spear, Eskimo, 268
Bird-stones, 175
Bison, disappearance of, 333;
possibility of domestication, 276
Black dye, 304
Blanket and basket designs symbolic, 58
Blanket-loom, 124, 131, 132
Blanket-making, 128, 133
Blanket-pole, 162
Blue dye, 304
Boats, 281;
Omaha, 284
Boiling-basket, 89
Bolas, 268
Bologna codex, 72
Books, of Chilan Balam, 82;
of the Mayas, 77, 82
Borgian codex, 69
Boundary lines, 410, 411
Bow and arrow, 249, 254, 256
Bow-drill, 254
Boxing, 326
Bronze tools, 299
Buffalo wool blankets, 159
Building methods, change of, 200, 350
Bunch-word, 32
Burial, 388
Burning pottery, 100
C
Cactus-fruit wine, 360
Cahokia mound, 342
Cajon, 220, 236
Cakchiquel year, 307
Calaveras skull, 434
Calculiform writing, 73, 186
Calendar, stick, 305;
stone, 181, 305
California houses, 215
Calumet, 364
Cannibal banquet, 371
Cannibalism, 368
Canoe, dugout, 282;
Haida, 164, 282
Captain David, 140
Captives, treatment of, 366
Card-playing, 320, 326
Carved panthers, 180
Carving, 162, 167, 169
Casa Grande, 200, 233, 234
Casas Grandes, 234
Casting metals, 301
Cause of North-American race homogeneity, 441
Cavate lodge, 220, 228;
plan and sections, 227
Cedar mats, 147
Cement, 303, 305
Cenoté, 370
Central-American arts, why superior, 439
Centre of culture, 431
Ceremonials, 320, 376, 381
Cérros trinchéras, 344
Chac-Mool, statue, 190
Chaco ruins, 230, 232
Chalchivitl, 136
Change in building methods, 200, 350
Cherokee, alphabet, 52;
syllabary, 52;
writing, 36
Chiefs, 416, 424;
civil, 418;
grades of, 424;
war, 418
Chief’s office hereditary in the gens, 424
Chilkat blanket, 452
Chimney, Puebloan, 226
Chinook jargon, 28
Chirimia, 311
Chiriqui, pottery, 104;
stools, 192
Chocolatl, 360
Cholula, Great Mound of, 350
Chultune, 288
Cigarette used, 363
_Cire perdue_ process, 301
City of Refuge, 456
Civil and military branches often separate, 418
Civilised tribes, 358
Clan, 414;
crest, 166, 220;
privileges and obligations of, 419
Classification by stone implements impossible, 433
Cleanliness, 386
Cliff-dwellers, 176, 229
Codex, Bologna, 72;
Borgia, 69;
Cortesianus, 82;
Dresden, 82;
Mendoza, 72;
Peresianus, 76, 82;
Telleriano-Remensis, 72;
Troano, 82;
Vaticanus, 72
Coil-process pottery, 99, 104
Comalli, 360
Commerce, 375
Communal, buildings, 247;
living, 200, 247
Complementary days, 306
Confederacy, Aztec, 421, 423, 424;
Iroquois, 421, 425, 449
Conical cap, 148;
hat, 147
Continent peopled before glacial period, 432
Controversy, 383
Cooking-basket, 89
Copan, 242, 351
Copper, bells, 292;
bowlder, 288;
hardening, 299;
implements, 291;
mines, date of working, 290;
plates, 291;
working, 249, 288, 291, 301
Coppers, 162, 293
Corbel, arch, 242;
vault, 235, 237, 242
Cord, 126
Cord-marked pottery, 106
Coronado, error in tracing of route of, 453
Cortesianus codex, 82
Costume, 133 to 144, 367
Cotton, 128, 338
Cotton-padded armour, 259
Cotton weaving, 137
Council, 420;
general, 420;
of women, 420;
tribal, 420
Councillors, 416, 420
Counterfeiting, 49
“Counts back” of the Dakotas, 60, 377
_Coureurs du Bois_, 451
Covenant chain of the Iroquois, 352
Crest, 166
Crops, 333
Cross, the, 254;
in America, 63
Crotalus, 380
Cruciform tomb, 3, 384;
ground plan, 385
Cueitl, 138
Culture not evidence of relationship, 430
Cup-markings, 65
Cupped-stones, 65, 272
Curtains for doors, 205
D
Dagänowédä, 421
Daily life not bloody, 353
Dakota winter counts, 60
Dance, around a cedar tree, 315;
Ghost, 316;
Rain, 364;
Resurrection, 316;
Snake, 376;
Somaikoli, 318, 381, 454
Dancing, 376, 378, 381
Dead, disposal of, 388
Death-house, Natchez, 208
Death-masks in Amerindian pottery, 106, 171
Declaration of war, 366
Decoration of pottery, 99
Defensive, village, 346;
walls, 345
Deformity rare, 366
Degeneration of Yucatecs, 439
Descent, basis of, 419
Destruction of Amerinds by Gov. Kieft, 444
Details of Puebloan house architecture, 211
Dibble, 270
Dighton Rock, 45
Diseases introduced by whites, 229
Distinction between gens and clan, 419
Distribution of, arts, 439;
food, 354
Dog, harness, Eskimo, 278;
whip, 279
Dogs, 276
Dolls, 328
Doors, 205
Doorways, 228
Double-headed snake, 168, 392
Dramatic sense, 331
Dresden codex, 82
Dress, 143
Drill, 251, 252
Drums, 308
Dry-painting, 61, 387
Dugout canoe, 282
Dwarfs, races of, 405
Dwellings, 195
Dyes, 303, 304
E
Early advancement, 432
Earthenware burial casket, 105
Earth, iglu, 219;
lodge, 202
Earthworks, Cahokia mound, 342;
connected with agriculture, 338;
Etowah group, 337, 346;
foundations for houses, 338;
method of construction, 342;
Newark group, 346
East Mesa, 378
Effigy jars, 119
Eldorado myth, 403
Election of Aztec chief, 424
Election of chiefs, 418
Elephant mound, 334;
pipe, 172
Elephant’s trunks, 190
Elopement, 383
Emblem of peace, 364
Embroidery, 153
Enchanted mesa, 408
Eskimo, boots, 158;
cloak, 159;
clothing, 156, 158;
derivation of term, 32;
dog harness, 278;
drum, 313;
fuel, 275;
house, 217, 219, 221;
lamp, 169, 274;
language, 36;
light from lamp, 276;
not in Alaska 500 years back, 428;
southern range of, 273;
wick for lamp, 276
Estufa, not a sweat-house, 375
Etchings, rock-scratchings incorrectly called, 180
Eternal fires, 252
Etowah mound, 337, 346
F
Fabric-marked pottery, 109
Face decoration, 366
Farming, 336
Farm products, 247, 338
Feather, garments, 134, 137, 138;
mail, 134;
mantles, 138
Feather-work, method of making, 137
Feathered, horned serpent, 63
Fetich, of what consisting, 420
Fire-drill, 250, 252;
by friction, 368, 370;
eternal, 252
Firing pottery, 100
Five Nations (or Tribes), 212, 425
Flageolet, 308
Flax, 130
Flint Ridge, 264
Flood stories, 407, 408
Floods, 439
Flute, 308
Fondness for singing, 318
Football, Eskimo, 326
Foot-races, 323
Forbidden food, 373
Foreign influence, no, 247
Fort Ancient, 344
Fortifications, 344
Fraudulent implements, 49
Funeral, jars, 112;
urns, 190
Fur companies, methods of, 363
G
Gallantry, 387
Gallatin’s work, 20–26
Gambling, 323
Games, 320
Garments, primitive, 126
Garters, 133
Gauntlet, running the, 366
Genesis, myth of the Mokis, 403
Gens, 414;
basis of, 419;
definition of, 414;
privileges of, and obligations, 419
Gentes, 414
Gentile system, 414
Georgia costume, 141
Gesture language, 26
Ghost dance, 316, 399
Ghost-shirt, 156, 262
Gilded man, the myth of, 403
Glacial period, cause of, 435
Glaciation, duration of, 435;
extent of, in North America, 435
Glue, 303, 305
God-houses of the Huichols, 409
Gold, alloy, 301;
plating, 302
Government, 414
Governor’s palace, Uxmal, 244
Grass seeds for food, 358
Grave monuments, 166
Graves, 388;
stone box, 388
Grease feast, 162
Great Heads, 407
Great Mound of Cholula, 350
Great Spirit, no knowledge of a single, 375
Gukumatz, 397
H
Haida canoes, 164
Hair dressing, 150
Hall of Columns, 209, 246
Hano, establishment of village of, 22
Hard pottery, 100
Hardened copper, 299, 300
Harpoon, 267
Hawk bells, 292, 309
Head at Izamal, 191
Head chief, 416
Head roll for carrying, 153
Health, 356
Heat, debilitating to Amerinds, 439
Helmet, 260
Hereditary offices, 423–424
Hero-gods, 371, 396, 399, 401
Hiawatha, 393;
in Longfellow and Schoolcraft ranked as an Algonquin, 395
Hieratic languages, 29
Hill forts, 344
Hinuⁿ, God of Thunder, 364
History, linked with other races, 447
Hodenosaunee, 212
Hodenosote, 200, 210
Hollow square earthworks, 208
Homogeneity, 358
Hopewell cache, 264
Horse-racing, 323, 329
Hospitality, a law, 354, 447
House, column, 162;
of the dead, 208;
post, 162
Household utensils, 273
Houses on piles, 240
Hudson Bay Co., peaceful success of, 453
Huepilli, 140
Human flesh eaten, 367, 368
Hunt-the-button game, 324
Hut of the Great Sun, 208
I
Ideographic records, 48, 59
Iglu, 217
Iglugeak, 217
Ikonographic writing, 69
Ikonomatic, 48, 69
Imaginary animals, 174
Indian, corn, 358;
names, 395;
stocks or families, list of, 461;
tribes, list of, 465
Indio Triste, 184
Intercalation of days, 306;
denied, 306
Interkilling, 381
Internecine wars, 229, 427
Irish and Danes in Ancient America, 429
Irrigating, 333;
canals, 195, 333, 336
Iroquois, confederacy, 421, 425, 449;
costume, 140;
house, 198, 200, 210;
unsurpassed, 375
Israelite and Amerindian myths compared, 403
Itzamna, 401
Ixtlilxochitl, 443
Izamal, head at, 191
J
Jacal construction, 220, 236
Jargon, Chinook, 28
Joint tenements, 240
Jossakeed, 373
K
Kabinapek orchestra, 325
Kalopaling, 407
Karankawa, 34
Kashim, 216
Katcina, 47, 378
Kayak, 281, 283
Kishoni, 196
Kisi construction, 196
Kiva, 231, 232, 325, 350, 375, 412, 414
Knives, 269
Kwakiutl, house front, 239;
statues, 167
Kwokwuli, 405
L
Labna, palace of, 450
Labret, 355
Lacandon idol, 190
Lack of carving in the South-west, 181
Lacrosse, 327
Ladders, 197, 226
Lamp, 169, 274;
of Vancouver Island, 275;
wick, 276
Landa’s alphabet, 50;
legacy, 78
Language, classification, 17;
roots, 18, 25
Languages, number of, 20;
polysynthetic, 32
Laōlaxa costume, 406
Law of hospitality, 354, 447
League of the Iroquois, 421, 425, 449
Legends, 393, 403, 405
Leggings, 134, 143, 144, 148, 150
Lenapé houses, 206
Length of year calculated, 305
Limits of ancient inhabitants, 437
Linguistic map, 33
Long-house, 200, 210, 414
Loom, 124, 131, 132
Lost-Tribes-of-Israel theory, 53, 63, 401, 403, 429
Louisiana costume, 140
M
Main points of Iroquois organisation, 425
Maize, 358
Makah house, 213
Malignant sprites, 405
Man always the same, 315
Manatee pipe, 173
Mandan costume, 144
Manner of dying, 356
Mantle of fur, 137
Map, Central-American ruins, 436;
linguistic, 33;
Mexican ruins, 438
Masks, 165
Mats, 147
Maxtlatl, 136
Maya, alphabet, 50;
books, 77, 82;
buildings, ground plans, 238;
chronicles, 408;
chronology, 242, 307;
greatness, 242;
house, 246;
numeral system, 83;
numerals, 86;
paper, 77;
parchment, 77;
war and rain gods, 190;
week, 306;
writing, origin of, 78;
year, 306
Mealing stones, 194
Medicinal remedies, 373
Medicine-men, 371, 372
Mendoza codex, 72
Mesa Encantada, 408
Messiah, the, 399
Metates, 181, 191, 194, 272
Method of attaching arrow-heads, 265
Methods of the fur companies, 363
Metlatl, 272
Mexican, bronze tools, 299;
costume, 134, 136, 138;
hardened copper, 299;
houses, 238;
knowledge of metals, 299;
mining, 299
Mezcal, 360
Michabo, 396, 399, 401
Midē, society, 401;
songs, 58
Migration theory, 428
Milk not used, 360
Mining, 285;
by fire method, 285
Misconceptions of the Spaniards, 421
Mississippi valley, houses, 205;
pottery, 106
Mitla, 209, 246;
roof construction, 230
Mnemonic records, 48, 59
Moccasin, 134, 142, 145, 150, 159, 369
Modoc houses, 215
Moki, hair dressing, 150, 151;
house plan, 220;
loom, 130;
method of watering crops, 335;
putchkohu, 268, 270;
reservation, 447;
sacred blanket, 130;
throwing-stick, 268, 270;
women’s costume, 150
Monitor pipe, 171
Monolithic monuments, 186
Montezuma, legend of, 408;
rank of, 423
Moons computed to the year, 305
Morgan’s classification, 14
Mormon protective garment, 262
Mortar, 246, 272
Most widely spread stocks, 443
Mound foundations, 242
Moundbuilder pipes, 172, 174
Moundbuilders, lack of skill, 174
Mounds, 195, 206, 207, 342, 350;
builders of, 343
Murder, settlement of, 381
Musical, bow, 308, 451;
instruments, 308
Mustache, 154
Myths, 393, 403;
resemblances to those of Israelites, 403
N
Nahuatls, 443. _See_ Mexican _and_ Aztec
Names, derivation of, 386;
indicating totem, 420
Natchez temple, 207
Navajo, costume, 150;
dramatic sense, 331;
dry-painting, 61;
house, 199;
loom construction, 131, 132;
reservation, 445;
silversmiths, 294;
silver-work, 296;
songs the most primitive, 313;
summer and winter homes, 412;
women’s costume, 150
Navajos remained behind, 440
Nenenot tent, 219
Nets, 269
New-fire, 252, 368, 370;
Moki, 370
Newark group of earthworks, 346
Nicaragua costume, 140
Night attacks, 366
North growing warmer, 443
North-west coast, “coppers,” 293;
houses, 212, 241;
totem poles, 241
North-western tribes, costume, 144
Notched doorway, 213, 228
Numerals of the Mayas, 83, 86
O
Object of Aztec war, 368
Observatories, 183
Obsidian, mines, 264;
tools, 299
Octli, 360
Oglala roster, 387
Okeepa ceremony, 362, 378
Oldest people of Valley of Mexico, 443
Olmecas, 443
Omaha boat, 284
Only one kind of music, 314
Ontonagon bowlder, the, 289
Opinion, effect of, on civil chief, 416
Oraibi at night, 325
Organisation and government, 410, 414
Organisation of Iroquois confederacy, 425
Origin, migrations, and history, 428
Origin of Maya writing, 78
Ornamentation of Yucatec architecture, 191
Outlaws, 453, 455
P
Pai Ute Messiah, 399
Pai Utes, 303
Painting faces, 366
Palace of Palenque, 351
Palenque buildings, 244, 351, 404, Frontispiece;
transverse section of, 210
Palm-drill, 252, 368
Paper of the Mayas, 77
Parallelism of human development, 396
Patnish and his band, 455
Patolli, 322
Peace chiefs, 418;
envoys, 364
Penn’s dealings, 358
Peopling of America, 428
Peresianus codex, 76
Period of time since recession of ice, 441
Permanent houses, 195
Phonetic element in Mayan and Mexican writing, 71
Phonographic records of songs, 320
Photographs bad medicine, 381
Phratry, 414
Pictographs, painted, 42
Picture-writing, 39;
classified, 50
Piki (Moki bread), 377
Pima house, 199
Piñon nuts for food, 358
Pipe, 171;
of peace, 364;
stone, 375
Pisé, 220, 236
Platforms, 206
Plumaje, 134
Plum-stone game, 324
Pochotl, 360
Poet, 313
Pokagon, Simon, quoted, 449
Pole, sacred, of the Omahas, 204
Polygamy, 386
Polysynthetic languages, 32
_Popol Vuh_, 82, 397
Population, 177;
before glacial cold, 434
Portable houses, 195
Potlatch, 162
Pottery, area, 110;
burnished, 100;
cloisonné, 101;
coil made, 99;
decoration of, 99, 120, 122;
Eskimo knowledge of, 428;
glaze, 101;
invented, 98;
preparation of clay for, 99
Priest doctor, 371
Primitive, fabrics, 124;
garments, 126;
loom, 121
Pronunciation, 34
Protective, armour, 156;
medicine, 262
Protruding tongue, 166
Pueblo, 207
Puebloan, costume, 133, 151, 153;
ignorance of metals, 292;
use of term, 44
Pulque, 360
Pump-drill, 251, 254
Putchkohu, 268, 270
Pyramid, not a proper term, 343, 351;
of Cholula, 350;
of the Sun, 350
Q
Quarries, 264, 273
Quetzalcohuatl, 371, 396, 397
R
Rabbit-skin robe, 130
Rain dance, 364
Raised houses, 240
Rapidity of erosion after recession of ice, 441
Rations, issue of, 445
Rattles, 309
Rattlesnake, centre of distribution, 190;
designs, 188;
horned, 380;
species, 189;
venerated, 63
Recession of the sea, 437
Records of Tecpan, Atitlan, 82
Red Cloud’s census, 60
Red dye, 304
Red pipe-stone, 375
Red score, authenticity of, 390;
of the Lenapés, 46, 47, 390
Rehearsal, a, 317
Religion, 375
Religious feasts, 368
Remedies, medicinal, 373
Remedy for smallpox, 375
Repoussé method of working copper, 291
Resemblance to Asiatics, 457
Resemblances of Amerinds and Old World people, cause of, 432
Reservoirs, 195, 338
Resurrection dance, 316, 399
Right of asylum, 364
Roasting tray, 90
Rock, carving, 168;
peckings, 42, 168, 180
Roof construction, Mitla, 230;
Moki, 226
Rope-making, 126, 346
Round towers, 232
Ruins in Honduras and Nicaragua, 246
Running the gauntlet, 366
S
Sachems, duties of, 425
Sacred, bag, 204;
buffalo-cow skin, 204;
Moki blanket, 130;
pole, 204, 383;
structures, 208;
tent, 204, 208;
tipi, 204
Sacrifice, method of Aztec, 371;
of children, Aztec, 371
Sacrificial stone, 182
Sail of umiak, 284
Sauk alphabet, 53
Sealskin, bottles, 276;
floats, 267
Secret society, 414
Section of Yucatec building, 235
Seminole, costume, 154;
war, 445
Sequoia, 360
Sequoyah (George Gist) syllabary, 52
Seven cities myth, 403
Shamans, 371, 373, 408;
definition of, 372
Shell carvings, 174
Shields, 258
Shoshokoes, 8
Sign-language, 26
Sign of clan or gens membership, 420
Silversmith’s tools, 298
Silversmiths, Navajo, 294, 296;
Tlinkit, 296
Similarities between Amerind and European words, 25, 28
Singing, 312, 318;
in the night, 319
“Singing-girl,” statue, 188
Sīsul, 168, 392
Sitting Bull, 356, 451
Six Nations, 425
Skin armour, 260
Skull-cap, 147
Slab houses, 212
Sledge, 277
Smallpox remedy, 375
Smelting ore, 291
Smoking, 363
Snake dance, 376
Snow-house, 217;
iglu, 217;
knife, 217;
shoe, 280;
snake, 323
Soapstone quarries, 273, 286;
vessels, 273
Sod house, 217
Soft pottery, 99
Sokus Waiunats and the magic cup, 403
Somaikoli ceremony, 318, 381, 454
Songs of the Ghost dance, 316
Sorceress, 371
Sound writing, 69
Soyaita ceremony, _see_ Somaikoli
Spades, 270
Spear- and arrow-heads, 263
Spindle, 126
Spinning, 128
Statue of the Sun, 350
Stelæ, Copan, 186
Stock names, how derived, 30
Stocks, 17
Stone, cutting, 300;
graves, 388;
implements as charms, 263;
statues in Georgia and Tennessee, 176
Stools of Chiriqui, 192
Story telling, 330
String-drill, 252
Sun priests of the Moki, 305
Superstition, 377
Swastika, 63, 458
Sweat, bath, 374;
house, 374
Syllabary, Cherokee, 52
Symbol of the peaceful council fire, 418
Symbolic writing, 69
T
Tablet of the, Cross, 184;
Sun, 186
Tablets, Maya, 184
Taensa house, 208
Tambourine-drum, 308, 313
Taos, 3, 234
Tattooing, 56
Tchungkee game, 328
Tecumseh, 449
Tegua (moccasin), 134
Telleriano-Remensis Codex, 72
Temple, of the Cross, 184, 190, 244;
of the Natchez, 207;
of the Sun, Frontispiece, 186;
of Tepoztlan, 242, 391;
of Xochicalco, 23, 31, 242
Temples, 350
Temporary house, 195
Tennis, 328
Teocalli, Frontispiece, 391
Tepehuaje, 311
Teponaztli, 312
Tepoztlan, temple of, 242, 391
Terms for describing stone weapons, 263
Terra-cotta, figures, 112, 113, 115;
tubing, 116, 117
Tetzontli, 350
Tewa, village of, when established, 22
Thought writing, 69
Thread, 126, 138
Throwing-stick of Mokis, 267, 268
Thunder-bird, 167, 342, 393
Tilmatli, 136
Time calculations, 305
Tipi, 195, 198, 200, 204;
construction, 200;
decoration, 202;
derivation of, 200;
sacred, of the Omahas, 204
Tiste, 360
Tlaloc, 396
Tlapan-huehuetl, 311
Tlaxcala, not a Mexican Switzerland, 423
Tlaxcalteco organisation, 424
Tlinkit silversmith, 296
Tobacco, 28, 363;
pipe, 171, 363, 364
Toboggan, 279
Toltecs, 443
Tongue in Amerindian carving, 166
Tools, 249
Topek, 219
Tortillas, 360
Totem, and totemism, 386;
poles, 162, 386
Totems, where chosen, 420
Totolospi game, 322
Towers, round, 232
Tozacatl, 311
Traditions, 393
Traits, 354
Translation of picture-writing by Mormons, 63
Transportation, 276
Triangular arch, 242
Tribal, chief, 416;
organisation, 414
Tribes, change building methods, 350;
exterminated, 445
Troano Codex, 82
True arch, 217
Tupek, 219
Turf house, 217
Turtleback flints, 261
U
Umiak, 157, 282, 283;
sail, 284
Unity of all music, 314
Unseen ruins, 246
Utahs, costume of 1776, 141
V
Value of a “copper,” 297
Variation in culture, 178
Vase from Labna, 74
Vatican Codex, 72
Veils, 138
Vicuna in Arizona, 130, 276
Village dweller, 8
Villages, location of, 412;
permanent, 228
Virgin copper, 301
Votan, 397
Votive stones, 188
W
Walamink, or Place of Paint, 304
Wālasaxa dance, 359
Wall, steps on, Moki, 222, 224
Walls, Moki, 226
Walam Olum, 47, 390
Wampum, 55, 143, 418;
belt, 418
War, 8, 366, 445;
belt of Iroquois, 418;
bonnet, 145, 156, 266;
chief’s office hereditary in the tribe, 424;
chiefs, 418, 424;
costume, 156, 357, 442;
declaration of, 418;
infrequent, 366;
object of, with Aztecs, 368;
Seminole, 445;
shirt, 262
Water-pocket, 405
Waterproof, boots, 159;
garment, 159
Weaving, 126, 128, 137, 141, 147
Weighing, 305
Whalebone dish, 96
Whip, of Eskimos, 279;
top, 328
Whisky, 360, 361
Whistles, 308, 310
White, brutality, 445;
buffalo-cow skin, sacred, 204;
men as chiefs, 416
Wicker-work, in house construction, 234, 236;
plastered, 236
Wigwam, 200, 204
Wikiup, 195
Wilson, Jack, the Pai Ute Messiah, 399
Windows, 228, 242
Wine, from cactus fruit, 360
Winter counts, Dakota, 60, 377
Wolf-killer, 267
Wooden, house, 195;
walls in ancient Puebloan construction, 236
Woonupits, 320, 405
Wrecks of Japanese vessels on Pacific coast, 429
X
Xicalancas, 443
Xochicalco, temple of, 23, 31, 242
Y
Yant, 358
Yellow dye, 304
Yokuts houses, 215
Yourt, 216
Yucatec, buildings, ground plans, 238;
stone, 242
Z
Zahcab, 238, 288
Zoötheism, 375
[Illustration: THE SWASTIKA
A primitive and universal sign]
FOOTNOTES:
[1] See the last chapter.
[2] See linguistic map p. 33, and list of tribes and stocks in Appendix.
[3] When the ice front was along the Ohio, the Eskimo naturally were
distributed along the southern fringe.
[4] For many details of the life of the American Indians, or Amerinds,
see _The Indians of To-Day_, by George Bird Grinnell. For the origin of
the word Amerind see the _American Anthropologist_, N. S., vol. i., No.
3, p. 582.
[5] It must be borne in mind that the general estimate of the Amerind
is entirely drawn from white men’s writings. The Amerind side has never
been presented.
[6] _Narrative of James P. Beckwourth_, p. 254; Irving’s _Bonneville_,
p. 225.
[7] “Amidst all the devastating incursions of the Indians in North
America it is a remarkable fact that no Friend who stood faithful to
his principles in the disuse of all weapons of war, the cause of which
was generally well understood by the Indians, ever suffered personal
molestation from them,” vol. v., p. 63, Brinton’s _Library of Am. Ab.
Literature_, from _An Account of the Conduct of the Society of Friends
toward the Indians_, p. 72. London, 1844.
[8] Payne says, “Anahuac was becoming a military despotism.” _History
of the New World called America_, vol. ii., p. 494.
[9] See Preface and the last chapter.
[10] Brinton’s “Uto-Aztecan.” The connection between the Nahuatl, or
Aztec, and Shoshonean is not well established.
[11] Lewis H. Morgan, _Houses and House Life_, Dr. W. J. McGee has
added a fourth stage, “Enlightenment.”
[12] For a full statement of this story, see the fascinating book,
_Atlantis: The Antediluvian World_, by Ignatius Donnelly.
[13] See Chap. XVI. and also the Preface.
[14] The widest differences were in the Maya and the Timuquanan. Each
of these differed greatly from the bulk of the Amerind languages and
from each other, probably because both stocks held more isolated
positions than the others during the glacial period, and preserved more
of their earlier life, whatever it may have been.
[15] See J. N. B. Hewitt, _American Anthropologist_, October, 1893.
[16] “There are well-known examples in the ethnography of other races,
where reliance on language alone would lead the investigator astray;
but all serious students of the native American tribes are united in
the opinion that with them no other clue can compare to it in general
results.”—D. G. Brinton, _The American Race_, Preface.
[17] As to the value of linguistics as a means of classification, Cyrus
Thomas says: “On the one side, it is held by some authors that affinity
of languages implies racial identity or unity of origin; on the
other, it is contended that the theory that the affinity of languages
necessarily implies identity of race is not warranted.”
[18] D. G. Brinton, _The American Race_. He does not approve wholly of
these terminations.
[19] _Seventh Annual Report, U. S. Bureau of Ethnology_, contains
complete list of American race stocks, north of Mexico, as far as
known. See Appendix.
[20] _Essays of an Americanist_, p. 35.
[21] Hopi is the singular; Hopituh the plural. Dr. Fewkes and others
having decided in favour of the singular form, it is so given here.
[22] They have intermarried with the Hopi and Navajo till Fewkes
believes that in “the next generation the percentage of pure
Tañoan blood will be so small that we cannot regard the stock as
Tañoan.”—_American Anthropologist_, April, 1894, p. 167.
[23] See Chap. XVI.
[24] _The American Race_ and _Chronicles of the Maya_.
[25] For further coincidences see Payne, _History of the New World
Called America_, vol. ii., p. 78, _et seq._
[26] See the _American Anthropologist_, July, 1894, vol. vii., “The
Chinook Jargon,” by Myron Eells.
[27] _Snake Dance of the Mokis_, p. 190.
[28] There are analogies between the Nahuatl and some languages of the
North-west and Alaska, especially that of the Koluschan, or Tlinkit,
living along the sea from Dixon Entrance to Prince William Sound.
[29] The Maya, however, has been found a useful language by Europeans.
Dr. Berendt met “whole families of pure white blood” who used this
language and did not know Spanish. This is not the usual fate of the
Amerind tongues.
[30] This word was popularly written Esquimaux, after the French.
Then the Bureau of Ethnology wrote it Eskimo, and this has been the
accepted spelling and pronunciation. But it is from the Abnaki dialect
of Algonquin, according to Brinton (_The American Race_, p. 59), and is
properly Eskimwhan. This is better represented by Eskimä than by Eskimo.
[31] See the list of stocks in the Appendix.
[32] “Their language was reduced to writing some sixty years ago and
has now a considerable literature. Nearly all the men of the tribe are
able to conduct personal correspondence in their own language.”—Mooney,
_American Anthropologist_, N. S., vol. i., No. 1, p. 137, 1899.
[33] The “l” like “cl” in “exclaim.”
[34] See also Payne’s _History of the New World_, vol. ii., p. 96 _et
seq._, for an excellent discussion of Amerind languages.
[35] “Cherokee Formulas,” Mooney, _Seventh Ann. Rept. Bu. Eth._
[36] For a complete presentation of the subject of sign-language, see
paper by Garrick Mallery, _First Ann. Rept. Bu. Eth._, and for that of
picture-writing see _Tenth Ann. Rept._, a paper by same author, and one
in _Fourth Ann. Rept._
[37] Note in Preface and last chapter statement as to irregularity of
culture progress.
[38] The Mayas, however, had passed the zenith of their development.
[39] “Etching” is the word commonly used, but as etching is a totally
different thing it has no place in this connection, and only adds to
the incongruities already existing in writings on the Amerind subject.
[40] _Painted_ characters are found in southern California, west and
south-west of Sierra Nevada; _painted_ and _scratched_, from Colorado
River to Georgia, north to West Virginia and along the Mississippi.
Remaining parts of United States show rock scratchings almost exclusive
of paintings, according to Mallery.
[41] The name applied by the Pai Utes to the old Puebloans.
[42] That is, the rock faces change slowly. Other changes may occur,
as, for instance, the foothold from which the pictures were made. I
remember seeing in Keam’s Canyon, Arizona, some pictographs on a cliff
wall that were far above reach, ten or twelve feet above my head. My
explanation was that the ground had been washed away after they were
made.
[43] I say “type,” because the Pueblo culture was not confined to one
stock. “Puebloan” may be used to designate them.
[44] A rock near Yarmouth, Nova Scotia, is inscribed with characters
supposed to be Runic, which have been translated by Phillips,
“_Harkussenmen varu_” = “Harko’s son addressed the men.” The Dighton
inscription was read as an account of the party of Thorfinn, while
other interpreters have made out Scythian and Phœnician characters. It
is possible that there may have been a few Runic characters mingled
with the Algonquian on the Dighton Rock.
[45] For a full account of the Walam Olum, see Brinton’s “The Lenapé
and their Legends,” in vol. v. of his _Library of American Aboriginal
History_.
[46] The pronunciation of this word always sounded to me
“_kat-chee´-nah_,” but Dr. Fewkes eliminates the “h” sound from this
and other words, and as he has devoted much attention to the subject I
follow his spelling.
[47] See Brinton, _Essays of an Americanist_, p. 213.
[48] At Newark, Ohio, a business was carried on in the manufacture of
inscribed stones, buried and dug up to suit occasion.
[49] See “A Remarkable Counterfeiter” by A. E. Jenks, _American
Anthropologist_, April-June, 1900.
[50] J. T. Goodman, _Biologia Centrali Americana_, part ix., p. 11.
[51] The Sauk, of Algonquian stock, “have a syllabic alphabet,
apparently the work of some early French missionary, by means of which
they keep up a correspondence with friends on their various scattered
reservations.”—Mooney, _American Anthropologist_, January, 1899, p. 143.
[52] For an explanation of the Lost Tribes theory see Payne’s _History
of the New World Called America_, vol. ii., p. 75 _et seq._
[53] Finally, after 1714, the machine-made beads grew in favour,
because the supply of native beads diminished with the diminution of
the number of Amerinds. These machine-made beads were of uniform size,
while the native beads varied considerably. See Horatio Hale, _Pop.
Sci. Monthly_, February, 1897.
[54] “The best blanket-makers, smiths, and other artisans among
the Navajos are the descendants of captives from Zuñi and other
Pueblos.”—J. G. Bourke, _Jour. Am. Folk-Lore_, p. 115.
[55] Garrick Mallery, _Fourth Ann. Rept. Bu. Eth._
[56] Mallery, _Fourth Ann. Rept. Bu. Eth._
[57] See “The Mountain Chant,” by Washington Matthews, _Fifth Ann.
Rept. Bu. Eth._ The dry-paintings also occur in the “Yebitchai”
ceremony, described by James Stevenson, _Eighth Ann. Rept. Bu. Eth._
[58] “Pictographs of the feathered, horned serpent are also found
on the cliff to the south-west of Walpi. These pictographs have the
head, with a representation of a horn and feathers, and the same
conventionalised markings of parallel lines and arrow-points which are
found on the kilts of the Snake priests.”—Fewkes, _Journal of American
Ethnology_, vol. ii., p. 38.
[59] _Thirteenth Ann. Rept. Bu. of Eth._, p. 92.
[60] By Dr. Nicolas Leon. _Science_, Jan. 27, 1899, p. 156. Still
another lately turned up in possession of an English gentleman.
[61] “They may have passed through some of the same stages of growth,
but the general consensus of opinion is that the Mayan is the older
of the two classes, and that these two classes have developed
independently.”—Thomas, _Study of American Archæology_, p. 360.
[62] P. 213 _et seq._
[63] Several have recently been splendidly reproduced and may be found
at large libraries.
[64] Suggested by the Abbé Brasseur.
[65] Egypt had three kinds of writing.
[66] _Biologia Centrali Americana_, part ix., p. 11.
[67] For a fac-simile of part of the Landa MS. and bibliographic notes
on Mayan and Mexican writing see _Winsor’s Nar. and Crit. Hist. of the
U. S._, vol. i., p. 197.
[68] See the Preface, p. vii., and the last chapter.
[69] Cyrus Thomas, Introduction to _Study of American Archæology_, p.
361.
[70] _Ibid._, p. 343.
[71] _Queen Moo_, by A. Le Plongeon, p. xv.
[72] Pp. 95 and 100.
[73] The “Codex Cortesianus is considered to furnish a connecting link
between Maya and Mexican symbols.”—Powell.
[74] Written in 1558. An abridgment of an older book.
[75] Goodman gives these three signs for 20 [symbol symbol symbol] and
remarks, “the last of the three being drawn with a great variety of
detail.”—_Biologia Centrali Americana_, part viii., p. 64.
[76] _Sixth Ann. Rep. Bu. Eth._, p. 337.
[77] See the monumental work on basketry by Otis T. Mason, and other
writings on this subject by the same author.
[78] See the _American Anthropologist_, April, 1894, vol. vii., “The
Basket Drum,” by Washington Matthews, as an illustration of how a
certain specialty in an art may survive after the art itself is
neglected.
[79] Murdoch found fragments of a cooking pot at Point Barrow.—_Ninth
Ann. Rept. Bu. Eth._, p. 91. Rude cups were also sometimes made.
[80] _Thirteenth Ann. Rept. Bu. Eth._, p. 276.
[81] W. H. Holmes, _Fourth Ann. Rept. Bu. Eth._, “Pottery of the
Ancient Pueblos.”
[82] The Amerind paste was generally quite dark, a light surface
colour being obtained by a “slip.” But I have found fragments of a
pinkish-white ware in Arizona the same colour all the way through.
[83] The earthenware of the Greeks and Romans was not glazed, but
covered with wax, bitumen, etc.
[84] With all the differences, however, an examination of pottery from
all over North America will convince any close observer of its general
homogeneity.
[85] W. H. Holmes, “Ancient Pottery of the Mississippi Valley,” _Fourth
Ann. Rept. Bu. Eth._, p. 372.
[86] W. H. Holmes, “Ancient Art of the Province of Chiriqui,” _Sixth
Ann. Rept. Bu. Eth._, p. 56.
[87] F. S. Dellenbaugh, “Death-Masks in Ancient American Pottery,”
_American Anthropologist_, February, 1897.
[88] In this connection it may be mentioned that Swallow found a human
skull enclosed in an earthen jar, the opening of which was too small to
admit of the skull’s extraction.
[89] W. H. Holmes, “Prehistoric Textile Fabrics,” _Third Ann. Rept. Bu.
Eth._; _Ibid._, “Prehistoric Textile Art,” _Thirteenth Ann. Rept. Bu.
Eth._
[90] F. S. Dellenbaugh, “Fabric-Marked Pottery,” _Popular Science
Monthly_, March, 1898.
[91] Brinton states that the art of the potter was extensively
practised by the Lenapé, but if this were accurate fragments of pottery
ought to be commoner than they are in the region formerly their home.
[92] Compare Preface and last chapter.
[93] M. H. Saville, “Exploration of Zapotecan Tombs in Southern
Mexico,” _American Anthropologist_, N. S., April, 1899.
[94] _American Anthropologist_, N. S., 1899, i., p. 355.
[95] W. H. Holmes, “Ancient Art of the Province of Chiriqui,” _Sixth
Ann. Rept. Bu. Eth._
[96] W. H. Holmes, “Ancient Art of the Province of Chiriqui,” _Sixth
Ann. Rept. Bu. Eth._
[97] Rib is the term applied by our potters to the small thin pieces of
wood used for smoothing the ware. The Moki “rib” corresponds closely in
size, shape, and use to that I have seen employed by our potters.
[98] For soapstone or steatite vessels, see Chap. X.
[99] Hoffman, _Fourteenth Ann. Rept. Bu. Eth._, p. 260.
[100] Holmes, _Thirteenth Ann. Rept. Bu. Eth._, p. 22.
[101] Boas, _Report U. S. Nat. Museum_, p. 319.
[102] Gibbs, _U. S. G. S., Contrib. to N. A. Ethnology_, vol. i., part
ii., p. 219.
[103] National Academy of Sciences, _Bones of the Hemenway Expedition_,
Introduction by Washington Matthews, p. 157.
[104] See for description of kiva the chapter in this book on
Architecture, etc., and also Macmillan’s _Dictionary of Architecture_.
[105] Dr. Washington Matthews, “Navajo Weavers.” _Third Ann. Rept. Bu.
Eth._, p. 375.
[106] Washington Matthews, _Third Ann. Rept. Bu. Eth._, p. 377.
[107] Some of the finest Navajo blankets command high prices.
A two faced blanket is described by Matthews in the _American
Anthropologist_, vol. ii., No. 4.
[108] Bandelier, _Final Report_, part i., p. 158.
[109] Prescott’s _Mexico_, vol. i., pp. 439, 442.
[110] _Ibid._, vol. ii., p. 13.
[111] _Ibid._, p. 71.
[112] The _timatli_ or _tilmatli_ for men was a piece of cloth,
according to Biart, “four feet long, which enveloped the body, and two
corners of which were knotted upon the breast or upon the shoulder.”
[113] _Ibid._, p. 73.
[114] Du Pratz, _Hist. de la Louisiane_, vol. ii., pp. 191, 192.
[115] Prescott’s _Mexico_, vol. ii., pp. 133, 134.
[116] Lucien Biart, _The Aztecs_.
[117] Squier, _Nicaragua_, p. 289.
[118] _The History of Erie County, N. Y._, pp. 58, 59, edited by H.
Perry Smith.
[119] Quoted in Captain Simpson’s _Report_, p. 494.
[120] Buckingham Smith’s translation.
[121] Lieutenant Mowry, _Report_, p. 587, Ex. Doc. No. 11, 35th Cong.,
1st Session.
[122] John W. De Forrest, _History of the Indians of Connecticut_, pp.
9–11.
[123] Catlin had wonderful success in persuading Amerinds to pose for
him. When I went amongst the Navajos and Mokis in 1884–85 I found
it next to impossible to get them to sit for me. Only one solitary
specimen in the whole region was willing to run the risk. It was
considered very “bad medicine.”
[124] The Crows, Sioux, Mandans, and Assiniboins are the same stock—the
Dakota or Siouan.
[125] Catlin, _Smithsonian Report_, 1885, pp. 450, 451.
[126] Dorsey, “Omaha Sociology,” _Third Ann. Rept. Bu. Eth._, p. 310.
[127] Geo. Gibbs, “Tribes of Western Washington and North-western
Oregon,” _U. S. G. S. Contrib._, vol. i., part ii., p. 220.
[128] _Ibid._, p. 219.
[129] _Ibid._, p. 176.
[130] The same kind of a wicker cap is worn by many California Amerinds.
[131] Cushing says of the early Zuñis: “They wore but scant clothing
besides their robes and blankets—breech-cloths and kilts, short for
the men, long for the women, and made of shredded bark and rushes or
fibre; sandals also of fibre.... The hair was bobbed to the level
of the eyebrows in front, but left long and hanging at the back,
etc.”—_Thirteenth Ann. Rept. Bu. Eth._, p. 358.
[132] “Coronado Letter,” _Fourteenth Ann. Rept. Bu. Eth._, p. 562.
[133] “Narrative of Jaramillo,” _Ibid._, pp. 586, 587.
[134] “Relación Postrera de Sívola,” _Ibid._, p. 569.
[135] C. MacCauley, “Seminole Indians of Florida,” _Fifth Ann. Rept.
Bu. Eth._, p. 486.
[136] _Memoirs Long Island Hist. Soc._, vol. i., p. 99, “Journal of a
Voyage to New York in 1679–80.”
[137] See chapter on Weapons, and note also the quotation from
Prescott—pp. 134 and 136.
[138] James Mooney, “The Ghost-Dance Religion,” _Fourteenth Ann. Rept.
Bu. Eth._, pp. 789, 790; see also Chap. IX., this work.
[139] Murdoch, “The Point Barrow Eskimo,” _Ninth Ann. Rept. Bu. Eth._;
Boas, “The Central Eskimo,” _Sixth Ann. Rept. Bu. Eth._; Turner,
“Hudson Bay Eskimo,” _Eleventh Ann. Rept. Bu. Eth._
[140] Murdoch.
[141] Dr. Kane, _Arctic Exploration_, vol. i., p. 203.
[142] John D. Hunter, _Memoirs of a Captive among the Indians of North
America_, London, 1823, pp. 289, 290.
[143] Sometimes two high poles are set up, between which, at a potlatch
or “grease feast,” the piles of blankets forming payment for a “copper”
are laid. These are called “blanket-poles.”
[144] There is a fine specimen in the American Museum of Natural
History, New York.
[145] See _Tenth Ann. Rept. Bu. Eth._, p. 478.
[146] W. H. Dall, _Third Ann. Rept. Bu. Eth._, p. 112.
[147] Franz Boas, “The Kwakiutl Indians,” _Rep. Nat. Mus._, 1895, pp.
323, 324.
[148] Franz Boas, “The Kwakiutl Indians,” _Rep. Nat. Mus._, 1895, pp.
370, 371.
[149] _Ninth Ann. Rept. Bu. Eth._
[150] _Sixth Ann. Rept. Bu. Eth._
[151] Chap. V., and _American Anthropologist_, February, 1897.
[152] _Prehistoric Art_, p. 477.
[153] Joseph D. McGuire, “American Aboriginal Pipes,” _Rep. Nat. Mus._,
1897, p. 468.
[154] H. W. Henshaw, “Animal Carvings,” _Second Ann. Rept. Bu. Eth._,
p. 166.
[155] Warren K. Moorehead, _The Bird-Stone Ceremonial_ (pamphlet).
[156] The Pai Utes make rude clay and wood dolls, but nothing larger,
and no pottery.
[157] A. F. Bandelier, _Final Report_, p. 152.
[158] A. F. Bandelier, _Final Report_, p. 153.
[159] _Ibid._, p. 161.
[160] A painted design, similar to that of the “Calendar Stone,” was
found on one of the inside walls at Mitla. See pl. xxv., Fig. 1,
Bandelier’s _Archæological Tour_.
[161] A compass card has five concentric circles, and the Calendar
Stone appears to have the same number. The compass was known in Europe
in the twelfth century, in China earlier.
[162] A. F. Bandelier, _Report of an Archæological Tour in Mexico_, p.
78.
[163] Two structures at Palenque are so called on account of the
tablets in them bearing emblems that resemble a cross. In that
designated by Stephen as No. 2, by Charnay later as No. 1, and by H. H.
Bancroft as No. 4, the cross form is the more pronounced, and it is the
one usually referred to by the above title.
[164] For the exterior of the Temple of the Sun, see Frontispiece.
[165] Leonhard Stejneger, “Poisonous Snakes of North America,” _Rep. U.
S. Museum_, 1893, p. 421.
[166] Edward S. Holden, “Studies in Central American Picture-Writing,”
_First Ann. Rept. Bu. Eth._, p. 229.
[167] Charnay found at Palenque that some of the figures were modelled
first nude and draperies applied afterwards, the latter separating from
the figure itself.
[168] Desiré Charnay, _Ancient Cities of the New World_.
[169] “Ancient Art of the Province of Chiriqui,” _Sixth Ann. Rept. Bu.
Eth._, p. 27.
[170] For definitions of aboriginal architecture, see Macmillan’s
_Dictionary of Architecture_.
[171] Bandelier, _Final Report_, part i., p. 103.
[172] Or, if the climate should change, the character of the house
might change with it.
[173] For full information on Dakota customs, etc., see the papers of
the late Rev. James Owen Dorsey in the third, eleventh, thirteenth, and
fifteenth _Ann. Repts. Bu. Eth._
[174] Wigwam is frequently used in a general sense to designate any
Amerind house of the skin or earth or wood type.
[175] See “ti” and “pi” in _Dakota-English Dictionary_, vol. vii.;
_Cont. U. S. G. S._, pp. 421, 467.
[176] Lewis H. Morgan, “Houses and House Life of the American
Aborigines,” _Contributions to N. A. Ethnology_, vol. iv., p. 114.
[177] Castañeda describes the Querechos and Teyas in 1540 as
travelling, “like the Arabs, with their tents and troops of dogs loaded
with poles, and having Moorish pack-saddles and girths.”—Winship’s
translation, _Fourteenth Ann. Rept. Bu. Eth._, p. 527.
[178] Morgan’s “Houses and House Life,” etc., p. 113.
[179] W. J. Hoffman, “The Menominee Indians,” _Fourteenth Ann. Rept.
Bu. Eth._, pp. 254–55.
[180] The Lenapé houses “were built in groups and surrounded with a
palisade.... In the centre was sometimes erected a mound of earth, both
as a place of observation and as a location to place the children and
women.”—Brinton, _The Lenapé_, p. 51.
[181] Cyrus Thomas, “Mound Explorations,” _Twelfth Ann. Rept. Bu.
Eth._, p. 647.
[182] _Ibid._, p. 649.
[183] Cyrus Thomas, _Twelfth Ann. Rept. Bu. Eth._, p. 653.
[184] Francis Parkman, _Discovery of the West_, p. 277.
[185] George Bancroft, _U. S. History_.
[186] L. H. Morgan, _Houses and House Life_, p. 120; see also _The
Iroquois League_, by Morgan.
[187] Brinton, _The American Race_, p. 77.
[188] Gibbs cites a split plank he saw in Puget Sound region, 24 feet
long and 4½ feet wide.
[189] Gibbs mentions a house of the Makah, north-west Washington, 75
feet long, 40 wide, and 15 high, all one room; and another used for
festivals 520 feet long, 60 feet wide, 15 feet high in front, and 10
feet in the rear.—George Gibbs, “Tribes of Western Washington and
North-western Oregon,” _Contributions U. S. G. S._, vol. i., p. 215.
[190] Stephen Powers, “Tribes of California,” _Contributions_, etc.,
vol. iii., p. 255.
[191] _Ibid._, p. 215.
[192] _Ibid._, p. 45.
[193] W. H. Dall, “Tribes of Alaska,” _Contributions U. S. G. S._, vol.
i., p. 82.
[194] The tree growth ceases at about the line of the village of Kodiak
on Kodiak Island. The Aleuts ranged over the Aleutian Islands and
eastward as far as Stepovak Bay on the peninsula.
[195] For definitions of these terms see Macmillan’s _Dictionary of
Architecture_.
[196] Schwatka found cliff-dwellings occupied by Tarahumaris in
northern Mexico. See _Cave and Cliff-Dwellers_, by Frederick Schwatka,
p. 187.
[197] In early days upper stories in New Mexico were sometimes built of
wood, plastered.
[198] For details of Pueblo architecture, see paper on the subject by
Victor Mindeleff, _Eighth Ann. Rept. Bu. Eth._ And “The Cliff Ruins of
Canyon de Chelly,” by Cosmos Mindeleff, _Sixteenth Ann. Rept. Bu. Eth._
[199] See Macmillan’s _Dictionary of Architecture_.
[200] See paper by Cosmos Mindeleff, “Aboriginal Remains of the Verde
Valley,” _Thirteenth Ann. Rept. Bu. Eth._
[201] See illustrations, pp. 225, 227, 228.
[202] See the writings of Geo. H. Pepper, director of the Hyde
Expedition.
[203] _Commerce of the Prairies._
[204] See Macmillan’s _Dictionary of Architecture_. Kiva is a Moki term
to replace the Spanish estufa, which is misleading. The kiva is not a
sweat house, as the Spanish term seems to imply. A sweat house or lodge
is expressly built and heated for the purpose of a sweat bath.
[205] See _Mem. Nat. Acad. Sciences_, vii., p. 146. Introduction by
Washington Matthews.
[206] “And have five or six stories, three of them with mud walls
and two or three with thin wooden walls.”—“Relacion del Suceso,”
_Fourteenth Ann. Rept. Bu. Eth._, p. 575.
[207] Littré gives _pisé_ as “made with a species of large bricks made
in wooden moulds”; _piser_, “to construct by beating earth between two
planks.”
[208] Prescott, _Mexico_, i., p. 474.
[209] _Ibid._, ii., p. 70.
[210] _Ibid._, ii., p. 110.
[211] Prescott, _Mexico_, ii., p. 109.
[212] _Voyages of Vancouver_, ii., p. 274.
[213] Morgan, _House Life_, p. 231. For the houses and house life of
some modern cave and cliff dwellers see _Unknown Mexico_, by Carl
Lumholtz.
[214] M. H. Saville, “Temple of Tepoztlan,” _Monumental Records_, i.,
No. 1.
[215] Goodman in _Biologia Centrali Americana_. From an inscription on
the back of the “Yucatec Stone” 10,731 years back to the date of an
action represented on the front of the stone from 1895.
[216] Cyrus Thomas (_American Anthropologist_, July, 1899) says: “Here
we see the culmination of Mayan art.” There are several terraces, but
one is so large as to eclipse the others.
[217] Viollet-le-Duc thinks these buildings and the Maya ones
originated in wooden structures. For details of construction, see
Bandelier’s _Archæological Tour in Mexico_.
[218] For mining operations see Chap. X.
[219] The Lenapé had arrow-heads and pipes made of copper. See Abbott’s
_Primitive Industry_.
[220] The Amerind muscles that came into play in bow shooting were so
highly developed that a white man untrained could not half pull a bow
that a generally weaker Amerind could pull with ease.
[221] Hoffman (_Fourteenth Ann. Rept. Bu. Eth._, p. 281) describes
similar bows found in Arizona and Nevada, three feet long, but made of
wood in a composite way.
[222] Hough says he has often made fire in thirty seconds with the
palm-drill and in five seconds with the bow-drill.—_National Museum
Report_, 1888, p. 531.
[223] See chapter on Customs for a quotation from Prescott describing
the festival of the new-fire.
[224] The Iroquois rigged large pump-drills out of saplings.
[225] Hoffman denies this, _Fourteenth Ann. Rept. Bu. Eth._, p. 279.
[226] For modern arrow-making among the Menominee, see _Fourteenth Ann.
Rept. Bu. Eth._, p. 275 _et seq._
[227] It is said that a blow-gun was also used by some North American
tribes. “Many of the Siouan Indians use the lance, javelin, or
spear.”—McGee, _Fifteenth Ann. Rept. Bu. Eth._, p. 171.
[228] “Primitive American Armour,” _Report of National Museum_, 1893.
[229] Bancroft, H. H., _Native Races_, vol. ii., p. 407.
[230] Veytia, _Hist. Ant. Mej._, tom. i., pp. 289, 290; see also page
134, this book.
[231] Brinton, _The American Race_, p. 138.
[232] “The Ghost-Dance Religion,” by James Mooney, _Fourteenth Ann.
Rept. Bu. Eth._; see also Chap. VI., this book.
[233] The Utah Mormons wear an undergarment supposed to have such
resistance. The idea may have come from them.
[234] James Mooney, “The Ghost-Dance Religion,” _Fourteenth Ann. Rept.
Bu. Eth._, p. 790.
[235] See Preface pages iv. and v., and also the last chapter of this
book.
[236] For “Medicine Arrows of the Oregon Indians,” see A. S. Gatschet,
_Journal of American Folk-Lore_, 1893.
[237] The surface flint was in bowlders and nodules.
[238] For a valuable account of stone implements of the
“Potomac-Chesapeake Tidewater Province,” see paper by W. H. Holmes in
_Fifteenth Ann. Rept. Bu. Eth._; also, “The Obsidian Mines of Hidalgo,
Mexico,” by the same author, _American Anthropologist_, vol. ii., No.
3, N. S.
[239] Tylor declares that it is not possible to distinguish stone
weapons from one part of the world from those from any other part.
[240] From the Aztec: _metlatl_.
[241] While the Eastern Amerinds generally seem not to have known how
to melt copper, some few may have experimented in a limited way with it.
[242] Walter Hough, “The Lamp of the Eskimo,” _Rep. Nat. Mus._, 1896,
p. 1028.
[243] The Amerinds of Vancouver Island were said by Captain Chase to
use a lamp made of a clam shell, with oil from the whale or porpoise.
The wick was bark.—Hough, p. 1039.
[244] See Castañeda’s narrative, Winship’s translation, _Fourteenth
Ann. Rept. Bu. Eth._, p. 527; and Ternaux Compans, _Relation de
Castañeda_, p. 190, “ils ont de grands troupeaux de chiens qui portent
leur bagage; ils l’attachent sur le dos de ces animaux au moyen d’une
sangle et d’un petit bât”; also the same narrative, _Fourteenth Ann.
Rept. Bu. Eth._, p. 456.
[245] For excellent descriptions in detail of the Eskimo sledge and
methods of using it, see Boas, _Sixth Ann. Rept. Bu. Eth._, p. 529 _et
seq._; Murdoch, _Ninth Ann. Rept. Bu. Eth._, p. 353 _et seq._; and
Turner, _Eleventh Ann. Rept. Bu. Eth._, p. 241 _et seq._
[246] Murdoch, _Ninth Ann. Rept. Bu. Eth._, p. 358.
[247] O. T. Mason, “Primitive Travel,” _Rep. Nat. Mus._, p. 566; see
also p. 564; and Turner, in the _Eleventh Ann. Rept. Bu. Eth._, p. 307.
[248] See O. T. Mason, “Primitive Travel,” _Rep. Nat. Mus._, pp.
381–410; _Eleventh Ann. Rept. Bu. Eth._, pp. 308–312; _Ninth Ann. Rept.
Bu. Eth._, pp. 344–352.
[249] For details of construction see Turner, _Eleventh Ann. Rept. Bu.
Eth._, p. 305; and Hoffman, _Fourteenth Ann. Rept. Bu. Eth._, p. 292.
[250] Baidarka is the Russian term used at Kodiak and along the Alaska
peninsula. Baidar = umiak; baidarka = kayak.
[251] For details of kayak and umiak construction, see Murdoch, _Ninth
Ann. Rept. Bu. Eth._, p. 328; Boas, _Sixth Ann. Rept. Bu. Eth._, p.
527; Turner, _Eleventh Ann. Rept. Bu. Eth._, p. 235; see, also, for
hunting weapons and methods, “Aboriginal American Zoötechny,” by Otis
Tufton Mason, _American Anthropologist_, N. S., vol. i., No. 1, 1899.
[252] The Omahas made one out of dried bison hides, branches, and
saplings.
[253] Mines of steatite vessels have been found on Santa Catalina
Island, California, as well as on the Eastern United States coast.
Charles F. Holder describes the Santa Catalina mines in the _Scientific
American_ for December 16, 1899.
[254] W. H. Holmes, _Fifteenth Ann. Rept. Bu. Eth._, pp. 108, 109.
[255] For a description of these chultunes, see “The Chultunes of
Labna,” _Memoirs of Peabody Museum_.
[256] Champlain’s _Voyages_, Prince Society edition, vol. ii., p. 236.
[257] Now in the National Museum, Washington. See article on the
subject by Charles Moore, _Report of U. S. Museum_, 1895.
[258] Frank Hamilton Cushing, “Primitive Copper Working, An
Experimental Study,” _American Anthropologist_, O. S., vol. vii., No.
1, 1894.
[259] Fewkes found several of these bells in his excavations around the
headwaters of the Gila.
[260] During my stay with the Mokis and in their vicinity and in all
the long time I have been observing them, I never saw nor heard of a
single object in metal wrought by them.
[261] Brinton, _The Lenapé_, p. 52.
[262] F. Boas, “The Kwakiutl Indians,” _Rept. Nat. Mus._, 1895, p. 344.
[263] Washington Matthews, “Navajo Silversmiths,” _Second Ann. Rept.
Bu. Eth._, p. 171.
[264] The tribes of the North-west made some gold and silver ornaments,
and at Sitka to-day there is a jewelry establishment kept by a native
Tlinkit, who makes most of his own silverware.
[265] Washington Matthews, “Navajo Silversmiths,” _Second Ann. Rept.
Bu. Eth._, p. 172.
[266] Prescott, _Mexico_, vol. i., p. 138.
[267] Daniel Wilson, _Prehistoric Man_, vol. i., pp. 213–215.
[268] _Ibid._, p. 216.
[269] _Ibid._, p. 218.
[270] Daniel Wilson, _Prehistoric Man_, vol. i., p. 222.
[271] W. H. Holmes, “Ancient Art of the Province of Chiriqui,” _Sixth
Ann. Rept. Bu. Eth._, p. 186.
[272] Brinton, _The Lenapé_, p. 53.
[273] Washington Matthews, “Navajo Weavers,” _Third Ann. Rept. Bu.
Eth._, p. 376.
[274] Squier describes a Tyrian purple of various shades secured in
Nicaragua from the murex shellfish by a slow and tedious process; see
his _Nicaragua_, p. 286.
[275] Dr. J. Walter Fewkes, _Journal of American Folk-Lore_, vol. ii.,
p. 151.
[276] Cyrus Thomas, _Sixth Ann. Rept. Bu. Eth._, p. 271.
[277] Prescott, _Mexico_, vol. i., p. 111.
[278] _Ibid._, p. 112. The intercalation of these 12½ or 13 days is
denied by Payne, _History of the New World_, vol. ii., pp. 294–316 _et
seq._, but Mrs. Zelia Nuttall and other eminent scholars are certain
they were intercalated.
[279] Goodman, _Biologia Centrali Americana_, part viii., pp. 5, 8.
[280] This bell is supposed, however, to have developed here from the
rattle.
[281] The Peabody Museum contains an exhibit of forty-five whistles
made of bone, all found together in one basket. They were wrapped with
split reed and were seven to ten inches in length.
[282] Washington Matthews, “The Basket Drum,” _American
Anthropologist_, O. S., vol. vii., No. 2, April, 1894.
[283] A. F. Bandelier, _Archæological Tour_, p. 150.
[284] John Comfort Fillmore, “The Harmonic Structure of Indian Music,”
_American Anthropologist_, N. S., April, 1899. See also Chas. K. Wead,
“The Study of Primitive Music,” _Am. Anthropologist_, N. S., vol. ii.,
No. 1.
[285] James Mooney, “The Ghost-Dance Religion,” _Fourteenth Ann. Rept.
Bu. Eth._, pp. 994, 995.
[286] James Mooney, “The Ghost-Dance Religion,” _Fourteenth Ann. Rept.
Bu. Eth._, pp. 994, 995
[287] Murdoch says the Point Barrow Eskimo wake up in the night to
sing.—_Ninth Ann. Rept. Bu. Eth._, p. 388.
[288] James Mooney, The Ghost-Dance Religion, _Fourteenth Ann. Rept.
Bu. Eth._, pp. 1002, 1003.
[289] J. Walter Fewkes, _Jour. of Am. Eth._, vol. ii., p. 159.
[290] James Mooney, _Fourteenth Ann. Rept. Bu. Eth._, p. 1008.
[291] Stephen Powers, _Tribes of California_, pp. 211, 212.
[292] _Eleventh Ann. Rept. Bu. Eth._, p. 255.
[293] For a description of the “Cat’s Cradle” games of the Amerinds,
see the elaborate work _String Figures_ by Caroline Furness Jayne.
[294] Col. Richard Irving Dodge, _The Plains of the Great West_, pp.
329, 330.
[295] _Plains of the Great West_, p. 324.
[296] John T. Short, _The North Americans of Antiquity_.
[297] From the Moki method of guiding shower-waters amongst the corn to
guiding waters from a brook or river in that way would not be a great
step; indeed, it would be most simple and natural and would easily be
forced by circumstances.
[298] Cosmos Mindeleff, “Aboriginal Remains of Verde Valley,”
_Thirteenth Ann. Rept. Bu. Eth._, p. 238.
[299] The term “horticulture” as employed by some writers means
agriculture on a small scale, the operations not being considered by
them extensive enough to merit the title of agriculture.
[300] Refer to previous chapter on “Architecture and Dwellings.”
[301] J. Walter Fewkes, “Preliminary Account of Archæological Field
Work in Arizona in 1897,” _Smithsonian Report_, 1897, p. 613.
[302] Desiré Charnay, _Ancient Cities_, p. 36.
[303] Bancroft, _History of the United States_, vol. i., p. 209.
[304] Cyrus Thomas, _Twelfth Ann. Rept. Bu. Eth._, p. 408.
[305] Cyrus Thomas, _Twelfth Ann. Rept. Bu. Eth._, p. 408.
[306] In New England there was once a fortification in Sanbornton, N.
H., which had walls six feet thick and breast-high, faced outside with
stone.—Winsor, _Nar. and Crit. Hist._, vol. i., p. 404.
[307] The great Cahokia mound in Illinois is seven hundred feet by five
hundred feet on the ground. For illustration of Etowah mound see page
337.
[308] Cyrus Thomas, _Study of North American Archæology_, p. 125.
[309] Gerard Fowke describes in the _American Anthropologist_, N. S.,
vol. ii, No. 3, “Points of difference between Norse Remains and Indian
works.”
[310] _Ancient Cities._
[311] Ad. Bandelier, _Archæological Tour_, p. 233 _et seq._
[312] Contact with civilisation has, however, changed the average
health in many if not all tribes.
[313] Bancroft, _History of the United States_, vol. i.
[314] For further details of the Mexican drinks, see Charnay’s _Ancient
Cities_.
[315] Squier, _Nicaragua_, p. 272.
[316] Biart, _The Aztecs_, p. 290.
[317] _The Life and Adventures of James P. Beckwourth, Mountaineer,
Scout, and Pioneer, and Chief of the Crow Nation of Indians_, p. 444.
Harper Bros., 1856.
[318] _Ibid._, p. 445.
[319] The council was opened by the sachem puffing smoke from the
pipe over the heads of the assembly, and then each councillor in turn
drawing at the pipe. This accomplished, business was begun.
[320] Mrs. Erminnie A. Smith, “Myths of the Iroquois,” _Second Ann.
Rept. Bu. Eth._, p. 72.
[321] _History of the United States._
[322] Important announcements are made by appointed criers.
[323] _Life and Adventures of James P. Beckwourth_, p. 228.
[324] _History of the United States._
[325] Payne’s _History of the New World_, vol. ii., pp. 495, 499, and
501.
[326] _Conquest of Mexico_, vol. i., p. 81.
[327] _Conquest of Mexico_, vol. i., p. 126; see also pp. 251, 252 of
this book.
[328] Lucien Carr, _Smithsonian Report_, 1891, p. 543; see also Payne’s
_History of the New World_, page 330.
[329] _Ibid._
[330] See Fewkes, “The New-Fire Ceremony at Walpi,” _American
Anthropologist_, N. S., vol. ii., No. 1.
[331] For details of cenoté, etc., see Desiré Charnay’s _Ancient
Cities_.
[332] _Archæological Tour_, p. 204.
[333] James Mooney, “The Ghost-Dance Religion,” _Fourteenth Ann. Rept.
Bu. Eth._, p. 980.
[334] Mrs. Erminnie Smith, “Myths of the Iroquois,” _Second Ann. Rept.
Bu. Eth._, p. 68.
[335] _Conquest of Mexico_, vol. i., p. 121.
[336] James Mooney, “Sacred Formulas of the Cherokees,” _Seventh Ann.
Rept. Bu. Eth._, p. 328.
[337] “Our materia medica owes tobacco, gum copal, liquid amber,
sarsaparilla, resin of tecamaca, jalap, and huaca to the Aztecs.”—L.
Biart, _The Aztecs_, p. 285.
[338] D. G. Brinton, _The American Race_, p. 82.
[339] _League of the Iroquois_, p. 55.
[340] _Ibid._, pp. 330–333.
[341] Brinton, _The American Race_, p. 77.
[342] These ceremonials often introduce historical matters. I was
surprised once to hear the song change to one of our Sunday-school
hymns. This portion of the ceremony was describing the establishment of
a Presbyterian mission at Keam’s Canyon years before.
[343] See J. Walter Fewkes, _Journal of American Ethnology_, for a
description of some of the Moki ceremonials and other papers by the
same author.
[344] In some of the pueblos there is a constant inter-killing going on
for supposed evil practices of witchcraft (Bandelier _Report_, part i.,
p. 35), but whether this has any connection with the secret orders, I
do not know.
[345] For information on these and other social points see the various
writings of J. W. Powell.
[346] The clan totem is probably an expansion of the individual totem
by increase.
[347] See pp. 162, 164, 241, this book, for illustrations of totem
poles.
[348] Dr. H. C. Yarrow, “Mortuary Customs,” _First Ann. Rept. Bu. Eth._
[349] The head-stones of these graves were this shape, [symbol] and
a portion in some cases protruded above the ground when I was there.
The ground was very sandy. The stones were natural slabs, about 1½ in.
thick.
[350] Stansbury, in his _Report_, describes graphically a “death lodge”
he found, but, unfortunately, space is lacking to reprint it here.
It is important in studying burial customs of the Amerinds to remember
that all members of a tribe were not necessarily disposed of in the
same way. Cabeza de Vaca mentions that “sometimes common members of a
tribe were buried while medicine men were burned.”
[351] See p. 46, this book.
[352] D. G. Brinton, _The Lenapé and their Legends_, pp. 158, 164.
[353] “The spirit of any plant, any star, or other personage in
creation may become a man’s attendant. In our popular phraseology this
is called his medicine.”—Jeremiah Curtin, _Creation Myths_, p. 29.
[354] See “The Lessons of Folklore,” J. W. Powell, _American
Anthropologist_, vol. ii., No. 1, N. S., January, 1900.
[355] Jeremiah Curtin, _Creation Myths of Primitive America_, p. 499.
[356] Bandelier, _Archæological Tour_, p. 180.
[357] _Ibid._, p. 193. See p. 170 _et seq._ for his whole discussion of
Quetzalcohuatl. See also the “Book of Quetzalcohuatl.” Payne, _History
of the New World_, II., p. 435 _et seq._
[358] _American Hero Myths_, p. 64 _et seq._
[359] A. S. Gatschet, “An Indian Visit to Jack Wilson, the Payute
Messiah,” _Journal of American Folk-Lore_.
[360] _American Hero Myths_, p. 147.
[361] Payne accepts the Amazon stories as true. _History of the New
World_, vol. ii., p. 11.
[362] For some Amerind legends delightfully related, see _Blackfoot
Lodge Tales_, and other books, by George Bird Grinnell.
[363] _Native Races_, vol. i., p. 129.
[364] _League of the Iroquois_, p. 43.
[365] Brinton, _The Lenapé_, p. 15.
[366] _History of the American Indians_, p. 282.
[367] See Macmillan’s _Dictionary of Architecture_; pronounced
_kee-vah_.
[368] _First Ann. Rept. Bu. Eth._, p. 59.
[369] See Macmillan’s _Dictionary of Architecture_.
[370] Parkman mentions Beckwourth in the _Oregon Trail_, p. 124, as “a
mongrel of French, American, and Indian blood.... He is a ruffian of
the worst stamp, bloody and treacherous, without honour or honesty”;
but other writers seem to give him a better character.
[371] Beckwourth, _Life and Adventures_, first ed., pp. 227, 228.
[372] Brinton, _The Lenapé_, p. 47.
[373] _The American Race_, p. 46.
[374] Morgan, _Houses and House Life_, p. 8. “In the ancient gens
descent was limited to the female line.” _Ibid._, p. 5.
[375] _Ancient Society_, p. 69.
[376] _American Anthropologist_, N. S., vol i., No. 4, October, 1899,
p. 710.
[377] _Ancient Society_, p. 71, and _Houses and House-Life_, p. 7.
[378] Powell, _First Ann. Rept. Bu. Eth._, p. 61.
[379] Originally _Häyowenthä_ in the Mohawk. He and _Däganowédä_ are
usually considered mythical personages.
[380] _The American Race_, p. 130.
[381] Payne, as before noted, says “a military despotism.”
[382] _Archæological Tour_, p. 31, and footnote, p. 31.
[383] _Conquest of Mexico_, vol. i., p. 23.
[384] _Ancient Society_, pp. 71, 72.
[385] _Houses and House-Life_, p. 28.
[386] See the Preface of this book, and also Payne’s _History of the
New World_, vol. ii., which, unfortunately, the author did not have the
benefit of seeing till after this book was written.
[387] In this connection see “Archæology of the Thompson River Region,
British Columbia,” by Harlan I. Smith, _Memoirs of the American
Museum_, vol. ii., May, 1900. The Eskimo probably entered Alaska along
the coast from the east.
[388] It is of course possible that some infusion of blood occurred in
this manner, but it is not likely that it was ever sufficient to tinge
a whole stock.
[389] “This uniformity finds one of its explanations in the
geographical features of the continent, which are such as to favour
migrations in longitude, and thus prevent the diversity which special
conditions of latitude tend to produce.”—Brinton, _American Race_, p.
41.
[390] See also “On the Peopling of America,” by August R. Grote,
_Bulletin Buffalo Society of Natural Sciences_, February 2, 1877.
[391] The tinge of resemblance between certain Amerind stocks and
foreign stocks endures from the pre-glacial period, then, when
intercourse was on different lines, and does not indicate any
latter-day relationship.
[392] These tools might easily be quite as good as many found on the
surface to-day, and it would be difficult to distinguish them from at
least the ruder forms of modern implements.
[393] W. H. Holmes, “Preliminary Revision of the Evidence Relating
to Auriferous Gravel Man in California,” _American Anthropologist_,
October, 1899.
[394] An elevation of the ocean bottom in the Atlantic tropical regions
would probably disturb the existing climate of the North Atlantic
regions by deflecting the warm currents.
[395] See _A Naturalist in Nicaragua_, by Thomas Belt, Chap. XIV.
[396] Payne believes that by this lowering of the waters combined with
land elevation, a Miocene land passage was formed leading from Asia to
the North-west coast and that the American continent was then peopled
by this route.
[397] See also, “Man and the Glacial Period in America,” Payne’s
_History of the New World_, vol. ii., p. 62 _et seq._, and discussion
of the effects of glaciation, _ibid._, p. 348.
[398] “When first met with the Navajos occupied the same range of
country they now inhabit.”—Bandelier, _Report_, part i., p. 175.
[399] _National Geographical Magazine_, December 1, 1899, p. 509.
[400] “That there was a primitive empire ... seems to some minds
confirmed by other evidences than the story of Votan ... and out of
this empire ... have come, as such believers say, after its downfall,
somewhere near the Christian era, and by divergence, the great stocks
of people called Maya, etc.”—Winsor, _Nar. and Crit. Hist._, vol. i.,
p. 134.
[401] _League of the Iroquois._
[402] For information on the Amerindian wars, their efforts to preserve
their territory, etc., see Bancroft’s _History of the United States_;
Winsor’s _Narrative and Critical History of the United States_;
Winsor’s other works; Parkman, John Fiske; and numerous other books to
be found in any good library.
[403] _Harper’s Magazine_, March, 1899, p. 649.
[404] “The True Route of Coronado’s March,” _Bulletin of American
Geographical Society_, December, 1897.
[405] _Life and Adventures_, p. 438.
[406] Bering found no inhabitants on the Aleutian islands and his visit
of discovery was recent—1741.
[407] The thanks of the author are due to Prof. Otis Tufton Mason, of
the United States National Museum, for kindly reviewing this appendix
in proof. Prof. Mason writes, “Your work has my approval and it is well
done.”
[408] See map, page 33 this book, and also the original of it in the
_Seventh Ann. Rept. Bu. Eth._
[409] See “The True Route of Coronado’s March,” by F. S. Dellenbaugh,
in the _Bulletin of the American Geographical Society_, December, 1897.
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greatly enlarged.”—_The Boston Herald._
_SEND FOR ILLUSTRATED DESCRIPTIVE CIRCULAR_
G. P. PUTNAM’S SONS
New York London
Transcriber’s Notes:
• Text enclosed by underscores is in italics (_italics_).
• Text enclosed by equals is in bold (=bold=).
• Obvious typographical errors have been silently corrected.
• Since image attributions are given in the List of Illustrations,
they are not provided for each image.
• Image size and internal details are removed in the text version.
• Front advertisement was moved to the back.