When the artist desires realistic truth he is quite able to attain it.
This is not often the case; generally the object of artistic work is
decorative and the representation follows the principles developed in
decorative art.
[Illustration: Fig. 156. Carved head used in ceremonial, Kwakiutl
Indians.]
When the form of the decorative field permits, the outline of the
animal form is retained. The size of the head is generally stressed as
against that of the body and of the limbs. Eyes and eyebrows, mouth and
nose are given great prominence. In almost all cases the eyebrows have
a standardized form, analogous to that in which the Indian likes to
trim his own eyebrows,—with a sharp edge on the rim of the orbits, and
a sharp angle in the upper border, the brows being widest at a point a
little outward from the center, tapering to the outer and inner angles
and ending quite abruptly at both ends. The eye is also standardized.
In many cases it consists of two outer curves which indicate the
borders of the upper and lower eyelids. A large inner circle represents
the eyeball. The lip lines are always distinct and border a mouth which
is given an extraordinary width. Generally the lips are opened wide
enough to show the teeth or the tongue. Cheeks and forehead are much
restricted in size. The trunk is not elaborated. The ears of animals
rise over the forehead (fig. 157). These are almost always applied in
reproductions of mammals and birds, while they are generally missing
in those of the whale, killer-whale, shark and often also of the
sculpin. The human ear is represented in its characteristic form, on a
level with the eye (figs. 207 and 209, pp. 217, 218). Whales and fish
often have round eyes, but exceptions occur (figs. 233, 234, 235, pp.
229-231).
For clear presentation of the principles of this art it seems
advantageous to treat the symbolism and the adjustment of the animal
form to the decorative field before taking up the purely formal
elements.
Fig. 157 _a_ is a figure from the model of a totem pole, which
represents the beaver. Its face is treated somewhat like a human face,
particularly the region around eyes and nose. The position of the
ears, however, indicates an animal head. The two large incisors serve
to identify the rodent par excellence,—the beaver. The tail is turned
up in front of the body. It is ornamented by cross-hatchings which
represent the scales on the beaver’s tail. In its forepaws it holds a
stick. The nose is short and forms a sharp angle with the forehead.
The nostrils are large and indicated by spirals. The large incisors,
the tail with cross-hatchings, the stick, and the form of the nose
are symbols of the beaver and the first two of these are sufficient
characteristics of the animal.
[Illustration: Fig. 157. Carvings representing the beaver from models
of Haida totem poles carved in slate.]
[Illustration: Fig. 158. Carving from handle of spoon representing
beaver, Tlingit.]
[Illustration: Fig. 159. Headdress representing beaver; a dragon-fly is
shown on the chest of the beaver, Haida.]
Fig. 157 _b_ is another representation of a beaver from the model of a
totem pole. It resembles the former one in all details, except that the
stick is missing. The beaver is merely holding its three-toed forepaws
raised to the chin. In other carvings the beaver is shown with four or
five toes, but the symbols described here never vary.
On the handle of a spoon (fig. 158), the head and forepaws of the
beaver are shown; and in its mouth are indicated an upper pair of
incisors, all the other teeth being omitted. The scaly tail is shown
on the back of the spoon. The nose differs from the one previously
described only in the absence of the spiral development of the nostril.
Its form and size agree with the preceding specimens.
In the centre of the front of a dancing headdress (fig. 159), a beaver
is represented in squatting position. The symbols mentioned before
will be recognized here. The face is human, but the ears, which
rise over the forehead, indicate that an animal is meant. Two large
pairs of incisors occupy the center of the open mouth. The tail,
with cross-hatchings, is turned up in front of the body, and appears
between the two hind legs. The forepaws are raised to the height of
the mouth, but they do not hold a stick.[102] The nose is short, with
large round nostrils and turns abruptly into the forehead. On the
chest of the beaver another head is represented over which a number
of small rings stretch upward. This animal represents the dragon-fly,
which is symbolized by a large head and a slender segmented body.[103]
Its feet extend from the corners of its mouth towards the haunches of
the beaver. Its face resembles a human face; but the two ears, which
rise over the eyebrows, indicate that an animal is meant. In many
representations of the dragon-fly there are two pairs of wings attached
to the head. Combinations of two animals similar to the present one are
found frequently, as in figs. 165, 170 and 235.
[102] For additional representations of the beaver see figs. 216, 225,
228, 229, 230, 255, 283.
[103] See p. 192.
In a painting from a Kwakiutl house-front (fig. 160), which was made
for me by an Indian from Fort Rupert, the large head with the incisors
will be recognized. The scaly tail appears under the mouth. The broken
lines (1) around the eyes, indicate the hair of the beaver. The design
on each cheek (3) the bones of the face, the high point of the nose (2)
its sudden turn. The nostrils are large and round as in the specimens
described before. Under the corners of the mouth are the feet. The
meaning of the two ornaments over the head is doubtful.
[Illustration: Fig. 160. Painting for a house-front placed over the
door, representing the beaver, Kwakiutl Indians.]
[Illustration: Fig. 161. Halibut hook with design representing a
sculpin swallowing a fish, Tlingit.
Fig. 162. Part of a totem pole with design representing a sculpin,
Tsimshian.]
A carved halibut hook (fig. 161) is decorated with the design of the
sculpin. The symbols of the fish are fins and tail, those of the
sculpin, two spines rising over its mouth, and a joined dorsal fin. The
sculpin is represented swallowing a fish, the tail of which protrudes
from its mouth. The two spines appear immediately over the lips, their
points being between the two eyes which are represented by two circles
with small projections. The two pectoral fins are indicated over the
eyes. The joined dorsal fin extends from the eyes upward toward the
narrowest part of the body. The tail of the animal extends toward the
place where point and shank of the hook are bound together by means of
a strip of spruce root.
[Illustration: Fig. 163. Woolen legging with appliqué designs
representing sculpin, Haida.]
The same animal is represented in a slightly different way on the lower
portion of a totem pole (fig. 162). The lowest figure is probably the
sun, or perhaps a starfish. Its arms extend upward, and are held in
the mouth by a sculpin, standing head downward, back forward, and tail
extending upward. Two crescent-shaped ornaments above the corners of
the mouth represent the gills of the fish. Above these are the pectoral
fins. On the level of the pectoral fins towards the middle appear the
symbols of the sculpin, two spines, the lower portions of which are
decorated with small human faces. The round eyes are placed just under
the spines. The dorsal fin commences at the height of the eyes, and
merges into the tail which is clasped by a human figure cut in two by
the fish tail. This carving is also characterized by two symbols,——the
two spines and the joined dorsal fin.
On a legging made of blue cloth (fig. 163) the sculpin is shown in red
cloth appliqué. Its teeth, eyes, and dorsal fin are represented by
buttons of abalone shell. Two small triangles cut out to the right and
left of the mouth represent the gills. Immediately over the eyes, and
extending toward the middle of the back, are the two spines, indicated
by two slender triangular pieces of red cloth cut out in their middle
parts. The pectoral fins are indicated by two broader pieces of red
cloth extending from the eyes outward and upward toward the margin of
the body of the fish, the dorsal fin by the long slits along the back
of the animal. The species is characterized by the two spines which
appear over the eyes.[104]
[104] For additional representations of the sculpin see figs. 206, 219,
224, 262.
In facial paintings the sculpin is generally indicated by the two
spines which are painted just over the lips (fig. 164).
Figs. 165-168 represent the hawk which is symbolized by an enormous
hooked beak, curved backward so that its slender point touches the
chin. In many cases the face of the bird is that of a human being, the
nose being given the shape of the symbol of the hawk. It is extended in
the form of a beak, and drawn back into the mouth, or merged into the
face below the lower lip.
On the headdress, fig. 165, the upper, larger face is that of the hawk.
The face in human; but the ears, which rise over the forehead, indicate
that an animal is meant. The body is small, and is hidden behind the
face of a sea-monster with bear’s head and flippers. The wings of the
hawk are grasped by the arms of the sea-monster whose flippers may be
seen over the arms.
Fig. 166 is the handle of a spoon on which is represented the head of a
hawk, symbolized by its beak. The top of the spoon represents a man who
is holding a small animal with a segmented body, which may represent
the dragon-fly, although the head seems rather smaller than usual.[105]
[105] See also figs. 207, 243, 257.
In figs. 167 and 168 the same symbols of the hawk will be recognized.
It is worth remarking that in most of these specimens the mouth is
entirely separated from the beak and has the form of the toothed mouth
of a mammal. A characteristic form of the hawk’s beak is shown in the
facial painting fig. 169.
[Illustration: Fig. 164. Facial painting representing the sculpin,
Haida.]
[Illustration: Fig. 165. Headdress representing a hawk, Tsimshian.]
[Illustration: Fig. 166. Handle of a spoon made of mountain-goat horn;
lowest figure representing a hawk; upper figure representing a man
holding a dragon-fly, probably Tsimshian.]
[Illustration: Fig. 167. Rattle with design of a hawk, Tlingit.]
[Illustration: Fig. 168. Dish made of horn of big-horn-sheep, Tlingit.]
[Illustration: Fig. 169. Facial painting representing hawk, Haida.]
[Illustration: Fig. 170. Headdress representing an eagle bearing a frog
on its chest, Tsimshian.]
Fig. 170, the front of a headdress representing the eagle, is quite
similar to the forms of preceding series; but it differs from them in
that the beak of the bird is not turned back so as to touch the face,
but ends in a sharp point extending downward, and that there is no
mammal mouth indicated. The wings of the eagle are shown extending from
the border of its body inward. The shoulder joint is indicated by the
head of a human figure which is ornamentally carved on the wings. The
feet are seen at the sides of the lower border of the carving, under
the wings. On the body of the eagle is a rather realistic carving of a
toad. An eagle is also shown on top of the Haida house post (fig. 171).
The wings are turned in in front of the body and the curves of the
lower figures fit into the curved side.[106]
[106] See also fig. 215.
[Illustration: Fig. 171. Housepost representing eagle above, cormorant
below, Haida.]
In figs. 172 and 173 I give two representations of the hawk (or fish
hawk) made by the Kwakiutl. The treatment is different from that of the
Haida, but the sharply curved beak is found here also. On the paddle
(fig. 172), (1) represents the eyebrow and ear, (2) the cheek, (3) the
wing, (4) the beak. Fig. 173 is taken from a painting on a settee. On
the back is shown a man with ears (4) over the head, like those of the
Haida animals. (1) is the navel, (2) the wrinkles running down from
the nose to the corners of the mouth, (3) is painting on the cheeks.
The head of the hawk is placed on each side of the human figure. On
the lower border of the settee is the lower jaw (5), over the eyes the
feathers on the head (6), the eye next to the head on the side wing of
the settee, is the shoulder joint. The bone of the wing is shown in
(7), the long wing feather in (8), the feathers of the body in (9).
[Illustration: Fig. 172. Painting on paddle representing hawk,
Kwakiutl.]
[Illustration: Fig. 173. Painting on back and one end of a settee
representing man and hawk, Kwakiutl.]
[Illustration: Fig. 174. Handle of spoon of mountain-goat horn
representing dragon-fly.]
[Illustration: Fig. 175. Berry spoon with engraving representing
dragon-fly.]
The dragon-fly is represented with a large head, a long segmented body
and two pairs of wings. The representation on the headdress, fig. 159,
has been referred to before. The head is human but provided with animal
ears. It has also been mentioned that the animal with segmented body
in fig. 166 may be a dragon-fly, although it is lacking the wings.
According to Edensaw, the spoon handle (fig. 174) also represents the
dragon-fly. It has a strongly curved beak; wings are placed under
the lower jaw and the segmented body forms the tip of the handle. A
particularly good representation of a dragon-fly is found on the Haida
berry spoon[107] (fig. 175). Attention should be called to the spiral
proboscis on this specimen.
[107] These flat, wooden spoons are used for eating soapberries which
are beaten to a foam.
The most important characteristic of the killer-whale as represented
by the Haida is the long dorsal fin,—often with white circle or white
stripe in the middle, and a face or eye indicating a joint at the base.
The head is elongated, the mouth long and square in front. The nostril
is large, high, and at the same time elongated. The distance from the
mouth to the eyebrow is long and on totem poles and spoon handles
the head is always so placed that the long snout points downward.
When seen in profile the front of the face is square on account of
the forward extension of the nose over the front part of the mouth.
The eye is generally round but sometimes surrounded by elongated lid
lines with sharp inner and outer corners. Sometimes the blow-hole is
shown by a circular spot over the forehead. In fig. 176 are shown a
few representations of the killer-whale as found on handles of spoons
made of mountain-goat horn. In (_a_) and (_b_) the dorsal fin rises
immediately over the head of the animal. The inverted face in (_b_)
probably represents the blow-hole. In (_a_) and (_c_) the fins are
folded forward; in the latter specimen the tail is turned up in front
on the body. On the rattle (fig. 177) the characteristic large head
with steep face appears. The mouth is set with large teeth; the eye is
round. In front of the dorsal fin is a blow-hole. The Haida float (fig.
178) is abnormal in so far as it has a very small dorsal fin (see also
fig. 182 _d_).
[Illustration: Fig. 176. _a_-_e_ Carvings from handles of spoons of
mountain-goat horn representing killer-whale, Tlingit.]
[Illustration: Fig. 177. Rattle representing killer-whale, Haida.]
[Illustration: Fig. 178. Wooden float representing killer-whale, Haida.]
[Illustration: Fig. 179. Masks and dishes representing the
killer-whale, Kwakiutl.]
[Illustration: Fig. 180. Helmet representing the killer-whale, Tlingit.]
[Illustration: Fig. 181. Carvings from the handles of spoons of
mountain-goat horn representing the bear.]
A number of Kwakiutl masks and dishes representing the killer-whale are
shown in fig. 179. Although there are some differences in the treatment
of the animal, the main features are common to both tribes. All these
specimens, except _h_, have the dorsal fin; the last named specimen
shows the head only. The long, high nose is found in all except in _c_,
_d_, _e_. The high, steep face is common to all of them. Fig. _e_, a
large house dish,[108] is said to represent the They are emblems of
the family of the houseowner.] whale. It will be noticed that _b_,
_c_, _d_ have round eyes while in _a_ and _h_ the regular oblong eye
is used. In _e_ and _g_ the fundamental form of the eye is also round.
Fig. 180 is a Tlingit helmet which is characterized as the killer-whale
by the large mouth set with teeth, the sudden turn of the nose towards
the forehead, the fin made of hide which rises over the crown of the
head, and the fin which is painted on the left cheek. Ordinarily the
killer-whale has no ears. In facial painting red under and on the lower
jaw up to a line running from the angle of the jaw to a point a little
below the lips, represents the throat of the killer-whale.
[108] These dishes are used in great feasts. Some of them are of
enormous size.
The bear is symbolized by a large mouth set with many teeth, often in
the act of swallowing some animal. Very often the tongue protrudes.
The nostrils are high and round, sometimes represented by spirals (see
also figs. 157, 175). On totem poles and carved spoon handles they are
similar to those of the killer-whale but do not extend quite so far
backward. There is a sharp turn in the profile from the nose to the
forehead. The paws are large (fig. 181).
[Illustration: Fig. 182. Berry spoons representing bear; _a_, _b_,
Tsimshian; _c_, Tlingit; _d_, representing killer-whale.]
In fig. 182 three berry spoons are shown which, according to Charles
Edensaw, represent the bear. Fig. 182 _a_ is quite clear. At the end
of the spoon is shown the head with an enormous ear (1), the size of
which is determined by the form of the spoon. Two teeth are indicated
by red curves (2). Under the mouth is a broad black curve, the
foreleg (3), and to the right of it (4) the fore-paw. The lowest part
represents the hindlegs. Fig. 182 _b_ is not so clear. The face in the
middle is the hip joint, under it, to the right, the thigh, to the left
the paw with long claws. Edensaw considered the design over the hip
joint as the tail, the end as the head, but I doubt the correctness
of this interpretation. The end of the spoon looks more like the head
of a sea-monster and the design over the hip joint like the fin. Fig.
182 _c_ was also called a bear by the same informant, while 182 _d_
was called a killer-whale. I place these side by side, because the
formal agreement of the lower part is striking. The right half of the
base of 182 _c_ has the characteristic form of the dorsal fin of the
killer-whale and corresponds to an analagous design in fig. 182 _d_.
In both cases the inverted eye above the “fin” would be the joint. The
rest of the design consists of eye and flipper elements that are not
readily recognized. In 182 _d_ the flat curves in the middle may be the
body; in front to the left the fin, and over it eye and mouth. In 182
_c_ the elements are still less clear. According to Edensaw there is no
head, only a tail at the upper end of the spoon.
There are quite a number of representations of the sea-monster,
the form of which is partly that of a bear and partly that of a
killer-whale. In a number of cases the monster has a bear’s head (fig.
183) and body, but fins are attached to the elbows. In other cases the
head is that of a killer-whale and the body that of a bear. In this
form it appears on many horn spoon handles (fig. 184). In still other
cases the characteristics of bear and killer-whale are intermingled in
other ways.
The frog is characterized by a wide toothless mouth, a flat nose, and
lack of a tail.
The following series (figs. 185-188) are representations of the
dogfish or shark. When the whole body of this animal is represented,
it is characterized by a heterocerc tail, a large mouth, the corners
of which are drawn downward, a series of curved lines on each cheek
which represent the gills, and a high tapering forehead imitating the
inferior position of the mouth. It is often decorated with two circles
(the nostrils), and a series of curved lines (wrinkles) similar to the
gill lines on the cheeks.
[Illustration: Fig. 183. Carving representing a sea-monster, Tlingit.]
[Illustration: Fig. 184. Carvings from handles of spoons made of
mountain-goat horn representing a sea-monster.]
[Illustration: Fig. 185. Part of totem pole carved in slate
representing shark surmounted by an eagle, Haida.]
[Illustration: Fig. 186. Handle of a dagger representing the head of a
shark, Tlingit.]
Fig. 185 represents a shark devouring a halibut, from the upper part
of a totem pole. The head has the characteristic symbols, to which
are added here the numerous sharp teeth that are found often, but
not regularly, as symbols of the shark. The greater part of the body
has been omitted, since the animal is sufficiently identified by the
symbols found on the head; but under the chin will be noticed the two
pectoral fins which identify it as a fish.
Fig. 186 is the handle of a copper dagger on which the mouth with
depressed corners, the curved lines on the cheeks, and the ornament
rising over the forehead, characterize the shark.
[Illustration: Fig. 187. Wooden pipe representing a shark, Tlingit.]
[Illustration: Fig. 188. Tattooing representing a shark, Haida.]
A small pipe (fig. 187) has the form of a shark. The square end at
the right hand side is the face of the animal (fig. 187). Eyes and
mouth are inlaid with abalone shell. On account of the narrowness of
the face, the three curved lines generally found on the cheeks are
placed under the mouth. The forehead has the characteristic high form
described before. The opposite end of the pipe shows the tail turned
upward. On the sides are carved the pectoral fins, which extend over
the body of the pipe.
Fig. 188 is a copy of a tattooing on the back of a Haida woman. Here we
have only the outline of the head of a shark, again characterized by
the peculiar, high forehead, the depressed corners of the mouth, and
curved lines on each cheek.
The shark[109] (or dogfish) is found frequently on Haida carvings and
paintings. It is rare among the southern tribes.
[109] See also figs. 213, 214, 217, 232, 233, 261.
The ts’um’os, the personified snag, is represented in a form similar
to the bear. According to Edensaw the form of the head is analogous to
that of the bear but the corners of the mouth are drawn down like those
of the dog-fish (fig. 189). This is contradicted by the representation
of a third snag monster, in which the mouth is square like that of the
bear. The region behind the mouth has, however, the characteristic
curvature demanded by Edensaw. The fins of this being correspond to the
concept of the sea-monster.
[Illustration: Fig. 189. Handles of spoons representing sea-monster,
Haida.]
[Illustration: Fig. 190. Handles of spoons made of mountain-goat
representing snail, Tlingit.]
In fig. 190 are represented two spoon handles, representing, according
to Edensaw, the snail. The characteristic feature seems to be the
long snout with its sudden, angular turn. The conventional concept of
the animal form with eye and nose is strikingly brought out in this
instance.
Let us briefly recapitulate what we have thus far tried to show.
Animals are characterized by their symbols, and the following series of
symbols has been described in the preceding remarks:
1. Of the _beaver_: large incisors; large, round nose; scaly tail; and
a stick held in the fore paws.
2. Of the _sculpin_: two spines rising over the mouth, and a continuous
dorsal fin.
3. Of the _hawk_: large, curved beak the point of which is turned
backward so that it touches the face.
4. Of the _eagle_: large, curved beak, the point of which is turned
downward.
5. Of the _killer-whale_: large, long head; elongated large nostrils;
round eye; large mouth set with teeth; blow-hole; and large dorsal fin.
6. Of the _shark_ or _dogfish_: an elongated rounded cone rising over
the forehead; mouth with depressed corners; a series of curved lines
on the cheeks representing gills; two circles and curved lines on the
ornament rising over the forehead representing nostrils and wrinkles;
round eyes; numerous sharp teeth; and heterocerc tail.
7. Of the _bear_: large paws; and large mouth set with teeth;
protruding tongue; large, round nose; and sudden turn from snout to
forehead.
8. Of the _sea-monster_: bear’s head; bear’s paws with flippers
attached; and gills and body of the killer-whale, with several dorsal
fins; or other mixtures of bear and killer-whale type.