is innocent and perfect and

does not deserve what has befallen him. The trials mentioned in

Scripture in the [six] passages, seem to have been tests and

experiments by which God desired to learn the intensity of the faith

and the devotion of a man or a nation. [If this were the case] it would

be very difficult to comprehend the object of the trials, and yet the

sacrifice of Isaac seems to be a case of this kind, as none witnessed

it, but God and the two concerned [Abraham and Isaac]. Thus God says to

Abraham, “For now I know that thou fearest God,” etc. (Gen. xxii. 12).

In another passage it is said: “For the Lord your God proveth you to

know whether ye love,” etc. (Deut. xiii. 4). Again, “And to prove thee

to know what was in thine heart,” etc. (ibid. viii. 2). I will now

remove all the difficulties.

The sole object of all the trials mentioned in Scripture is to teach

man what he ought to do or believe; so that the event which forms the

actual trial is not the end desired; it is but an example for our

instruction and guidance. Hence the words “to know (la-daʻat) whether

ye love,” etc., do not mean that God desires to know whether they loved

God; for He already knows it; but la-daʻat, “to know,” has here the

same meaning as in the phrase “to know (la-daʻat) that I am the Lord

that sanctifieth you” (Exod. xxxi. 13), i.e., that all nations shall

know that I am the Lord who sanctifieth you. In a similar manner

Scripture says:—If a man should rise, pretend to be a prophet, and show

you his signs by which he desired to convince you that his words are

true, know that God intends thereby to prove to the nations how firmly

you believe in the truth of God’s word, and how well you have

comprehended the true Essence of God; that you cannot be misled by any

tempter to corrupt your faith in God. Your religion will then afford a

guidance to all who seek the truth, and of all religions man will

choose that which is so firmly established that it is not shaken by the

performance of a miracle. For a miracle cannot prove that which is

impossible; it is useful only as a confirmation of that which is

possible, as we have explained in our Mishneh-torah. (Yesode ha-torah

vii. f. viii. 3.)

Having shown that the term “to know” means “that all people may know,”

we apply this interpretation to the following words said in reference

to the manna: “To humble thee, and to prove thee, to know what was in

thine heart, whether thou wouldst keep his commandments, or not” (Deut.

viii. 2). All nations shall know, it shall be published throughout the

world, that those who devote themselves to the service of God are

supported beyond their expectation. In the same sense it was said when

the manna commenced to come down, “that I may prove them whether they

will walk in my law or no” (Exod. xvi. 4); i.e., let every one who

desires try and see whether it is useful and sufficient to devote

himself to the service of God. It is, however, said a third time in

reference to the manna: “Who fed thee in the wilderness with manna,

which thy fathers knew not, that he might humble thee, and that he

might prove thee, to do thee good at thy latter end” (Deut. viii. 16).

This might induce us to think that God sometimes afflicts man for the

purpose of increasing his reward. But in truth this is not the case. We

may rather assume one of the two following explanations; either this

passage expresses the same idea as is expressed in the first and second

passages, viz., to show [to all people] whether faith in God is

sufficient to secure man’s maintenance and his relief from care and

trouble, or not. Or the Hebrew term le-nassoteka means “to accustom

thee”; the word is used in this sense in the following passage: “She

has not accustomed (nisseta) the sole of her foot to set it upon the

ground” (ibid. xxviii. 56). The meaning of the above passage would then

be: “God has first trained you in the hardships of the wilderness, in

order to increase your welfare when you enter the land of Canaan.” It

is indeed a fact that the transition from trouble to ease gives more

pleasure than continual ease. It is also known that the Israelites

would not have been able to conquer the land and fight with its

inhabitants, if they had not previously undergone the trouble and

hardship of the wilderness. Scripture says in reference to this: “For

God said, Lest peradventure the people repent when they see war, and

they return to Egypt. But God led the people about, through the way of

the wilderness of the Red Sea; and the children of Israel went up

harnessed out of the land of Egypt” (Exod. xiii. 17, 18). Ease destroys

bravery, whilst trouble and care for food create strength; and this was

[also for the Israelites] the good that ultimately came out of their

wanderings in the wilderness. The passage, “For God is come to prove

you, and that his fear may be before your faces, that ye sin not”

(ibid. xx. 20), expresses the same idea as is expressed in Deuteronomy

(xiii. 4) in reference to a person who prophesies in the name of idols,

namely in the words: “For the Lord your God proveth you to know whether

ye love the Lord.” We have already explained the meaning of the latter

passage. In the same sense Moses said to the Israelites when they stood

round Mount Sinai: “Do not fear; the object of this great sight which

you perceived is that you should see the truth with your own eyes. When

the Lord your God, in order to show your faithfulness to Him, will

prove you by a false prophet, who will tell you the reverse of what you

have heard, you will remain firm and your steps will not slide. If I

had come as a messenger as you desired, and had told you that which had

been said unto me and which you had not heard, you would perhaps

consider as true what another might tell you in opposition to that

which you heard from me. But it is different now, as you have heard it

in the midst of the great sight.”

The account of Abraham our father binding his son, includes two great

ideas or principles of our faith. First, it shows us the extent and

limit of the fear of God. Abraham is commanded to perform a certain

act, which is not equalled by any surrender of property or by any

sacrifice of life, for it surpasses everything that can be done, and

belongs to the class of actions which are believed to be contrary to

human feelings. He had been without child, and had been longing for a

child; he had great riches, and was expecting that a nation should

spring from his seed. After all hope of a son had already been given

up, a son was born unto him. How great must have been his delight in

the child! how intensely must he have loved him! And yet because he

feared God, and loved to do what God commanded, he thought little of

that beloved child, and set aside all his hopes concerning him, and

consented to kill him after a journey of three days. If the act by

which he showed his readiness to kill his son had taken place

immediately when he received the commandment, it might have been the

result of confusion and not of consideration. But the fact that he

performed it three days after he had received the commandment, proves

the presence of thought, proper consideration, and careful examination

of what is due to the Divine command and what is in accordance with the

love and fear of God. There is no necessity to look for the presence of

any other idea or of anything that might have affected his emotions.

For Abraham did not hasten to kill Isaac out of fear that God might

slay him or make him poor, but solely because it is man’s duty to love

and to fear God, even without hope of reward or fear of punishment. We

have repeatedly explained this. The angel, therefore, says to him, “For

now I know,” etc. (ibid. ver. 12), that is, from this action, for which

you deserve to be truly called a God-fearing man, all people shall

learn how far we must go in the fear of God. This idea is confirmed in

Scripture; it is distinctly stated that one sole thing, fear of God, is

the object of the whole Law with its affirmative and negative precepts,

its promises and its historical examples, for it is said, “If thou wilt

not observe to do all the words of this Law that are written in this

book, that thou mayest fear this glorious and fearful name, the Lord

thy God,” etc. (Deut. xxviii. 58). This is one of the two purposes of

the ʻakedah (sacrifice or binding of Isaac).

The second purpose is to show how the prophets believed in the truth of

that which came to them from God by way of inspiration. We shall not

think that what the prophets heard or saw in allegorical figures may at

times have included incorrect or doubtful elements, since the Divine

communication was made to them, as we have shown, in a dream or a

vision and through the imaginative faculty. Scripture thus tells us

that whatever the Prophet perceives in a prophetic vision, he considers

as true and correct and not open to any doubt; it is in his eyes like

all other things perceived by the senses or by the intellect. This is

proved by the consent of Abraham to slay “his only son whom he loved,”

as he was commanded, although the commandment was received in a dream

or a vision. If the Prophets had any doubt or suspicion as regards the

truth of what they saw in a prophetic dream or perceived in a prophetic

vision, they would not have consented to do what is unnatural, and

Abraham would not have found in his soul strength enough to perform

that act, if he had any doubt [as regards the truth of the

commandment]. It was just the right thing that this lesson derived from

the ʻakedah (“sacrifice”) should be taught through Abraham and a man

like Isaac. For Abraham was the first to teach the Unity of God, to

establish the faith [in Him], to cause it to remain among coming

generations, and to win his fellow-men for his doctrine; as Scripture

says of him: “I know him, that he will command,” etc. (Gen. viii. 19).

In the same manner as he was followed by others in his true and

valuable opinions when they were heard from him, so also the principles

should be accepted that may be learnt from his actions; especially from

the act by which he confirmed the principle of the truth of prophecy,

and showed how far we must go in the fear and the love of God.

This is the way how we have to understand the accounts of trials; we

must not think that God desires to examine us and to try us in order to

know what He did not know before. Far is this from Him; He is far above

that which ignorant and foolish people imagine concerning Him, in the

evil of their thoughts. Note this.

CHAPTER XXV

[Man’s] actions are divided as regards their object into four classes;

they are either purposeless, unimportant, in vain, or good. An action

is in vain if the object which is sought by it is not obtained on

account of some obstacles. Thus people frequently use the phrase “thou

hast worked in vain” in reference to a person who looks out for some

one and cannot find him; or who undertakes the troubles of a journey

for his business without profit. Our endeavours and exertions are in

vain as regards a patient that is not cured. This applies to all

actions which are intended for certain purposes that are not realized.

Purposeless are such actions, which serve no purpose at all. Some

persons, e.g., do something with their hands whilst thinking of

something else. The actions of the insane and confused are of this

kind. Unimportant are such actions by which a trivial object is sought,

an object that is not necessary and is not of great use. This is the

case when a person dances without seeking to benefit his digestion by

that exercise, or performs certain actions for the purpose of causing

laughter. Such actions are certainly mere pastimes. Whether an action

belongs to this class or not depends on the intention of those who

perform it, and on the degree of their perfection. For many things are

necessary or very useful in the opinion of one person and superfluous

in the opinion of another. E.g., bodily exercise, in its different

kinds, is necessary for the proper preservation of health in the

opinion of him who understands the science of medicine; writing is

considered as very useful by scholars. When people take exercise by

playing with the ball, wrestling, stretching out the hands or keeping

back the breathing, or do certain things as preparation for writing,

shape the pen and get the paper ready, such actions are mere pastimes

in the eyes of the ignorant, but the wise do not consider them as

unimportant. Useful are such actions as serve a proper purpose; being

either necessary or useful for the purpose which is to be attained.

This division [of man’s actions] is, as I believe, not open to any

objection. For every action is either intended for a certain purpose or

is not intended; and if intended for a certain purpose, that purpose

may be important or unimportant, is sometimes attained and sometimes

missed. This division is therefore complete.

After having explained this division, I contend that no intelligent

person can assume that any of the actions of God can be in vain,

purposeless, or unimportant. According to our view and the view of all

that follow the Law of Moses, all actions of God are “exceedingly

good.” Thus Scripture says, “And God saw everything that he had made,

and behold, it was very good” (Gen. i. 31). And that which God made for

a certain thing is necessary or [at least] very useful for the

existence of that thing. Thus food is necessary for the existence of

living beings; the possession of eyes is very useful to man during his

life, although food only serves to sustain living beings a certain

time, and the senses are only intended to procure to animals the

advantages of sensation. The philosophers likewise assume that in

Nature there is nothing in vain, so that everything that is not the

product of human industry serves a certain purpose, which may be known

or unknown to us. There are thinkers that assume that God does not

create one thing for the sake of another, that existing things are not

to each other in the relation of cause and effect; that they are all

the direct result of the Will of God, and do not serve any purpose.

According to this opinion we cannot ask why has He made this and not

that; for He does what pleases Him, without following a fixed system.

Those who defend this theory must consider the actions of God as

purposeless, and even as inferior to purposeless actions; for when we

perform purposeless actions, our attention is engaged by other things

and we do not know what we are doing; but God, according to these

theorists, knows what He is doing, and knowingly does it for no purpose

or use whatever. The absurdity of assuming that some of God’s actions

are trivial, is apparent even at first sight, and no notice need be

taken of the nonsensical idea that monkeys were created for our

pastime. Such opinions originate only in man’s ignorance of the nature

of transient beings, and in his overlooking the principle that it was

intended by the Creator to produce in its present form everything whose

existence is possible; a different form was not decreed by the Divine

Wisdom, and the existence [of objects of a different form] is therefore

impossible, because the existence of all things depends on the decree

of God’s wisdom. Those who hold that God’s works serve no purpose

whatever believe that an examination of the totality of existing things

compels them to adopt this theory. They ask what is the purpose of the

whole Universe? they necessarily answer, like all those who believe in

the Creation, that it was created because God willed it so, and for no

other purpose. The same answer they apply to all parts of the Universe,

and do not admit that the hole in the uvea and the transparency of the

cornea are intended for the purpose of allowing the spiritus visus to

pass and to perceive certain objects; they do not assume that these

circumstances are causes for the sight; the hole in the uvea and the

transparent matter over it are not there because of the sight, but

because of the Will of God, although the sense of sight could have been

created in a different form. There are passages in the Bible which at

first sight we might understand to imply this theory. E.g., “The Lord

hath done whatever he pleased” (Ps. cxxxv. 6); “His soul desired it and

he made it” (Job xxiii. 13); “Who will say unto thee, What doest thou?”

(Eccles. viii. 4). The meaning of these and similar verses is this:

whatever God desires to do is necessarily done; there is nothing that

could prevent the realization of His will. The object of His will is

only that which is possible, and of the things possible only such as

His wisdom decrees upon. When God desires to produce the best work, no

obstacle or hindrance intervenes between Him and that work. This is the

opinion held by all religious people, also by the philosophers; it is

also our opinion. For although we believe that God created the Universe

from nothing, most of our wise and learned men believe that the

Creation was not the exclusive result of His will; but His wisdom,

which we are unable to comprehend, made the actual existence of the

Universe necessary. The same unchangeable wisdom found it as necessary

that non-existence should precede the existence of the Universe. Our

Sages frequently express this idea in the explanation of the words, “He

hath made everything beautiful in his time” (Eccles. iii. 11), only in

order to avoid that which is objectionable, viz., the opinion that God

does things without any purpose whatever. This is the belief of most of

our Theologians; and in a similar manner have the Prophets expressed

the idea that all parts of natural products are well arranged, in good

order, connected with each other, and stand to each other in the

relation of cause and effect; nothing of them is purposeless, trivial,

or in vain; they are all the result of great wisdom. Comp. “O Lord, how

manifold are thy works! in wisdom hast thou made them all: the earth is

full of thy riches” (Ps. civ. 24); “And all his works are done in

truth” (ibid. xxxiii. 4); “The Lord by wisdom hath founded the earth”

(Prov. iii. 19). This idea occurs frequently; there is no necessity to

believe otherwise; philosophic speculation leads to the same result;

viz., that in the whole of Nature there is nothing purposeless,

trivial, or unnecessary, especially in the Nature of the spheres, which

are in the best condition and order, in accordance with their superior

substance.

Know that the difficulties which lead to confusion in the question what

is the purpose of the Universe or of any of its parts, arise from two

causes: first, man has an erroneous idea of himself, and believes that

the whole world exists only for his sake; secondly, he is ignorant both

about the nature of the sublunary world, and about the Creator’s

intention to give existence to all beings whose existence is possible,

because existence is undoubtedly good. The consequences of that error

and of the ignorance about the two things named, are doubts and

confusion, which lead many to imagine that some of God’s works are

trivial, others purposeless, and others in vain. Those who adopt this

absurd idea that God’s actions are utterly purposeless, and refuse to

consider them as the result of His wisdom, are afraid they might

otherwise be compelled to admit the theory of the Eternity of the

Universe, and guard themselves against it by the above theory. I have

already told you the view which is set forth in Scripture on this

question, and which it is proper to accept. It is this: it is not

unreasonable to assume that the works of God, their existence and

preceding non-existence, are the result of His wisdom, but we are

unable to understand many of the ways of His wisdom in His works. On

this principle the whole Law of Moses is based; it begins with this

principle: “And God saw all that He had made, and, behold, it was very

good” (Gen. i. 31); and it ends with this principle: “The Rock, perfect

is His work” (Deut. xxxii. 4). Note it. When you examine this view and

that of the philosophers, taking into consideration all preceding

chapters which are connected with this subject, you will find that

there is no other difference of opinion as regards any portions of the

Universe, except that the philosophers believe in the Eternity of the

Universe and we believe in the Creation. Note this.

CHAPTER XXVI

As Theologians are divided on the question whether the actions of God

are the result of His wisdom, or only of His will without being

intended for any purpose whatever, so they are also divided as regards

the object of the commandments which God gave us. Some of them hold

that the commandments have no object at all; and are only dictated by

the will of God. Others are of opinion that all commandments and

prohibitions are dictated by His wisdom and serve a certain aim;

consequently there is a reason for each one of the precepts; they are

enjoined because they are useful. All of us, the common people as well

as the scholars, believe that there is a reason for every precept,

although there are commandments the reason of which is unknown to us,

and in which the ways of God’s wisdom are incomprehensible. This view

is distinctly expressed in Scripture; comp. “righteous statutes and

judgments” (Deut. iv. 8); “the judgments of the Lord are true, and

righteous altogether” (Ps. xix. 10). There are commandments which are

called ḥuḳḳim, “ordinances,” like the prohibition of wearing garments

of wool and linen (shaʻatnez), boiling meat and milk together, and the

sending of the goat [into the wilderness on the Day of Atonement]. Our

Sages use in reference to them phrases like the following: “These are

things which I have fully ordained for thee; and you dare not criticize

them”; “Your evil inclination is turned against them”; and “non-Jews

find them strange.” But our Sages generally do not think that such

precepts have no cause whatever, and serve no purpose; for this would

lead us to assume that God’s actions are purposeless. On the contrary,

they hold that even these ordinances have a cause, and are certainly

intended for some use, although it is not known to us; owing either to

the deficiency of our knowledge or the weakness of our intellect.

Consequently there is a cause for every commandment; every positive or

negative precept serves a useful object; in some cases the usefulness

is evident, e.g., the prohibition of murder and theft; in others the

usefulness is not so evident, e.g., the prohibition of enjoying the

fruit of a tree in the first three years (Lev. xix. 23), or of a

vineyard in which other seeds have been growing (Deut. xxii. 9). Those

commandments, whose object is generally evident, are called “judgments”

(mishpatim); those whose object is not generally clear are called

“ordinances” (ḥuḳḳim). Thus they say [in reference to the words of

Moses]: Ki lo dabar rek hu mi-kem (lit. “for it is not a vain thing for

you,” Deut. xxxii. 74); “It is not in vain, and if it is in vain, it is

only so through you.” That is to say, the giving of these commandments

is not a vain thing and without any useful object; and if it appears so

to you in any commandment, it is owing to the deficiency in your

comprehension. You certainly know the famous saying that Solomon knew

the reason for all commandments except that of the “red heifer.” Our

Sages also said that God concealed the causes of commandments, lest

people should despise them, as Solomon did in respect to three

commandments, the reason for which is clearly stated. In this sense

they always speak; and Scriptural texts support the idea. I have,

however, found one utterance made by them in Bereshit-rabba (sect.

xliv.), which might at first sight appear to imply that some

commandments have no other reason but the fact that they are commanded,

that no other object is intended by them, and that they do not serve

any useful object. I mean the following passage: What difference does

it make to God whether a beast is killed by cutting the neck in front

or in the back? Surely the commandments are only intended as a means of

trying man; in accordance with the verse, “The word of God is a test”

(lit. tried) (Ps. xviii. 31). Although this passage is very strange,

and has no parallel in the writings of our Sages, I explain it, as you

shall soon hear, in such a manner that I remain in accord with the

meaning of their words and do not depart from the principle which we

agreed upon, that the commandments serve a useful object; “for it is

not a vain thing for you”; “I have not said to the seed of Jacob, seek

me in vain. I the Lord speak righteousness, declare that which is

right” (Isa. xlv. 19). I will now tell you what intelligent persons

ought to believe in this respect; namely, that each commandment has

necessarily a cause, as far as its general character is concerned, and

serves a certain object; but as regards its details we hold that it has

no ulterior object. Thus killing animals for the purpose of obtaining

good food is certainly useful, as we intend to show (below, ch.

xlviii.); that, however, the killing should not be performed by neḥirah

(poleaxing the animal), but by sheḥitah (cutting the neck), and by

dividing the œsophagus and the windpipe in a certain place; these

regulations and the like are nothing but tests for man’s obedience. In

this sense you will understand the example quoted by our Sages [that

there is no difference] between killing the animal by cutting its neck

in front and cutting it in the back. I give this instance only because

it has been mentioned by our Sages; but in reality [there is some

reason for these regulations]. For as it has become necessary to eat

the flesh of animals, it was intended by the above regulations to

ensure an easy death and to effect it by suitable means; whilst

decapitation requires a sword or a similar instrument, the sheḥitah can

be performed with any instrument; and in order to ensure an easy death

our Sages insisted that the knife should be well sharpened.

A more suitable instance can be cited from the detailed commandments

concerning sacrifices. The law that sacrifices should be brought is

evidently of great use, as will be shown by us (infra, chap. xlvi.);

but we cannot say why one offering should be a lamb, whilst another is

a ram; and why a fixed number of them should be brought. Those who

trouble themselves to find a cause for any of these detailed rules, are

in my eyes void of sense; they do not remove any difficulties, but

rather increase them. Those who believe that these detailed rules

originate in a certain cause, are as far from the truth as those who

assume that the whole law is useless. You must know that Divine Wisdom

demanded it—or, if you prefer, say that circumstances made it

necessary—that there should be parts [of His work] which have no

certain object; and as regards the Law, it appears to be impossible

that it should not include some matter of this kind. That it cannot be

avoided may be seen from the following instance. You ask why must a

lamb be sacrificed and not a ram? but the same question would be asked,

why a ram had been commanded instead of a lamb, so long as one

particular kind is required. The same is to be said as to the question

why were seven lambs sacrificed and not eight; the same question might

have been asked if there were eight, ten, or twenty lambs, so long as

some definite number of lambs were sacrificed. It is almost similar to

the nature of a thing which can receive different forms, but actually

receives one of them. We must not ask why it has this form and not

another which is likewise possible, because we should have to ask the

same question if instead of its actual form the thing had any of the

other possible forms. Note this, and understand it. The repeated

assertion of our Sages that there are reasons for all commandments, and

the tradition that Solomon knew them, refer to the general purpose of

the commandments, and not to the object of every detail. This being the

case, I find it convenient to divide the six hundred and thirteen

precepts into classes; each class will include many precepts of the

same kind, or related to each other by their character. I will [first]

explain the reason of each class, and show its undoubted and undisputed

object, and then I shall discuss each commandment in the class, and

expound its reason. Only very few will be left unexplained, the reason

for which I have been unable to trace unto this day. I have also been

able to comprehend in some cases even the object of many of the

conditions and details as far as these can be discovered. You will hear

all this later on. But in order to fully explain these reasons I must

premise several chapters; in these I will discuss principles which form

the basis of my theory. I will now begin these chapters.

CHAPTER XXVII

The general object of the Law is twofold: the well-being of the soul,

and the well-being of the body. The well-being of the soul is promoted

by correct opinions communicated to the people according to their

capacity. Some of these opinions are therefore imparted in a plain

form, others allegorically; because certain opinions are in their plain

form too strong for the capacity of the common people. The well-being

of the body is established by a proper management of the relations in

which we live one to another. This we can attain in two ways: first by

removing all violence from our midst; that is to say, that we do not do

every one as he pleases, desires, and is able to do; but every one of

us does that which contributes towards the common welfare. Secondly, by

teaching every one of us such good morals as must produce a good social

state. Of these two objects, the one, the well-being of the soul, or

the communication of correct opinions, comes undoubtedly first in rank,

but the other, the well-being of the body, the government of the state,

and the establishment of the best possible relations among men, is

anterior in nature and time. The latter object is required first; it is

also treated [in the Law] most carefully and most minutely, because the

well-being of the soul can only be obtained after that of the body has

been secured. For it has already been found that man has a double

perfection: the first perfection is that of the body, and the second

perfection is that of the soul. The first consists in the most healthy

condition of his material relations, and this is only possible when man

has all his wants supplied, as they arise; if he has his food, and

other things needful for his body, e.g., shelter, bath, and the like.

But one man alone cannot procure all this; it is impossible for a

single man to obtain this comfort; it is only possible in society,

since man, as is well known, is by nature social.

The second perfection of man consists in his becoming an actually

intelligent being; i.e., he knows about the things in existence all

that a person perfectly developed is capable of knowing. This second

perfection certainly does not include any action or good conduct, but

only knowledge, which is arrived at by speculation, or established by

research.

It is clear that the second and superior kind of perfection can only be

attained when the first perfection has been acquired; for a person that

is suffering from great hunger, thirst, heat, or cold, cannot grasp an

idea even if communicated by others, much less can he arrive at it by

his own reasoning. But when a person is in possession of the first

perfection, then he may possibly acquire the second perfection, which

is undoubtedly of a superior kind, and is alone the source of eternal

life. The true Law, which as we said is one, and beside which there is

no other Law, viz., the Law of our teacher Moses, has for its purpose

to give us the twofold perfection. It aims first at the establishment

of good mutual relations among men by removing injustice and creating

the noblest feelings. In this way the people in every land are enabled

to stay and continue in one condition, and every one can acquire his

first perfection. Secondly, it seeks to train us in faith, and to

impart correct and true opinions when the intellect is sufficiently

developed. Scripture clearly mentions the twofold perfection, and tells

us that its acquisition is the object of all the divine commandments.

Comp. “And the Lord commanded us to do all these statutes, to fear the

Lord our God, for our good always, that he might preserve us alive as

it is this day” (Deut. vi. 24). Here the second perfection is first

mentioned because it is of greater importance, being, as we have shown,

the ultimate aim of man’s existence. This perfection is expressed in

the phrase, “for our good always.” You know the interpretation of our

Sages, “‘that it may be well with thee’ (ibid. xxii. 7), namely, in the

world that is all good, ‘and that thou mayest prolong thy days’

(ibid.), i.e., in the world that is all eternal.” In the same sense I

explain the words, “for our good always,” to mean that we may come into

the world that is all good and eternal, where we may live permanently;

and the words, “that he might preserve us alive as it is this day,” I

explain as referring to our first and temporal existence, to that of

our body, which cannot be in a perfect and good condition except by the

co-operation of society, as has been shown by us.

CHAPTER XXVIII

It is necessary to bear in mind that Scripture only teaches the chief

points of those true principles which lead to the true perfection of

man, and only demands in general terms faith in them. Thus Scripture

teaches the Existence, the Unity, the Omniscience, the Omnipotence, the

Will, and the Eternity of God. All this is given in the form of final

results, but they cannot be understood fully and accurately except

after the acquisition of many kinds of knowledge. Scripture further

demands belief in certain truths, the belief in which is indispensable

in regulating our social relations; such is the belief that God is

angry with those who disobey Him, for it leads us to the fear and dread

of disobedience [to the will of God]. There are other truths in

reference to the whole of the Universe which form the substance of the

various and many kinds of speculative sciences, and afford the means of

verifying the above-mentioned principles as their final result. But

Scripture does not so distinctly prescribe the belief in them as it

does in the first case; it is implied in the commandment, “to love the

Lord” (Deut. xi. 13). It may be inferred from the words, “And thou

shalt love the Lord thy God with all thy heart, and with all thy soul,

and with all thy might” (ibid. vi. 5), what stress is laid on this

commandment to love God. We have already shown in the Mishneh-torah

(Yes. ha-torah ii. 2) that this love is only possible when we

comprehend the real nature of things, and understand the divine wisdom

displayed therein. We have likewise mentioned there what our Sages

remark on this subject.

The result of all these preliminary remarks is this: The reason of a

commandment, whether positive or negative, is clear, and its usefulness

evident, if it directly tends to remove injustice, or to teach good

conduct that furthers the well-being of society, or to impart a truth

which ought to be believed either on its own merit or as being

indispensable for facilitating the removal of injustice or the teaching

of good morals. There is no occasion to ask for the object of such

commandments; for no one can, e.g., be in doubt as to the reason why we

have been commanded to believe that God is one; why we are forbidden to

murder, to steal, and to take vengeance, or to retaliate, or why we are

commanded to love one another. But there are precepts concerning which

people are in doubt, and of divided opinions, some believing that they

are mere commands, and serve no purpose whatever, whilst others believe

that they serve a certain purpose, which, however, is unknown to man.

Such are those precepts which in their literal meaning do not seem to

further any of the three above-named results: to impart some truth, to

teach some moral, or to remove injustice. They do not seem to have any

influence upon the well-being of the soul by imparting any truth, or

upon the well-being of the body by suggesting such ways and rules as

are useful in the government of a state, or in the management of a

household. Such are the prohibitions of wearing garments containing

wool and linen; of sowing divers seeds, or of boiling meat and milk

together; the commandment of covering the blood [of slaughtered beasts

and birds], the ceremony of breaking the neck of a calf [in case of a

person being found slain, and the murderer being unknown]; the law

concerning the first-born of an ass, and the like. I am prepared to

tell you my explanation of all these commandments, and to assign for

them a true reason supported by proof, with the exception of some minor

rules, and of a few commandments, as I have mentioned above. I will

show that all these and similar laws must have some bearing upon one of

the following three things, viz., the regulation of our opinions, or

the improvement of our social relations, which implies two things, the

removal of injustice, and the teaching of good morals. Consider what we

said of the opinions [implied in the laws]; in some cases the law

contains a truth which is itself the only object of that law, as e.g.,

the truth of the Unity, Eternity, and Incorporeality of God; in other

cases, that truth is only the means of securing the removal of

injustice, or the acquisition of good morals; such is the belief that

God is angry with those who oppress their fellow-men, as it is said,

“Mine anger will be kindled, and I will slay,” etc. (Exod. xxii. 23);

or the belief that God hears the crying of the oppressed and vexed, to

deliver them out of the hands of the oppressor and tyrant, as it is

written, “And it shall come to pass, when he will cry unto me, that I

will hear, for I am gracious” (Exod. xxii. 25).

CHAPTER XXIX

It is well known that the Patriarch Abraham was brought up in the

religion and the opinion of the Sabeans, that there is no divine being

except the stars. I will tell you in this chapter their works which are

at present extant in Arabic translations, and also in their ancient

chronicles; and I will show you their opinion and their practice

according to these books. You will then see clearly that they consider

the stars as deities, and the sun as the chief deity. They believe that

all the seven stars are gods, but the two luminaries are greater than

all the rest. They say distinctly that the sun governs the world, both

that which is above and that which is below; these are exactly their

expressions. In these books, and in their chronicles, the history of

Abraham our father is given in the following manner. Abraham was

brought up in Kutha; when he differed from the people and declared that

there is a Maker besides the sun, they raised certain objections, and

mentioned in their arguments the evident and manifest action of the sun

in the Universe. “You are right,” said Abraham; “[the sun acts in the

same manner] as ‘the axe in the hand of him that hews with it.’” Then

some of his arguments against his opponents are mentioned. In short,

the king put him in prison; but he continued many days, while in

prison, to argue against them. At last the king was afraid that Abraham

might corrupt the kingdom, and turn the people away from their

religion; he therefore expelled Abraham into Syria, after having

deprived him of all his property.

This is their account which you find clearly stated in the book called

The Nabatean Agriculture. Nothing is said there of the account given in

our trustworthy books, nor do they mention what he learnt by way of

prophecy; for they refused to believe him, because he attacked their

evil doctrine. I do not doubt that when he attacked the doctrine of all

his fellow-men, he was cursed, despised, and scorned by these people

who adhered to their erroneous opinions. When he submitted to this

treatment for the sake of God, as ought to be done for the sake of His

glory, God said to him, “And I will bless them that bless thee, and

curse them that curse thee” (Gen. xii. 3). The result of the course

which Abraham took, is the fact that most people, as we see at present,

agree in praising him, and being proud of him; so that even those who

are not his descendants call themselves by his name. No one opposes

him, and no one ignores his merits, except some ignoble remnants of the

nations left in the remote corners of the earth, like the savage Turks

in the extreme North, and the Indians in the extreme South. These are

remnants of the Sabeans, who once filled the earth. Those who were able

to think, and were philosophers in those days, could only raise

themselves to the idea that God is the spirit of the spheres; the

spheres with their stars being the body, and God the spirit. Abu-becr

al-Zaig mentions this in his Commentary on the book of Physics.

All the Sabeans thus believed in the eternity of the Universe, the

heavens being in their opinion God. Adam was in their belief a human

being born from male and female, like the rest of mankind; he was only

distinguished from his fellow-men by being a prophet sent by the moon;

he accordingly called men to the worship of the moon, and he wrote

several works on agriculture. The Sabeans further relate that Noah was

an agriculturist, and that he was not pleased with the worship of

idols; they blame him for that, and say that he did not worship any

image. In their writings we meet even with the statement that Noah was

rebuked and imprisoned because he worshipped God, and with many other

accounts about him. The Sabeans contend that Seth differed from his

father Adam, as regards the worship of the moon. They manufactured

ridiculous stories, which prove that their authors were very deficient

in knowledge, that they were by no means philosophers, but on the

contrary were extremely ignorant persons. Adam, they say, left the

torrid zone near India and entered the region of Babylon, bringing with

him wonderful things, such as a golden tree, that was growing, and had

leaves and branches; a stone tree of the same kind, and a fresh leaf of

a tree proof against fire. He related that there was a tree which could

shelter ten thousand men, although it had only the height of a man; two

leaves he brought with him, each of which was sufficient to cover two

men. Of these stories the Sabeans have a wonderful abundance. I am

surprised that persons who think that the Universe is eternal, can yet

believe in these things which nature cannot produce, as is known to

every student of Natural Science. They only mention Adam, and relate

the above stories about him, in order to support their theory of the

Eternity of the Universe; from this theory they then derive the

doctrine that the stars and the spheres are deities. When [Abraham] the

“Pillar of the World” appeared, he became convinced that there is a

spiritual Divine Being, which is not a body, nor a force residing in a

body, but is the author of the spheres and the stars; and he saw the

absurdity of the tales in which he had been brought up. He therefore

began to attack the belief of the Sabeans, to expose the falsehood of

their opinions, and to proclaim publicly in opposition to them, “the

name of the Lord, the God of the Universe” (Gen. xxi. 33), which

proclamation included at the same time the Existence of God, and the

Creation of the Universe by God.

In accordance with the Sabean theories images were erected to the

stars, golden images to the sun, images of silver to the moon, and they

attributed the metals and the climates to the influence of the planets,

saying that a certain planet is the god of a certain zone. They built

temples, placed in them images, and assumed that the stars sent forth

their influence upon these images, which are thereby enabled (to speak)

to understand, to comprehend, to inspire human beings, and to tell them

what is useful to them. They apply the same to trees which fall to the

lot of these stars. When, namely, a certain tree, which is peculiar to

a certain star, is dedicated to the name of this star, and certain

things are done for the tree and to the tree, the spiritual force of

that star which influences that tree, inspires men, and speaks to them

when they are asleep. All this is written in their works, to which I

will call your attention. It applies to the “prophets of Baal,” and the

“prophets of Asherah,” mentioned in Scripture, in whose hearts the

Sabean theories had taken root, who forsook God, and called, “Baal,

hear us” (1 Kings xviii. 26); because these theories were then general,

ignorance had spread, and the madness with which people adhered to this

kind of imaginations had increased in the world. When such opinions

were adopted among the Israelites, they had observers of clouds,

enchanters, witches, charmers, consulters with familiar spirits,

wizards, and necromancers.

We have shown in our large work, Mishneh-torah (Hilkot, ʻAbodah-zarah

i. 3), that Abraham was the first that opposed these theories by

argument and by soft and persuasive speech. He induced these people, by

showing kindness to them, to serve God. Afterwards came the chief of

the prophets and completed the work by the commandment to slay those

unbelievers, to blot out their name, and to uproot them from the land

of the living. Comp. “Ye shall destroy their altars,” etc. (Exod.

xxxiv. 13). He forbade us to follow their ways; he said, “Ye shall not

walk in the manners of the heathen,” etc. (Lev. xx. 23). You know from

the repeated declarations in the Law that the principal purpose of the

whole Law was the removal and utter destruction of idolatry, and all

that is connected therewith, even its name, and everything that might

lead to any such practices, e.g., acting as a consulter with familiar

spirits, or as a wizard, passing children through the fire, divining,

observing the clouds, enchanting, charming, or inquiring of the dead.

The law prohibits us to imitate the heathen in any of these deeds, and

a fortiori to adopt them entirely. It is distinctly said in the Law

that everything which idolaters consider as service to their gods, and

a means of approaching them, is rejected and despised by God; comp.

“for every abomination to the Lord, which he hateth, have they done

unto their gods” (Deut. xii. 31). In the books which I shall name to

you later on, it is stated that on certain occasions they offered to

the sun, their greatest god, seven beetles, and seven mice, and seven

bats. This alone suffices to show how disgusting their practice must be

to human nature. Thus all precepts cautioning against idolatry, or

against that which is connected therewith, leads to it, or is related

to it, are evidently useful. They all tend to save us from the evil

doctrines that deprive us of everything useful for the acquisition of

the twofold perfection of man, by leading to those absurd practices in

which our fathers and ancestors have been brought up. Comp. “And Joshua

said unto all the people, Thus saith the Lord God of Israel, your

fathers dwelt on the other side of the river in old time, even Terah,

the father of Abraham, and the father of Nahor, and they served other

gods” (Josh. xxiv. 2). It is in reference to these [idolatrous ideas]

that the true prophets exclaim, “They walked after [vain] things, which

do not profit.” How great is the usefulness of every precept that

delivers us from this great error, and leads us back to the true faith:

that God, the Creator of all things, rules the Universe; that He must

be served, loved, and feared, and not those imaginary deities.

According to this faith we approach the true God, and obtain His favour

without having recourse to burdensome means; for nothing else is

required but to love and fear Him; this is the aim in serving God, as

will be shown. Comp. “And now, Israel, what doth the Lord thy God

require of thee but to fear the Lord”? etc. (Deut. x. 12). I shall

complete this subject later on; now let us return to the theme [of this

chapter].

I say that my knowledge of the belief, practice, and worship of the

Sabeans has given me an insight into many of the divine precepts, and

has led me to know their reason. You will confirm it when I shall give

the reason of commandments which are seemingly purposeless. I will

mention to you the works from which you may learn all that I know of

the religion and the opinions of the Sabeans; you will thereby obtain a

true knowledge of my theory as regards the purpose of the divine

precepts.

The great book on this subject is the book On the Nabatean Agriculture,

translated by Ibn Wahshiya. In a succeeding chapter I shall explain why

the Sabeans had their religious doctrines written in a work on

agriculture. The book is full of the absurdities of idolatrous people,

and with those things to which the minds of the multitude easily turn

and adhere [perseveringly]; it speaks of talismans, the means of

directing the influence [of the stars]; witchcraft, spirits, and demons

that dwell in the wilderness. There occur also in this book great

absurdities, which are ridiculous in the eyes of intelligent people.

They were intended as a criticism and an attack on the evident miracles

by which all people learnt that there exists a God who is judge over

all people. Comp. “That thou mayest know how that the earth is the

Lord’s” (Exod. ix. 29), “That I am the Lord in the midst of the earth”

(ibid. viii. 18).

The book describes things as having been mentioned by Adam in his book;

a tree which is found in India, and has the peculiarity that any branch

taken from it and thrown to the ground creeps along and moves like

serpents; it also mentions a tree which in its root resembles a human

being, utters a loud sound, and speaks a word or words; a plant is

mentioned which has this peculiarity, that a leaf of it put on the neck

of a person conceals that person from the sight of men, and enables him

to enter or leave a place without being seen, and if any part of it is

burnt in open air a noise and terrible sounds are heard whilst the

smoke ascends. Numerous fables of this kind are introduced in the

description of the wonders of plants and the properties of agriculture.

This leads the author to argue against the [true] miracles, and to say

that they were the result of artifice.

Among other fables we read there that the plant althea, one of the

Asherot, which they made, as I told you, stood in Nineveh twelve

thousand years. This tree had once a quarrel with the mandragora, which

wanted to take the place of the former. The person who had been

inspired by this tree ceased to receive inspiration; when after some

time the prophetical power had returned to him, he was told by the

althea that the latter had been engaged in a dispute with the

mandragora. He was then commanded to write to the magicians that they

should decide whether the althea or the mandragora was better and more

effective in witchcraft. It is a long story, and you may learn from it,

when you read it, the opinions and the wisdom of the men of that time.

Such were in those days of darkness the wise men of Babel, to whom

reference is made in Scripture, and such were the beliefs in which they

were trained. And were it not that the theory of the Existence of God

is at present generally accepted, our days would now have been darker

than those days, though in other respects. I return now to my subject.

In that book the following story is also related: One of the idolatrous

prophets, named Tammuz, called upon the king to worship the seven

planets and the twelve constellations of the Zodiac; whereupon the king

killed him in a dreadful manner. The night of his death the images from

all parts of the land came together in the temple of Babylon which was

devoted to the image of the Sun, the great golden image. This image,

which was suspended between heaven and earth, came down into the midst

of the temple, and surrounded by all other images commenced to mourn

for Tammuz, and to relate what had befallen him. All other images cried

and mourned the whole night; at dawn they flew away and returned to

their temples in every corner of the earth. Hence the regular custom

arose for the women to weep, lament, mourn, and cry for Tammuz on the

first day of the month of Tammuz.

Consider what opinions people had in these days. The legend of Tammuz

is very old among the Sabeans. This book will disclose to you most of

the perverse ideas and practices of the Sabeans, including their

feasts. But you must be careful and must not be misled to think that we

have real incidents in the life of Adam, or of any other person, or any

real fact in the stories which they relate about Adam, the serpent, the

tree of knowledge of good and evil, and the allusion to the garment of

Adam which he had not been accustomed to wear. A little consideration

will lay open the falsehood of all these accounts; it will show that

they have been invented in imitation of the Pentateuch when it became

known among the nations. The account of the Creation was heard, and it

was taken entirely in its literal sense. They have done this in order

that the ignorant may hear it, and be persuaded to assume the Eternity

of the Universe, and to believe that the Scriptural account contained

facts which happened in the manner as has been assumed by the Sabeans.

It is by no means necessary to point this out to men like you. You have

acquired sufficient knowledge to keep your mind free from the

absurdities of the Kasdim, Chaldeans, and Sabeans, who are bare of

every true science. But I wish to exhort you that you should caution

others, for ordinary people are very much inclined to believe these

fables.

To the same class of books we count the book Istimachis, attributed to

Aristotle, who can by no means have been its author; also the books on

Talismans, such as the book of Tomtom; the book al-Sarb; the book on

the degrees of the sphere and the constellations rising with each

degree; a book on Talismans attributed to Aristotle, a book ascribed to

Hermes, a book of the Sabean Isḥak in defence of the Sabean religion,

and his large work on Sabean customs, details of their religion,

ceremonies, festivals, offerings, prayers and other things relating to

their faith.

All these books which I have mentioned are works on idolatry translated

into Arabic; there is no doubt that they form a very small portion in

comparison to that which has not been translated, and that which is no

longer extant, but has been lost in the course of time. But those works

which are at present extant, include most of the opinions of the

Sabeans and their practices, which are to some degree still in vogue in

the world.

They describe how temples are built and images of metal and stone

placed in them, altars erected and sacrifices and various kinds of food

are offered thereon, festivals celebrated, meetings held in the temples

for prayer and other kinds of service; how they select certain very

distinguished places and call them temples of Intellectual Images (or

Forms); how they make images “on the high mountains” (Deut. xii. 2),

rear asherot, erect pillars, and do many other things which you can

learn from the books mentioned by us. The knowledge of these theories

and practices is of great importance in explaining the reasons of the

precepts. For it is the principal object of the Law and the axis round

which it turns, to blot out these opinions from man’s heart and make

the existence of idolatry impossible. As regards the former Scripture

says: “Lest your heart be persuaded,” etc. (Deut. xi. 16), “whose heart

turneth away to-day,” etc. (ibid. xxix. 17). The actual abolition of

idolatry is expressed in the following passage: “Ye shall destroy their

altars, and burn their groves in fire” (Deut. vii. 5), “and ye shall

destroy their name,” etc. (xii. 3). These two things are frequently

repeated; they form the principal and first object of the whole Law, as

our Sages distinctly told us in their traditional explanation of the

words “all that God commanded you by the hand of Moses” (Num. xv. 23);

for they say, “Hence we learn that those who follow idolatry deny as it

were their adhesion to the whole Law, and those who reject idolatry

follow as it were the whole Law.” (B. T. Kidd, 40a.) Note it.

CHAPTER XXX

On examining these old and foolish doctrines we find that it was most

generally believed by the people that by the worship of stars the earth

will become inhabited, and the ground fertilized. The wise, pious, and

sin-fearing men among them reproved the people and taught them that

agriculture, on which the preservation of mankind depended, would

become perfect and satisfy man’s wishes, when he worshipped the sun and

the stars. If man provoked these beings by his rebelliousness, the

towns would become empty and waste. In the above-named books it is

stated that Mars was angry with [lands, that form now] deserts and

wastes, and in consequence of that anger they were deprived of water

and trees, and have become the habitation of demons. Tillers of the

ground and husbandmen are praised in those books, because they are

engaged with the cultivation of the land in accordance with the will

and desire of the stars. The idolaters also held cattle in esteem on

account of their use in agriculture, and went even so far as to say,

that it is not allowed to slay them, because they combine in themselves

strength and willingness to do the work of man in tilling the ground.

The oxen, notwithstanding their great strength, do this, and submit to

man, because it is the will of God that they should be employed in

agriculture. When these views became generally known, idolatry was

connected with agriculture, because the latter is indispensable for the

maintenance of man, and of most animals. The idolatrous priests then

preached to the people who met in the temples, and taught them that by

certain religious acts, rain would come down, the trees of the field

would yield their fruit, and the land would be fertile and inhabited.

See what is said in the Nabatean Agriculture in the chapter on

vineyards. The following words of the Sabeans are quoted there: “All

ancient wise men advised, and prophets likewise commanded and enjoined

to play before the images on certain instruments during the festivals.

They also said—and what they said is true—that the deities are pleased

with it, and reward those who do it. They promise, indeed, very great

reward for these things; e.g., length of life, protection from illness,

exemption from great bodily deformities, plenty of the produce of the

earth, and of the fruits of the trees.” These are the words of the

Sabeans. When these ideas spread, and were considered as true, God, in

His great mercy for us, intended to remove this error from our minds,

and to protect our bodies from trouble; and therefore desired us to

discontinue the practice of these useless actions. He gave us His Law

through Moses, our teacher, who told us in the name of God, that the

worship of stars and other corporeal beings would effect that rain

would cease, the land be waste, and would not produce anything, and the

fruit of the trees would wither; calamities would befall the people,

their bodies would be deformed, and life would be shortened. These are

the contents of “the words of the covenant which God made” (Deut.

xxviii. 6–9). It is frequently expressed in all parts of Scripture,

that the worship of the stars would be followed by absence of rain,

devastation of the land, bad times, diseases, and shortness of life.

But abandonment of that worship, and the return to the service of God,

would be the cause of the presence of rain, fertility of the ground,

good times, health and length of life. Thus Scripture teaches, in order

that man should abandon idolatry, the reverse of that which idolatrous

priests preached to the people, for, as has been shown by us, the

principal object of the Law is to remove this doctrine, and to destroy

its traces.

CHAPTER XXXI

There are persons who find it difficult to give a reason for any of the

commandments, and consider it right to assume that the commandments and

prohibitions have no rational basis whatever. They are led to adopt

this theory by a certain disease in their soul, the existence of which

they perceive, but which they are unable to discuss or to describe. For

they imagine that these precepts, if they were useful in any respect,

and were commanded because of their usefulness, would seem to originate

in the thought and reason of some intelligent being. But as things

which are not objects of reason and serve no purpose, they would

undoubtedly be attributed to God, because no thought of man could have

produced them. According to the theory of those weak-minded persons,

man is more perfect than his Creator. For what man says or does has a

certain object, whilst the actions of God are different; He commands us

to do what is of no use to us, and forbids us to do what is harmless.

Far be this! On the contrary, the sole object of the Law is to benefit

us. Thus we explained the Scriptural passage, “for our good always,

that He might preserve us alive, as it is this day” (Deut. vi. 24).

Again, “which shall hear all those statutes (ḥuḳḳim), and say, surely

this great nation is a wise and understanding people” (ibid. iv. 6). He

thus says that even every one of these “statutes” convinces all nations

of the wisdom and understanding it includes. But if no reason could be

found for these statutes, if they produced no advantage and removed no

evil, why then should he who believes in them and follows them be wise,

reasonable, and so excellent as to raise the admiration of all nations?

But the truth is undoubtedly as we have said, that every one of the six

hundred and thirteen precepts serves to inculcate some truth, to remove

some erroneous opinion, to establish proper relations in society, to

diminish evil, to train in good manners, or to warn against bad habits.

All this depends on three things: opinions, morals, and social conduct.

We do not count words, because precepts, whether positive or negative,

if they relate to speech, belong to those precepts which regulate our

social conduct, or to those which spread truth, or to those which teach

morals. Thus these three principles suffice for assigning a reason for

every one of the Divine commandments.

CHAPTER XXXII

On considering the Divine acts, or the processes of Nature, we get an

insight into the prudence and wisdom of God as displayed in the

creation of animals, with the gradual development of the movements of

their limbs and the relative positions of the latter, and we perceive

also His wisdom and plan in the successive and gradual development of

the whole condition of each individual. The gradual development of the

animals’ movements and the relative position of the limbs may be

illustrated by the brain. The front part is very soft, the back part is

a little hard, the spinal marrow is still harder, and the farther it

extends the harder it becomes. The nerves are the organs of sensation

and motion. Some nerves are only required for sensation, or for slight

movements, as, e.g., the movement of the eyelids or of the jaws; these

nerves originate in the brain. The nerves which are required for the

movements of the limbs come from the spinal marrow. But nerves, even

those that come directly from the spinal cord, are too soft to set the

joints in motion; therefore God made the following arrangement: the

nerves branch out into fibres which are covered with flesh, and become

muscles; the nerves that come forth at the extremities of the muscles

and have already commenced to harden, and to combine with hard pieces

of ligaments, are the sinews which are joined and attached to the

limbs. By this gradual development the nerves are enabled to set the

limbs in motion. I quote this one instance because it is the most

evident of the wonders described in the book On the use of the limbs;

but the use of the limbs is clearly perceived by all who examine them

with a sharp eye. In a similar manner did God provide for each

individual animal of the class of mammalia. When such an animal is born

it is extremely tender, and cannot be fed with dry food. Therefore

breasts were provided which yield milk, and the young can be fed with

moist food which corresponds to the condition of the limbs of the

animal, until the latter have gradually become dry and hard.

Many precepts in our Law are the result of a similar course adopted by

the same Supreme Being. It is, namely, impossible to go suddenly from

one extreme to the other; it is therefore according to the nature of

man impossible for him suddenly to discontinue everything to which he

has been accustomed. Now God sent Moses to make [the Israelites] a

kingdom of priests and a holy nation (Exod. xix. 6) by means of the

knowledge of God. Comp. “Unto thee it was showed that thou mightest

know that the Lord is God” (Deut. iv. 35); “Know therefore this day,

and consider it in thine heart, that the Lord is God” (ibid. v. 39).

The Israelites were commanded to devote themselves to His service;

comp. “and to serve him with all your heart” (ibid. xi. 13); “and you

shall serve the Lord your God” (Exod. xxiii. 25); “and ye shall serve

him” (Deut. xiii. 5). But the custom which was in those days general

among all men, and the general mode of worship in which the Israelites

were brought up, consisted in sacrificing animals in those temples

which contained certain images, to bow down to those images, and to

burn incense before them; religious and ascetic persons were in those

days the persons that were devoted to the service in the temples

erected to the stars, as has been explained by us. It was in accordance

with the wisdom and plan of God, as displayed in the whole Creation,

that He did not command us to give up and to discontinue all these

manners of service; for to obey such a commandment it would have been

contrary to the nature of man, who generally cleaves to that to which

he is used; it would in those days have made the same impression as a

prophet would make at present if he called us to the service of God and

told us in His name, that we should not pray to Him, not fast, not seek

His help in time of trouble; that we should serve Him in thought, and

not by any action. For this reason God allowed these kinds of service

to continue; He transferred to His service that which had formerly

served as a worship of created beings, and of things imaginary and

unreal, and commanded us to serve Him in the same manner; viz., to

build unto Him a temple; comp. “And they shall make unto me a

sanctuary” (Exod. xxv. 8); to have the altar erected to His name; comp.

“An altar of earth thou shalt make unto me” (ibid. xx. 21); to offer

the sacrifices to Him; comp. “If any man of you bring an offering unto

the Lord” (Lev. i. 2), to bow down to Him and to burn incense before

Him. He has forbidden to do any of these things to any other being;

comp. “He who sacrificeth unto any God, save the Lord only, he shall be

utterly destroyed” (Exod. xxii. 19); “For thou shalt bow down to no

other God” (ibid. xxxiv. 14). He selected priests for the service in

the temple; comp. “And they shall minister unto me in the priest’s

office” (ibid. xxviii. 41). He made it obligatory that certain gifts,

called the gifts of the Levites and the priests, should be assigned to

them for their maintenance while they are engaged in the service of the

temple and its sacrifices. By this Divine plan it was effected that the

traces of idolatry were blotted out, and the truly great principle of

our faith, the Existence and Unity of God, was firmly established; this

result was thus obtained without deterring or confusing the minds of

the people by the abolition of the service to which they were

accustomed and which alone was familiar to them. I know that you will

at first thought reject this idea and find it strange; you will put the

following question to me in your heart: How can we suppose that Divine

commandments, prohibitions, and important acts, which are fully

explained, and for which certain seasons are fixed, should not have

been commanded for their own sake, but only for the sake of some other

thing; as if they were only the means which He employed for His primary

object? What prevented Him from making His primary object a direct

commandment to us, and to give us the capacity of obeying it? Those

precepts which in your opinion are only the means and not the object

would then have been unnecessary. Hear my answer, which will cure your

heart of this disease and will show you the truth of that which I have

pointed out to you. There occurs in the Law a passage which contains

exactly the same idea; it is the following: “God led them not through

the way of the land of the Philistines, although that was near; for God

said, Lest peradventure the people repent when they see war, and they

return to Egypt; but God led the people about, through the way of the

wilderness of the Red Sea,” etc. (Exod. xiii. 17). Here God led the

people about, away from the direct road which He originally intended,

because He feared they might meet on that way with hardships too great

for their ordinary strength; He took them by another road in order to

obtain thereby His original object. In the same manner God refrained

from prescribing what the people by their natural disposition would be

incapable of obeying, and gave the above-mentioned commandments as a

means of securing His chief object, viz., to spread a knowledge of Him

[among the people], and to cause them to reject idolatry. It is

contrary to man’s nature that he should suddenly abandon all the

different kinds of Divine service and the different customs in which he

has been brought up, and which have been so general, that they were

considered as a matter of course; it would be just as if a person

trained to work as a slave with mortar and bricks, or similar things,

should interrupt his work, clean his hands, and at once fight with real

giants. It was the result of God’s wisdom that the Israelites were led

about in the wilderness till they acquired courage. For it is a

well-known fact that travelling in the wilderness, and privation of

bodily enjoyments, such as bathing, produce courage, whilst the reverse

is the source of faint-heartedness; besides, another generation rose

during the wanderings that had not been accustomed to degradation and

slavery. All the travelling in the wilderness was regulated by Divine

commands through Moses; comp. “At the commandment of the Lord they

rested, and at the commandment of the Lord they journeyed; they kept

the charge of the Lord and the commandment of the Lord by the hand of

Moses” (Num. ix. 23). In the same way the portion of the Law under

discussion is the result of divine wisdom, according to which people

are allowed to continue the kind of worship to which they have been

accustomed, in order that they might acquire the true faith, which is

the chief object [of God’s commandments]. You ask, What could have

prevented God from commanding us directly, that which is the chief

object, and from giving us the capacity of obeying it? This would lead

to a second question, What prevented God from leading the Israelites

through the way of the land of the Philistines, and endowing them with

strength for fighting? The leading about by a pillar of cloud by day

and a pillar of fire by night would then not have been necessary. A

third question would then be asked in reference to the good promised as

reward for the keeping of the commandments, and the evil foretold as a

punishment for sins. It is the following question: As it is the chief

object and purpose of God that we should believe in the Law, and act

according to that which is written therein, why has He not given us the

capacity of continually believing in it, and following its guidance,

instead of holding out to us reward for obedience, and punishment for

disobedience, or of actually giving all the predicted reward and

punishment? For [the promises and the threats] are but the means of

leading to this chief object. What prevented Him from giving us, as

part of our nature, the will to do that which He desires us to do, and

to abandon the kind of worship which He rejects? There is one general

answer to these three questions, and to all questions of the same

character; it is this: Although in every one of the signs [related in

Scripture] the natural property of some individual being is changed,

the nature of man is never changed by God by way of miracle. It is in

accordance with this important principle that God said, “O that there

were such an heart in them, that they would fear me,” etc. (Deut. v.

26). It is also for this reason that He distinctly stated the

commandments and the prohibitions, the reward and the punishment. This

principle as regards miracles has been frequently explained by us in

our works; I do not say this because I believe that it is difficult for

God to change the nature of every individual person; on the contrary,

it is possible, and it is in His power, according to the principles

taught in Scripture; but it has never been His will to do it, and it

never will be. If it were part of His will to change [at His desire]

the nature of any person, the mission of prophets and the giving of the

Law would have been altogether superfluous.

I now return to my theme. As the sacrificial service is not the primary

object [of the commandments about sacrifice], whilst supplications,

prayers, and similar kinds of worship are nearer to the primary object,

and indispensable for obtaining it, a great difference was made in the

Law between these two kinds of service. The one kind, which consists in

offering sacrifices, although the sacrifices are offered to the name of

God, has not been made obligatory for us to the same extent as it had

been before. We were not commanded to sacrifice in every place, and in

every time, or to build a temple in every place, or to permit any one

who desires to become priest and to sacrifice. On the contrary, all

this is prohibited unto us. Only one temple has been appointed, “in the

place which the Lord shall choose” (Deut. xii. 26); in no other place

is it allowed to sacrifice; comp. “Take heed to thyself, that thou

offer not thy burnt-offerings in every place that thou seest” (ibid. v.

13); and only the members of a particular family were allowed to

officiate as priests. All these restrictions served to limit this kind

of worship, and keep it within those bounds within which God did not

think it necessary to abolish sacrificial service altogether. But

prayer and supplication can be offered everywhere and by every person.

The same is the case with the commandment of ẓiẓit (Num. xv. 38);

mezuzah (Deut. vi. 9; xi. 20); tefillin (Exod. xiii. 9, 16); and

similar kinds of divine service.

Because of this principle which I explained to you, the Prophets in

their books are frequently found to rebuke their fellow-men for being

over-zealous and exerting themselves too much in bringing sacrifices;

the prophets thus distinctly declared that the object of the sacrifices

is not very essential, and that God does not require them. Samuel

therefore said, “Hath the Lord as great delight in burnt-offerings and

sacrifices as in obeying the voice of the Lord” (1 Sam. xv. 22)? Isaiah

exclaimed, “To what purpose is the multitude of your sacrifices unto

me? saith the Lord” (Isa. i. 11); Jeremiah declared: “For I spake not

unto your fathers, nor commanded them in the day that I brought them

out of the land of Egypt, concerning burnt-offerings or sacrifices. But

this thing commanded I them, saying, Obey my voice, and I will be your

God, and ye shall be my people” (Jer. vii. 22, 23). This passage has

been found difficult in the opinion of all those whose words I read or

heard; they ask, How can Jeremiah say that God did not command us about

burnt-offering and sacrifice, seeing so many precepts refer to

sacrifice? The sense of the passage agrees with what I explained to

you. Jeremiah says [in the name of God] the primary object of the

precepts is this, Know me, and serve no other being; “I will be your

God, and ye shall be my people” (Lev. xxvi. 12). But the commandment

that sacrifices shall be brought and that the temple shall be visited

has for its object the success of that principle among you; and for its

sake I have transferred these modes of worship to my name; idolatry

shall thereby be utterly destroyed, and Jewish faith firmly

established. You, however, have ignored this object, and taken hold of

that which is only the means of obtaining it; you have doubted my

existence, “ye have denied the Lord, and said he is not” (Jer. v. 12);

ye served idols; “burnt incense unto Baal, and walked after other gods

whom ye know not. And come and stand before me in this house” (ibid.

vii. 9–10); i.e., you do not go beyond attending the temple of the

Lord, and offering sacrifices; but this is not the chief object.—I have

another way of explaining this passage with exactly the same result.

For it is distinctly stated in Scripture, and handed down by tradition,

that the first commandments communicated to us did not include any law

at all about burnt-offering and sacrifice. You must not see any

difficulty in the Passover which was commanded in Egypt; there was a

particular and evident reason for that, as will be explained by me

(chap. xlvi.). Besides it was revealed in the land of Egypt; whilst the

laws to which Jeremiah alludes in the above passage are those which

were revealed after the departure from Egypt. For this reason it is

distinctly added, “in the day that I brought them out from the land of

Egypt.” The first commandment after the departure from Egypt was given

at Marah, in the following words, “If thou wilt diligently hearken to

the voice of the Lord thy God, and wilt do that which is right in His

sight, and wilt give ear to His commandments” (Exod. xv. 26). “There he

made for them a statute and an ordinance, and there he proved them”

(ibid. ver. 25). According to the true traditional explanation, Sabbath

and civil laws were revealed at Marah; “statute” alludes to Sabbath,

and “ordinance” to civil laws, which are the means of removing

injustice. The chief object of the Law, as has been shown by us, is the

teaching of truths; to which the truth of the creatio ex nihilo

belongs. It is known that the object of the law of Sabbath is to

confirm and to establish this principle, as we have shown in this

treatise (Part II. chap. xxxi.). In addition to the teaching of truths

the Law aims at the removal of injustice from mankind. We have thus

proved that the first laws do not refer to burnt-offering and

sacrifice, which are of secondary importance. The same idea which is

contained in the above passage from Jeremiah is also expressed in the

Psalms, where the people are rebuked that they ignore the chief object,

and make no distinction between chief and subsidiary lessons. The

Psalmist says: “Hear, O my people, and I will speak; O Israel, and I

will testify against thee: I am God, even thy God. I will not reprove

thee for thy sacrifices or thy burnt-offerings, they have been

continually before me. I will take no bullock out of thy house, nor

he-goats out of thy folds” (Ps. l. 29).—Wherever this subject is

mentioned, this is its meaning. Consider it well, and reflect on it.

CHAPTER XXXIII

It is also the object of the perfect Law to make man reject, despise,

and reduce his desires as much as is in his power. He should only give

way to them when absolutely necessary. It is well known that it is

intemperance in eating, drinking, and sexual intercourse that people

mostly rave and indulge in; and these very things counteract the

ulterior perfection of man, impede at the same time the development of

his first perfection, and generally disturb the social order of the

country and the economy of the family. For by following entirely the

guidance of lust, in the manner of fools, man loses his intellectual

energy, injures his body, and perishes before his natural time; sighs

and cares multiply; there is an increase of envy, hatred, and warfare

for the purpose of taking what another possesses. The cause of all this

is the circumstance that the ignorant considers physical enjoyment as

an object to be sought for its own sake. God in His wisdom has

therefore given us such commandments as would counteract that object,

and prevent us altogether from directing our attention to it, and has

debarred us from everything that leads only to excessive desire and

lust. This is an important thing included in the objects of our Law.

See how the Law commanded to slay a person from whose conduct it is

evident that he will go too far in seeking the enjoyment of eating and

drinking. I mean “the rebellious and stubborn son”; he is described as

“a glutton and a drunkard” (Deut. xxi. 20). The Law commands to stone

him and to remove him from society lest he grow up in this character,

and kill many, and injure the condition of good men by his great lust.

Politeness is another virtue promoted by the Law. Man shall listen to

the words of his neighbour; he shall not be obstinate, but shall yield

to the wish of his fellow-men, respond to their appeal, act according

to their desire, and do what they like. Thus the Law commands,

“Circumcise therefore the foreskin of your heart, and be no more

stiff-necked” (Deut. x. 16); “Take heed and hearken” (ibid. xxvii. 9).

“If you be willing and obedient” (Isa. i. 19). Those who listen [to the

words of others] and accept as much as is right are represented as

saying, “We will hear and do” (Deut. v. 24), or in a figurative style,

“Draw me, we will run after thee” (Song i. 4).

The Law is also intended to give its followers purity and holiness; by

teaching them to suppress sensuality, to guard against it and to reduce

it to a minimum, as will be explained by us. For when God commanded

[Moses] to sanctify the people for the receiving of the Law, and said,

“Sanctify them to-day and to-morrow” (Exod. xix. 10), Moses [in

obedience to this command] said to the people, “Come not at your wives”

(ibid. ver. 15). Here it is clearly stated that sanctification consists

in absence of sensuality. But abstinence from drinking wine is also

called holiness; in reference to the Nazarite it is therefore said, “He

shall be holy” (Num. vi. 5). According to Siphra the words, “sanctify

yourselves and be ye holy” (Lev. xx. 7), refer to the sanctification

effected by performing the divine commands. As the obedience to such

precepts as have been mentioned above is called by the Law

sanctification and purification, so is defilement applied to the

transgression of these precepts and the performance of disgraceful

acts, as will be shown. Cleanliness in dress and body by washing and

removing sweat and dirt is included among the various objects of the

Law, but only if connected with purity of action, and with a heart free

from low principles and bad habits. It would be extremely bad for man

to content himself with a purity obtained by washing and cleanliness in

dress, and to be at the same time voluptuous and unrestrained in food

and lust. These are described by Isaiah as follows: “They that sanctify

themselves and purify themselves in the gardens, but continue their

sinful life, when they are in the innermost [of their houses], eating

swine’s flesh, and the abomination, and the mouse” (Isa. lxvi. 17):

that is to say, they purify and sanctify themselves outwardly as much

as is exposed to the sight of the people, and when they are alone in

their chambers and the inner parts of their houses, they continue their

rebelliousness and disobedience, and indulge in partaking of forbidden

food, such as [the flesh of] swine, worms, and mice. The prophet

alludes perhaps in the phrase “behind one tree in the midst” to

indulgence in forbidden lust. The sense of the passage is therefore

this: They appear outwardly clean, but their heart is bent upon their

desires and bodily enjoyments, and this is contrary to the spirit of

the Law. For the chief object of the Law is to [teach man to] diminish

his desires, and to cleanse his outer appearance after he has purified

his heart. Those who wash their body and cleanse their garments whilst

they remain dirty by bad actions and principles, are described by

Solomon as “a generation that are pure in their own eyes, and yet are

not washed from their filthiness; a generation, oh how lofty are their

eyes!” etc. (Prov. xxx. 12–13). Consider well the principles which we

mentioned in this chapter as the final causes of the Law; for there are

many precepts, for which you will be unable to give a reason unless you

possess a knowledge of these principles, as will be explained further

on.

CHAPTER XXXIV

It is also important to note that the Law does not take into account

exceptional circumstances; it is not based on conditions which rarely

occur. Whatever the Law teaches, whether it be of an intellectual, a

moral, or a practical character, is founded on that which is the rule

and not on that which is the exception; it ignores the injury that

might be caused to a single person through a certain maxim or a certain

divine precept. For the Law is a divine institution, and [in order to

understand its operation] we must consider how in Nature the various

forces produce benefits which are general, but in some solitary cases

they cause also injury. This is clear from what has been said by

ourselves as well as by others. We must consequently not be surprised

when we find that the object of the Law does not fully appear in every

individual; there must naturally be people who are not perfected by the

instruction of the Law, just as there are beings which do not receive

from the specific forms in Nature all that they require. For all this

comes from one God, is the result of one act; “they are all given from

one shepherd” (Eccles. xii. 11). It is impossible to be otherwise; and

we have already explained (chap. xv.) that that which is impossible

always remains impossible and never changes. From this consideration it

also follows that the laws cannot like medicine vary according to the

different conditions of persons and times; whilst the cure of a person

depends on his particular constitution at the particular time, the

divine guidance contained in the Law must be certain and general,

although it may be effective in some cases and ineffective in others.

If the Law depended on the varying conditions of man, it would be

imperfect in its totality, each precept being left indefinite. For this

reason it would not be right to make the fundamental principles of the

Law dependent on a certain time or a certain place; on the contrary,

the statutes and the judgments must be definite, unconditional, and

general, in accordance with the divine words: “As for the congregation,

one ordinance shall be for you and for the stranger” (Num. xv. 15);

they are intended, as has been stated before, for all persons and for

all times.

After having premised these introductory remarks I will now proceed to

the exposition of that which I intended to explain.

CHAPTER XXXV

In accordance with this intention I find it convenient to divide all

precepts into fourteen classes.

The first class comprises those precepts which form fundamental

principles, such as we have enumerated in Hilkot yesode ha-torah.

Repentance and fasts belong also to this class, as will be shown.

The second class comprises the precepts which are connected with the

prohibition of idolatry, and which have been described by us in Hilkot

aʻbodah-zarah. The laws concerning garments of linen and wool,

concerning the fruit of trees in the first three years after they have

been planted, and concerning divers seeds in a vineyard, are likewise

contained in this class. The object of these precepts is to establish

certain true principles and to perpetuate them among the people.

The third class is formed by commandments which are connected with the

improvement of the moral condition [of mankind]; these are mentioned in

Hilkot deʻot. It is known that by a good moral state those social

relations, which are indispensable for the well-being of mankind, are

brought to perfection.

The fourth class includes precepts relating to charity, loans, gifts,

and the like, e.g., the rules respecting “valuations,” (scil., of

things devoted to sacred purposes, Lev. xxvii. 1–27); “things devoted”

(ibid. ver. 28); laws concerning loans and servants, and all the laws

enumerated in the section Zeraʻim, except the rules of “mixtures” and

“the fruit of trees in the first three years.” The object of these

precepts is clear; their benefit concerns all people by turns; for he

who is rich to-day may one day be poor—either he himself or his

descendants; and he who is now poor, he himself or his son may be rich

to-morrow.

The fifth class contains those precepts which relate to the prevention

of wrong and violence; they are included in our book in the section

Neziḳin. Their beneficial character is evident.

The sixth class is formed of precepts respecting fines, e.g., the laws

on theft and robbery, on false witnesses, and most of the laws

contained in the section Shofetim belong to this class. Their benefit

is apparent; for if sinners and robbers were not punished, injury would

not be prevented at all: and persons scheming evil would not become

rarer. They are wrong who suppose that it would be an act of mercy to

abandon the laws of compensation for injuries; on the contrary, it

would be perfect cruelty and injury to the social state of the country.

It is an act of mercy that God commanded “judges and officers thou

shalt appoint to thee in all thy gates” (Deut. xvi. 18).

The seventh class comprises those laws which regulate the business

transactions of men with each other; e.g., laws about loans, hire,

trust, buying, selling, and the like; the rules about inheritance

belong to this class. We have described these precepts in the sections

Ḳinyan and Mishpatim. The object of these precepts is evident, for

monetary transactions are necessary for the peoples of all countries,

and it is impossible to have these transactions without a proper

standard of equity and without useful regulations.

The eighth class includes those precepts which relate to certain days,

as Sabbaths and holydays; they are enumerated in the section Zemannim.

The Law states clearly the reason and object of each of these precepts;

they are to serve as a means for establishing a certain principle among

us, or securing bodily recreation, or effecting both things at the same

time, as will be shown by me.

The ninth class comprises the general laws concerning religious rites

and ceremonies, e.g., laws concerning prayers, the reading of Shema’,

and the other rules given in the section Ahabah, with the exception of

the law concerning circumcision. The object of these laws is apparent;

they all prescribe actions which firmly establish the love of God in

our minds, as also the right belief concerning Him and His attributes.

The tenth class is formed of precepts which relate to the Sanctuary,

its vessels, and its ministers; they are contained in the section

ʻAbodah. The object of these precepts has already been mentioned by us

(supra, chap. xxxii.).

The eleventh class includes those precepts which relate to Sacrifices.

Most of these laws we have mentioned in the sections ʻAbodah and

Ḳorbanot. We have already shown the general use of the sacrificial

laws, and their necessity in ancient time.

The twelfth class comprises the laws concerning things unclean and

clean. The general object of these laws is, as will be explained by me,

to discourage people from [frequently] entering the Sanctuary; in order

that their minds be impressed with the greatness of the Sanctuary, and

approach it with respect and reverence.

The thirteenth class includes the precepts concerning forbidden food

and the like; we have given them in Hilkot maakalot asurot; the laws

about vows and temperance belong also to this class. The object of all

these laws is to restrain the growth of desire, the indulgence in

seeking that which is pleasant, and the disposition to consider the

appetite for eating and drinking as the end [of man’s existence]. We

have explained this in our Commentary on the Mishnah, in the

Introduction (chap, iv.) to The Sayings of the Fathers.

The fourteenth class comprises the precepts concerning forbidden sexual

intercourse; they are given in the section Nashim and Hilkot

issure-biah. The laws concerning the intermixture of cattle belong to

this class. The object of these precepts is likewise to diminish sexual

intercourse, to restrain as much as possible indulgence in lust, and

[to teach] that this enjoyment is not, as foolish people think, the

final cause of man’s existence. We have explained this in our

Commentary on The Sayings of the Fathers (Introd. chap. viii.). The

laws about circumcision belong to this class.

As is well known, the precepts are also divided into two classes, viz.,

precepts concerning the relation between man and God, and precepts

concerning the relation between man and man. Of the classes into which

we divide the precepts and which we have enumerated, the fifth, sixth,

and seventh, and part of the third, include laws concerning the

relation of man to man. The other classes contain the laws about the

relation of man to God, i.e., positive or negative precepts, which tend

to improve the moral or intellectual condition of mankind, or to

regulate such of each man’s actions which [directly] only concern him

and lead him to perfection. For these are called laws concerning man’s

relation to God, although in reality they lead to results which concern

also his fellow-men; because these results become only apparent after a

long series of intermediate links, and from a general point of view;

whilst directly these laws are not intended to prevent man from

injuring his fellow-man. Note this.

Having described the laws of these classes, I will now again consider

the precepts of each class, and explain the reason and use of those

which are believed to be useless or unreasonable, with the exception of

a few, the object of which I have not yet comprehended.

CHAPTER XXXVI

The reason of all precepts of the first class, viz., of the principles

enumerated by us in the Hilkot yesode ha-torah, is obvious. Consider

them one by one, and you will find that the lesson which every one of

them contains is correct and demonstrable. It is also evident that the

precepts which exhort and command us to learn and to teach are useful;

for without wisdom there cannot be any good act or any true knowledge.

The law which prescribes to honour the teachers of the Law is likewise

useful; for if they were not considered by the people as great and

honourable men, they would not be followed as guides in their

principles and actions. The Law demands also that we be humble and

modest [in their presence]. “Thou shalt rise up before the hoary head”

(Lev. xix. 32). This class includes also the commandment to swear by

the name of God and the prohibition of swearing falsely or in vain. The

reason for all these precepts is evident; they aim at the glorification

of God; they prescribe acts which lead to the belief in God’s

greatness. Likewise the commandment to cry to God in time of trouble,

“to blow an alarm with the trumpets” (Num. x. 9), belongs to this

class. We are told to offer up prayers to God, in order to establish

firmly the true principle that God takes notice of our ways, that He

can make them successful if we worship Him, or disastrous if we disobey

Him, that [success and failure] are not the result of chance or

accident. In this sense we must understand the passage, “If ye walk

with me by chance” (beḳeri. xxvi. 21); i.e., if I bring troubles upon

you for punishment, and you consider them as mere accidents, I will

again send you some of these accidents as you call them, but of a more

serious and troublesome character. This is expressed in the words: “If

ye walk with me by chance: then I will walk with you also in the fury

of chance” (ibid. vers. 27, 28). For the belief of the people that

their troubles are mere accidents causes them to continue in their evil

principles and their wrong actions, and prevents them from abandoning

their evil ways. Comp. “Thou hast stricken them, but they have not

grieved” (Jer. v. 3). For this reason God commanded us to pray to Him,

to entreat Him, and to cry before Him in time of trouble. It is clear

that repentance is likewise included in this class; that is to say, it

is one of those principles which are an indispensable element in the

creed of the followers of the Law. For it is impossible for man to be

entirely free from error and sin; he either does not know the opinion

which he has to choose, or he adopts a principle, not for its own

merits, but in order to gratify his desire or passion. If we were

convinced that we could never make our crooked ways straight, we should

for ever continue in our errors, and perhaps add other sins to them

since we did not see that any remedy was left to us. But the belief in

the effect of repentance causes us to improve, to return to the best of

the ways, and to become more perfect than we were before we sinned. For

this reason many things are prescribed for the promotion of this very

useful principle; e.g., confessions and sacrifices for sins committed

unknowingly, and in some cases even for sins committed intentionally,

and fasts, and that which is common to all cases of repentance from

sin, the resolve to discontinue sinning. For that is the aim of this

principle. Of all these precepts the use is obvious.

CHAPTER XXXVII

The precepts of the second class are those which we have enumerated in

the section “On idolatry.” It is doubtless that they all tend to save

man from the error of idolatry and the evil practices connected with

it; e.g., observing the times, enchantment, witchcraft, incantation,

consulting with familiar spirits, and the like. When you read the books

which I mentioned to you, you will find that witchcraft, which will be

described to you, is part of the customs of the Sabeans, Kasdim,

Chaldeans, and to a higher degree of the Egyptians and Canaanites. They

caused others to believe, or they themselves believed, that by means of

these arts they would perform wonderful things in reference to an

individual person, or to the inhabitants of a whole country, although

no analogy and no reasoning can discover any relation between these

performances of the witches and the promised result. Thus they are

careful to collect certain plants at a particular time, and to take a

definite number of certain objects. There are many things comprised by

witchcraft; they may be divided into three classes: first, witchcraft

connected with objects in Nature, viz., plants, animals, or minerals.

Secondly, witchcraft dependent for its performance on a certain time;

and thirdly, witchcraft dependent on the performance of certain acts of

man, such as dancing, clapping, laughing, jumping with one leg, lying

on the ground with the face upward, burning a thing, fumigating with a

certain material, or speaking intelligible or unintelligible words.

These are the various kinds of witchcraft. In some cases all these

various performances are required. Thus the witches sometimes order:

take a leaf of a certain plant, when the moon is seen in a certain

degree [of the Zodiac] in the east point or in one of the other

cardinal points [of the horizon], also a certain quantity of the horn,

the sweat, the hair and the blood of a certain animal when the sun is,

e.g., in the middle of the sky, or in some other definite place; and a

portion of a certain mineral or minerals, melted at a certain

conjunction of sun and moon, and at a definite position of the stars;

speak then, and say certain words, and fumigate with those leaves or

similar ones to that molten image, and such and such a thing will

happen. In other instances of witchcraft it is assumed that one of the

above performances suffices. In most cases the condition is added that

women must perform these actions. Thus it is stated in reference to the

means of obtaining rain, that ten virgins dressed with diadems and red

garments should dance, push each other, moving backwards and forwards,

and make signs to the sun: the result of this long process was believed

[by the idolaters] to be a downpour of rain.

It is further stated that if four women lay on their back, with their

feet spread and lifted up, said certain words and did certain things

whilst in this disgraceful position, hail would discontinue coming down

in that place. The number of these stupid and mad things is great; in

all of them without exception women are required to be the agent.

Witchcraft is intimately connected with astrology; those that practise

it assign each plant, animal, or mineral to a certain star, and believe

that the above processes of witchcraft are different forms of worship

offered to that star, which is pleased with that act, word, or offering

of incense, and fulfils their wishes.