WAGGONS AND OTHER WHEELED VEHICLES.
The wheeled carriages made use of in different parts of the world
are even more various in their design and construction than the
sledges before described; and, as a general rule, it will be found,
when the test of actual use is brought to bear, that the description
of contrivance (or at least a modification of it) in use among the
civilised and semi-civilised inhabitants of a country or colony will
be best adapted for such work as may have to be performed in it by
the traveller or explorer. It is, however, difficult to overcome home
prejudices, and, as an almost invariable rule, the British emigrant,
on his arrival at the Cape of Good Hope or Australia, commences
by denouncing the colonial waggon as clumsy, unworkmanlike, and
inefficient, and usually threatens to effect immense improvements, and
just as invariably, if he has to make a journey of any distance into
the interior, he adopts, if he be a sensible man, the vehicle which,
by the experience of many, has been found the best for the work it has
to do. On the well-made roads near Cape Town or Port Elizabeth, or on
the broad plains of the Orange River Free State, imported carriages
from England, or vehicles upon their model by colonial builders, may
be used with safety and advantage; and even some of those wondrous
combinations of strength and lightness imported from America, under the
names of spider or skeleton carriages, are found to do good service;
but when really hard work comes on, and densely wooded kloofs or rugged
mountain passes, with rough stretches of road over hill-side or valley,
with fords in which stones of several hundred weight seem to lose
their gravitation and become the mere playthings of the torrent, the
ponderous Cape waggon will be at once appreciated, as all its parts
are so strongly put together that the strain of twelve or twenty oxen
cannot draw them asunder, and yet fitted so loosely that they will
give and bend to every inequality of the road. The Cape waggon is found
to hold its position against all rivals as the vehicle best adapted to
the wants of a travelling or exploring party, and the exigencies of the
transport service and general carrying trade of the country.
We have already, at pp. 60 and 61, given an example of a Cape waggon
with side tents; at pp. 129-132, we have shown how the tent frame or
other material of a waggon might be converted into a boat; at pp.
140-144, we have indicated the manner in which the waggon chests might
be made available as a raft; at pp. 215-219 will be found diagrams
and instructions for repairing axles, fore tongs, dissel-booms,
strengthening wheels when the spokes are shaken loose, tightening up
the tires by driving wedges between them and the felloes, or making
and putting in new spokes without taking the wheel to pieces; at pp.
195-197 are remarks on tiring of wheels and prolonging the efficiency
of strained bolts by shifting them so as to freshen the nip; at pp. 297
and 298 waggon camps are described; and the method of building wheels
is given at pp. 366-372.
[Illustration: CAPE WAGGON (WITH DIAGRAMS).]
{Cape waggon.}
It is, therefore, now only necessary to give a general view of a
full-sized "kap-tented" travelling waggon, with diagrams of such parts
as have not hitherto come under notice. Such a waggon is represented in
Fig. 1, and the buik plank, or floor (_a_), will sometimes be 17ft. or
more in length, though in moderate-sized vehicles it does not exceed
13ft., or thereabouts. The sides are generally of yellow wood (3/8in.
plank), _b_, secured to a substantial ladder-like frame, the longer
pieces of which (_c_) are called "leer boomen," or ladder trees. The
sides and bottom are not fastened together, nor are they fastened to
the understell or carriage, but the bottom plank is simply laid upon
the schammels (_d_) and secured from moving by cleats (_e_), which
grip the after one. The fore and hinder axles are connected by a stout
beam, called the "lang wagen" (_f_), working freely on a pivot passing
through the aftermost jaws of the fore tong (_g_), and strengthened
by a bar of iron (_h_), called the iron "lang wagen." The dissel-boom
works like a carriage pole in the foremost jaws of the "fore tong."
In this tong, also, immediately behind the axle, is a stout ring-bolt
(_i_), to which are attached the drag chains, and they, with the
reim schoen and the tar bucket, are looped up to hooks, fixed at the
attachment of the after tongs (_j_) with the lang wagen. To the back
of the after axle is suspended a kind of framework, called the "trap"
(_k_), for the reception of pots, kettles, and general lumber. Into
the ends of the schammels are set rungs, or stancheons (_l_), which
confine and support the waggon sides. Fig. 2 shows the arrangement of
the carriage, clear of the wheels and top hamper. All the parts are
distinguished by the same letters. Fig. 3 shows how the buik plank
(_a_) is laid upon the after schammel (_d_), and kept from shifting by
the clamps (_e_); it will be seen that there is room enough between it
and the rungs (_l_) for the sides (_b_), and these are kept apart at
the after part by the after bar (_m_), as well as by the after chest
(_n_), and in front by the fore chest only, leaving, in the present
instance, a space available for stowage of rather more than 11ft. long,
3ft. wide, and 3ft. in height; though frequently the cargo is piled
much higher. The kadel, or bed, an oblong frame (_o_, p. 216), with a
netting of raw hide thongs, is then either slung above the cargo to the
stancheons of the tent, or laid upon spars placed across the waggon,
with their ends resting on the top rail or leer boom (_c_). The tent
frame should be first covered with reed matting, similar to a cheese
mat, and often obtainable from the Hottentots. Above this should be the
under sail, which is very often painted to render it waterproof, though
for durability we prefer to have it of stout unpainted No. 1 canvas,
and above this is drawn on the upper sail. In the case of a kap-tent,
this is sometimes in three or more pieces; first, the roof; then the
sides, which are tacked on under a neat border at its edges; and,
lastly, the fore and after klaps or curtains. Sometimes, however, the
whole of these parts are made in one. The central breadths of canvas
are left 5ft. or 6ft. longer at each end, so as to serve for the fore
and after curtains, and the sides are stitched to the roof, so that
the whole may be put on or taken off in one piece. The edges are then
either buttoned to brass studs along the leer boom, or tied down with
thongs of koodoo hide, stitched on for the purpose. A couple of bamboos
or forked sticks are lashed to the foremost and aftermost stancheons of
the tent frame, to serve as "nicks" in which to lay the waggon whip,
which is a well-selected straight-grown "vaderlandsche" (male bamboo),
from 10ft. to 15ft. in length, with a lash of about 20ft., as thick
in the middle as the little finger, and with a "voorslag," or lash of
koodoo hide, about 4ft. or 5ft. more. This, in the hands of a practised
driver, is a most formidable weapon. Any particular ox in the long team
of twelve or fourteen may be gently filliped in any part, or have the
whip cracked next to his ear as a reminder, or if he show stubbornness
or obstinacy, a cloud of hair may be cut from his sides from hip to
shoulder, or each successive stroke of the long voorslag may be made to
draw blood, until he goes to his duty.
The side chests are supported on stout bars (_o_), which cross beneath
the bottom of the waggon, projecting 1ft. or 16in. beyond its sides,
and these, besides being bolted to the bottom planks, are generally
lashed tightly to the top rail by reims of raw hide (_p_), which serve
to keep the bottom from bending too much with the weight of the cargo,
and help still further to bind the waggon together. On open colonial
roads, the side chests are generally rectangular, but we have seen them
on the waggons of elephant hunters, brought to a sharp point forward,
because, in passing through a thickly-wooded country, trees or stumps
would knock off in passing the corners of a rectangular chest. We
think, for economy of room, a long chest, tapered at both ends, as
shown in our sketch, might be adopted; and if there were a probability
of the waggon chests being required for a boat, as described at pp.
140-144, this might be made in two lengths, as we have shown it, so
that the ends would serve for the respective ends of the boat or raft.
They would be secured either by bolts and nuts, or by lashings of hide
to the cross-bars and to the stancheons of the waggon sides. Padlocks
and hasps are generally used, but a very stout branch may tear them
off. Rim locks would be better, were it not that the same cause might
disarrange the set of the lid, and prevent its fitting properly. A
couple of stout knees and chocks should be screwed or bolted on to the
after part of the floor for the water cask to rest in, and this should
be securely lashed, and never allowed to stand or travel without at
least a day's water in it, both to keep it from shrinking and leakage,
and also as a prevention against any unexpected emergency or failure of
supply.
Fig. 4 is a plan of as much as is necessary to show of the "under
stell," or carriage. The same letters are attached to the parts. The
junction of the two bars (_j_) of the after tong with the "lang wagen"
is shown more distinctly. _p_ is the head of the schammel bolt or perch
bolt, which passes down through the schammel and axle, allowing the
latter to turn freely. The top of the schammel is seen partly hiding
the arms of the axle, underneath it; in its ends are the mortices for
the rungs. _q_ is the lifter, composed of two parts--the "legter voet,"
or upright, with two mortices, corresponding to the height of the fore
and after axles--and the "legter hout," or lever, which is passed
through the required mortice and forelocked by an iron pin. The shorter
end is generally armed with one or more iron studs, to keep it from
slipping; the longer end is tapered and rounded just so as to be easily
grasped. Sometimes, when iron reim shoes are not to be had, or are worn
out, a log of wood is roughly shaped and slightly hollowed (_r_) to
receive the tire of the wheel, and, instead of chain, is attached to
the fore tong by a stout hide rope. A short end is also left near the
reim schoen, to hook round the felloe of the wheel.
[Illustration]
For rough work, such as carrying stones or packages of unhandy form or
dimensions, a "buik waggon" is very convenient. In this the regular
lang wagen is released from the fore tong, and either replaced by
a rough beam of any required length, or the beam is simply lashed
under the original lang wagen, and its end is trimmed down so as to
be inserted into the jaws of the fore tong; but as the bolt might
probably split and draw out from the unprotected wood, the drag chains
should be led aft from the ring-bolt, and hooked on as tightly as
possible to the after axle, a turn or two being taken, if they are too
long, round both the lang wagen and the pole by which it is lengthened.
They may be set up tight by using reims of raw hide as lanyards.
The sides consist of a couple of stout planks set on edge--a couple
of 21ft. deals for instance. Cross-bars are lashed under these at
intervals, to keep the bottom from sagging.
[Illustration]
{Extemporary waggon.}
A durable and convenient form of waggon can be extemporised in any
wild country where wood and raw hides are procurable by proceeding
as follows: First from dead, but sound, trees, or seasoned wood (see
"Wood, to season"), fashion the pieces for your waggon bed frame, as
shown in the illustration below. Both the fore and hind axle trees are
composed of two pieces of wood matched so as to lay evenly on each
other. On the surface of contact of each piece-half holes are cut
for the admission of the pole (A), prong piece (B), and cross prong
ends (C). The perch bolt (D) should be an iron pin, but may be a hard
wood treenail. Either lashings of raw hide or treenails may be used
for securing the upper and lower axle pieces to each other. The lower
piece of wood, or axle bar, should be composed of some hard dense, yet
tough, wood, as the axles have to be formed from it. The butt end of
the prong piece (E) is so adjusted as to travel forward and backward on
the pole, thus lengthening or shortening the body of the waggon. There
are two methods by which the regulation of the prong piece is effected.
One is to have a train of holes in the pole and one hole in the butt
end of the prong piece for a pin to pass through, which being driven
down through one of the holes in the pole holds it at that length. We,
however, prefer hollowing out the lower surface of the prong-piece butt
with a gouge until it fits on the pole after the manner of a hollow
slide or rider. This we lash fast to the pole with a long strip of raw
hide, taking several turns both before and behind the joint. The prong
piece must be cut from a natural fork of suitable size and length. The
butt end should be left at least 18in. long, in order that sufficient
bearing surface may be left to rest on the pole under the hide lashing.
By adopting this mode of regulating the movements of the prong, a pole
of moderate and convenient size may be used without fear of breakage. A
very stout pole is required for the pin plan, as the auger holes bored
through it tend greatly to decrease its strength. The four upright
posts (F, F, F, F) are fitted into four square holes chiselled out in
the upper axle piece for the purpose of receiving them; and they serve
to secure the planks, hurdles, wattle work, or poles forming the sides
of the waggon.
Directions for building and fitting wheels have been given in a former
portion of our work; and we need therefore only repeat that slices
cut from suitable-sized log ends form very fair makeshift wheels (see
p. 366); but care should be taken, if native carts are used in the
region where the makeshift waggon is building, to ascertain the gauge
at which their wheels are set and regulate yours accordingly, or the
wheel tracks on these trails will not match with yours, and so cause
strains and breakages. The adjustment of the contrivance just described
will entirely depend on the purpose for which it is from time to time
required. For the conveyance of the packs and baggage of a large party
it may be drawn out to its full length, as shown in the illustration
(p. 440), leaving only pole enough for the attachment of draught
animals. By bringing the prong piece farther back a short four-wheeled
waggon can be formed, and by slipping the fore axle and prong over the
end of the pole you leave the perch and hinder axle to be used as a
two-wheeled cart, whilst an extra pole fitted to the first axle and
prong makes a second pair-wheeled cart just as handy as the other.
Should there be but two available draught animals for the two carts,
shafts can be used instead of poles. These are easily made by lashing
on poles with raw hide, or cutting wide prong-shaped branches which
spread out wide at the butt, which must be left long enough to fit into
the pole hole of the axle piece, when, if cut with a good curve, these
shafts will somewhat resemble those of a Hansom cab. Acting somewhat on
this principle, the Californian teamsters make use at times of a sort
of train waggon, which, with a powerful mule team, is, over favourable
ground, worked entire; but when the vicissitudes of travel require it,
they work each separate compartment of the waggon just as we should an
ordinary cart.
[Illustration]
{Cape wine waggon.}
About the year 1842, we were accustomed to see the primitive wine
waggon of the Cape Colony toiling over the dreary waste of shifting
sands known as the Cape Flats. Its wheels were large and broad, the
hinder ones being often 7ft. in diameter. The fore and after carriages
were connected by a long fir pole, and the sides and bottom were
formed of six or eight trees of the same kind, so arranged as to form
a convenient bed for two or three beakers of wine. At the hinder end
would be a tent and sides of wattled work, or perhaps the sides of an
ordinary waggon, with the tent attached, would be fitted temporarily
on, so as to form a place of shelter for the owner and his family. It
was generally drawn by twenty or twenty-two oxen.
The illustration on p. 440 represents one of these wine waggons; and,
as it may so happen that the lot of the settler may be cast in regions
resembling the district we have just spoken of, it may be well that he
should know how to construct a conveyance of this kind, as the fore
part of the waggon affords ample space for stowing away barrels or
bales. As will be seen, on reference to the illustration, the length of
the waggon can, like that before described, be regulated according to
the requirements of the owner.
[Illustration]
{Indian gharrie.}
The illustration below represents a vehicle in which we performed some
very rough travelling through Central India. Its cover, or tent, was
composed of painted cotton cloth stretched over bamboo hoops and nailed
to the framework. On the bottom, or bed, of our conveyance we placed
a stout matress stuffed with cotton. Our rifles, guns, water barrel,
and revolvers hung in pouches against the inside of the waggon tent.
The door was at the rear. The windows had curtains fitted to them. The
bullock teams varied in strength from one pair to three, according to
the character of the country travelled through. Conveyances much like
this in construction, and of admirable quality, are manufactured at
Ahmednugger, in the Bombay Presidency. When travelling in this vehicle
our heavy baggage followed in two hackeries, or country carts, each
drawn by two pairs of bullocks. These hackeries, like the arobas of
the Tartars, merely consist of an axle, a pair of rough strong wheels,
a pole, and number of odd poles, sticks, and pieces of board bound
together with hide. Our men were much puzzled in Crim-Tartary when we
overtook, on the only road leading from passes perfectly impracticable
for wheeled carriages, several of the bullock arobas of the country
laden with bales of skins and bags of grain. The Tartars had simply
taken their arobas to pieces by casting off the hide lashings, packed
the bullocks, themselves, and their wolfish-looking dogs, with the
divided loads and waggon gear, marched over the passes, and then put
the whole affair in travelling trim again. With our horses and packed
mules we had no such difficulty to contend against. Much like these
in construction is the single-ox cart of Red River. In this the ox
is harnessed very much as a horse would be, working between a pair
of ordinary shafts. Each driver conducts his own train, which may
consist of a dozen carts. The oxen are driven with a long-handled,
heavy-thonged whip, which is a sort of compromise between the whip of
a Cape waggoner and that of an Australian stock-man. Each of these
primitive carts is capable of transporting about 9cwt. of buffalo flesh
and hides from the hunting grounds to the depôt of the hunters.
[Illustration: THE WILSON MULE WAGGON (UNITED STATES OF AMERICA).]
{Horse and mule waggons.}
Horse and mule waggons and carts vary so much in construction according
to the nature of the country they are used in, and to the purpose
for which they are intended, that it would be impossible to describe
one-tenth of their number. The mode of harnessing, too, differs in
almost every country. Whilst we, in England, usually content ourselves
with a team harnessed in pairs, the Russians not unfrequently work
three and four a-breast. The Spanish and Portuguese race, in their
devious wanderings about the world, have taken the enormously high
wheel of the Peninsula with them, and delight to see a big-booted
postilion, black or white, acting as pilot to the lumbering old-world
conveyance they journey in. Scarcely any two artillery services in
the world correspond in their draught arrangement--some making use of
the pole, whilst others, England amongst the number, use the shafts.
Our province being to deal more particularly with vehicles calculated
to bear the rough usage and vicissitudes of travel, we naturally turn
to vastly extensive countries--where long journeys over hill, plain,
and valley are commonly performed--for the best form of waggon to do
it with. Experience in these matters is always the best guide. The
constant demand almost invariably brings about the required supply. We
have no long waggon journeys in England; and, as neither the artillery
or military train waggon of this country, nor the "equipage militaire"
of France, is in accordance with our notions of what travellers' mule
waggons should be, we go a little farther a-field, and select the
Wilson waggon of the United States of America, the subject of the
full-page illustration. The American mode of harnessing is also shown.
All these waggons have wheel friction breaks fitted to them, as had all
the Sardinian waggons used during the Crimean war.
{Wheel drags.}
In travelling over rough passes and steep acclivities great attention
should be paid to the application of proper break power to the wheels.
The use of the skid and common drag-chain are too well known to need
comment here, only that it may not be amiss to remark, _en passant_,
that, conducting your waggon down the edge of a steep hollow, or
ravine, you must have your shoe placed on the wheel _away_ from the
drop side. Never use your drag-chain when you can safely do without
it, as, by confining the wheel in one position during the descent of
steep pitches, the portion of the tire in contact with the ground will
be seriously ground and cut up. All comparatively light carts and
waggons should have the lever friction breaks before mentioned attached
to them. These contrivances are simple in construction, powerful in
action, and, by allowing a certain amount of retarded action to the
wheel, many advantages are gained. [Illustration: A-E] The detail of
the break arrangement varies greatly in the different countries in
which it is used; but the illustration on p. 443 will serve to show
the principle on which it is constructed. The roller (A) has two stout
pieces of hide rope wound round it. These are attached to the break-bar
(B), which slides forward and back under the staples (C). By depressing
the end of the lever (D) and hooking down its end, the friction blocks
(E) are drawn against the surfaces of the wheel tires and retained
there with just as much force as is thought requisite. The movements of
a waggon train furnished with these contrivances are not retarded and
rendered irregular by the constant and harassing stoppages consequent
on the leading waggoners skidding and unskidding. On the crest of a
steep descent being reached, all the teamster has to do is to heave
down his lever to the required pitch, and hook on without stopping his
team. On getting near the bottom he unhooks, and is prepared to move
smartly up on the rise before him, all the other waggons following his
example. In this way there is no check. In going down dangerously-steep
inclines it is a good plan to attach a short bushy tree of good weight,
root end forwards, by a strong rope or chain to the hind axle.
[Illustration]
{Makeshift break.}
A very effective makeshift break can be made by cutting a tough, stout
pole, long enough to extend some distance beyond the diameter of
the wheel to be dragged. Lash the ends of the pole to the framework
of the waggon, so as to nip the wheel, as shown in the accompanying
illustration. Almost any amount of nipping power may be gained by
tightening the lashings. A large exploring party, or troops on the
march, can also, when requisite, make use of drag ropes, by which to
ease a load down a difficult place. When it is desirable to completely
lock a pair of wheels, cut down a young tree of suitable size, trim off
the branches, and cut it to a length sufficient to pass directly across
the bottom of the waggon, through the spokes of each of the wheels to
be locked, and extend a couple of feet or so beyond the nave of each
wheel a few turns of rope round both the tree and the felloe of the
wheel prevents the arrangement from slipping. This is a very good plan
to adopt when a waggon has to be stopped for any time in the middle
of a very steep incline. The two wheels on one side of a short-bodied
carriage may be locked by applying a rope or chain, as shown in the
annexed illustration. By treating both sides alike all four wheels
would be locked, as when waggons are drawn up to resist attacking
Indians, only that chain must be used in order to prevent the locking
from being cut free, and the waggon being started out of its place.
[Illustration]
[Illustration]
{Substitute for wheels.}
If one wheel of a four-wheeled carriage gets broken on a journey, or
when some distance out of camp, and there is no spare wheel to replace
it, make the two fore wheels good, leaving the deficiency with the hind
axle; then cut down a tree about 8in. or 9in. in diameter, cut a deep
notch in its large end, lay this on the axle directly inside the fore
wheel on the side towards the absent hind wheel; measure the length of
the tree, and see that it is long enough to trail on the ground sledge,
runner fashion, behind the carriage, round up the ground end, like the
toe of a skate, with your axe; cut another notch on its upper surface
for the end of the axle from which the broken wheel came to rest in.
Now lash both the front and hind axles in their places firmly, as shown
in the annexed illustration, and you will be at least able to get to a
convenient place to effect a perfect repair; and here we would advise
the reader never to despair of making a successful mend in almost any
case of breakages among wheeled carriages, provided wood, a few tools,
and raw hide can be obtained. A raw hide band, properly fitted on wet,
and allowed to dry gradually, is little less reliable than good wrought
iron, and far more so than bad.
{Waggon equipment.}
Every wheeled carriage used in exploring or travelling long journeys
should have its own grease box secured in a convenient situation; just
above and before the near fore wheel is a good place. The form of the
common Indian bamboo grease box is shown at p. 359, illustration No.
3. A good-sized ox-horn makes a convenient grease box. A mixture of
Stockholm tar, 6lb., and fat, 1lb., makes a good grease. If a little
common plumbago can be got to put into it, so much the better. In
countries where native vegetable oils are abundant, they may be used,
instead of the fat, to mix with the tar. Bear in mind that keeping
the wheels well greased is a duty of no common importance. In hot
countries it is an excellent plan to work the naves of the wheels over
with strong twine, just as boys work balls in some parts of England.
The twine-work affords a holdfast for a thick layer of wet cowdung,
or clay, which should be renewed whenever the waggons are stationary
for the day or night. We never omit this custom when it can be by any
possibility adhered to. By keeping the nave moist the spokes of the
wheel remain tight. It is a good plan to well water the ground under
each wheel when encamping on very dry ground. The treatment of injured
wheels will be found at pp. 219, 220. When any of the ironwork of your
waggon becomes bent from an upset, or other accident, never attempt to
straighten it cold. Light a fire, heat it to a red heat, hammer it back
to its proper form, and then let it cool gradually before putting it
in its place. Plunging it suddenly in cold water is apt to render the
metal brittle. In the purchase of all iron fittings for either waggon
work or horse equipment, about which we shall have more to say as our
work proceeds, insist on seeing it, without paint or varnish, bare from
the forge, as you can then see that there are no hollows, cracks, or
defects in it. It is wonderful what a number of shortcomings a good
thick coat of coal-tar will cover when laid on over the hot metal.
Avoid malleable cast iron as you would a broken limb. It cannot be
bent without the danger of nipping off short. When broken, it cannot
be welded or faggoted up. It is not reliable in any way, and is a
mere delusion and snare to the unwary; and yet, incredible as it may
appear, not only the greater portion of the cheap horse equipment iron
sent to the colonies is made from it, but we have ourselves seen more
than one attempt made by unscrupulous contractors to introduce it in
Government work, where wrought metal had been specially insisted on and
agreed for. An experienced man will generally detect the nature of the
material at once, but the inexperienced requires some rough and ready
way of judging of the quality of that which he is about to purchase.
Buckles, D's, rings, hooks, &c., will not unfrequently show the mark
of the mould in which they were cast. If there is no such mark, take
one of the suspected objects in the tongs, put it on an anvil, and with
a light hammer knock it about a little to see if it breaks up; as a
further test put it in the forge fire, heat it to a bright red heat,
cut and open out the object to its full length, and then proceed, with
your hammer, to draw out the end, as if you were going to make a long
sharp nail from it. If the suspected metal is wrought iron it readily
takes the spike form, but if malleable it will give under the hammer
and break up. Too much care cannot be exercised in the selection of all
matters of iron intended to meet the vicissitudes of rough travel. The
iron of Sweden, Russia, and India is excellent when it is obtained of
native manufacture. Its admirable purity and toughness partly depend
on the quality of the ore from which it is obtained, but mainly from
the absence of sulphur in its composition. This arises from charcoal
being used as a fuel for smelting instead of the coal made use of
in this country, which, from its containing considerable quantities
of sulphuret of iron (the mundic of the miners), is but ill-adapted
for the production of iron of high quality. Thoroughly good iron is
convertible and reconvertible into an endless number of objects of
usefulness. Thus, the links of an old chain make excellent staples;
these, when broken, can be worked up into nails, and pieces of these,
when filed up, are used to make goad points and many other things.
Every waggon should have its "odd and end" box for small matters in
iron, such as linch pins, S hooks, D's, spikes, union links, &c., &c.
All these are worth their weight in gold in a wild country, and must,
therefore, be kept carefully out of the reach of natives.
{Field artillery.}
The settler in the vicinity of a frontier beyond which native tribes,
who may become hostile at any time, reside will not unfrequently find
it useful to know how field artillery and the waggons belonging to it
are handled in cases of breakage. Well-organised labour will perform
more in a few minutes than would double the amount of force in hours
expended in ill-directed efforts. Works exclusively on artillery
matters rarely reach the hands of any save officers in that branch
of the service. We, therefore, give the following directions for the
management of disabled field artillery, furnished by General Lefroy,
R.A., F.R.S., in his handbook of "Field Artillery Service."
CASE I.--GUN WITHOUT A WAGGON--CARRIAGE DISABLED.
(1.) Dismount the gun.
(2.) Nos. 2 and 3 put a handspike in the muzzle, and raise it. Nos. 4
and 5 take a prolonge or drag rope, pass it in the rear of one trunnion
and in front of the other, and sling the gun securely to the limber
hook; then pass the long end of the rope between the boxes to the
front. Nos. 6 and 7 steady the wheels. Nos. 8 and 9 raise and hold up
the shafts whilst 4 and 5 sling the gun. As soon as the gun is slung,
8 and 9 haul down the shafts, and hold them about the same height they
would be if a horse was hooked in them. Nos. 6 and 7 then take the
long end of the rope left by 4 and 5, and bring it down at the end of
the box frame, close to the boxes under the breech of the gun about
the vent astragal, or between the frame and footboard, according to
the length of the gun, so that the rope will have no tendency to slip
off the carriage. When 6 has done this and handed the end of the rope
to the other side to 7, and put the first part of a reef knot on it,
1 gives the word "Bear down the muzzle," when 2 and 3 bear down. Nos.
6 and 7 take a turn round the breech, bring the end of the rope up at
the end of the box frame, and secure it. Nos. 8 and 9 now let down the
shafts and leave them.
(3.) The trail is now thrown round, and the carriage is dismounted and
turned over.
(4.) _To lift the carriage._--Nos. 8 and 9 place themselves at the
breast, 6 and 7 at the axletree arms, 4 and 5 at the cheeks of the
carriage, close to the axletree, 2 and 3 at the trail, 1 in the shafts.
At the word "Lift," the numbers all lift, and carry the carriage to
the rear of the limber, and rest the breast on the rear of the boxes,
as far on as the front cap square bolts. Nos. 8 and 9 then mount on
the footboard, and, taking hold of the breast chains, the whole of the
numbers lift again, and, moving forward, continue to lift until the
elevating screw box rests on the rear of the limber boxes.
(5.) No. 1, who has been in the shafts during the operation, gives the
proper directions for balancing the carriage.
(6.) _Placing the wheels._--Nos. 4 and 5 put on the washers and
linch-pins; the numbers on each side will put on the wheels "dish
down;" and the four lowest numbers will lash in rear, and the four
highest numbers in front. Nos. 2 and 3 will then secure the trail to
the handspike in the muzzle by the locking chain.
(7.) _Lashing the carriage._--Nos. 4 and 5 use the box lashings, 6 and
7 the drag rope and breast chains. The side-arms are laid on the top of
the boxes close to or between the box guard irons and the carriage.
CASE II.--A GUN WITH A WAGGON--CARRIAGE DISABLED.
(1.) The gun and carriage are dismounted, and the gun is slung as in
the first case.
(2.) The waggon and gun carriage are so placed that the rear of the
waggon will be close to and in front of the carriage; or, in other
words, the gun carriage will be brought to the rear of the waggon, and
placed with the trail to the waggon before it is dismounted.
(3.) The carriage is then turned upside down, as in the first case.
(4.) At the word "Prepare to lift," 2 and 3 place themselves at the
breast, 4 and 5 at the axletree arms, 6 and 7 at the cheeks, and 8 and
9 at the trail. At the word "Lift," the carriage is lifted, and the
trail rested on the footboard. Nos. 8 and 9 then jump up and seize the
trail handles, and at the next heave bring the trail on the rear box.
Then, lifting and moving forward, they bring the trail eye near to the
limber boxes, but not to touch them. In this position the cap square
bolts will injure the lids of the boxes, but by placing a piece of wood
about 3in. or 4in. thick on the boxes it will raise the carriage clear.
(5.) _To unlash the waggon boxes and place the wheels._--Nos. 2, 4, 3,
and 5 unlash the rear boxes; 6, 8, 7, and 9 the front boxes. Then the
two extreme numbers and the two centre ones will each take one of the
box lashings (or 2, 9, 5, and 6) and lay them conveniently to where
they are needed.
(6.) _Placing the wheels._--The four numbers on each side then lift
the gun wheels, "dish inwards," inside the rear wheels of the waggon,
and rest them on the axletrees. Nos. 2 and 3 lash the wheels together
at the rear. Nos. 4, 6, 5, and 7 lash to the box handles. Nos. 8 and 9
lash together in front, and then fix the trail to the perch.
(7.) The spare side-arms to be put in their proper places on the gun
carriage, and the others alongside the gun.
CASE III.--A GUN AXLETREE ARM BROKEN.
(1.) The gun is slung under the limber, as in Cases I. and II., and the
carriage is limbered up. Here it may be remarked that a piece of chain
would answer best for slinging the gun, because a rope sling takes
up so much room that the trail eye is sometimes prevented from being
keyed; besides a rope may get chafed.
(2.) _To take off the disabled gun._--No. 2 takes a handspike and
passes it under the axletree close to the wheel. It is manned at the
other end by 8.
(3.) Nos. 4 and 6 stand ready to take off the wheel; 3, 5, 7, and 9
take hold of the highest part of the opposite wheel, and place their
feet against the lowest part, to ease 2 and 8. At the word "Take off
the wheel," 2 and 8 lift; the numbers on the opposite side pull over; 4
and 6 take the wheel off the axletree, but hold it in such a position
that the axletree will pass between the spokes, where it is to rest,
and they remain to keep the wheel steady.
(4.) Nos. 2 and 8 then take a stout spar, about 12ft. or 14ft. long,
and pass it under the axletree and secure it to a piece of wood in the
trunnion holes and to the cheeks of the carriage.
(5.) The numbers on the opposite side place the wheel, "dish side up,"
on the limber boxes; and all the numbers assist to secure it--2, 3, 4,
and 5 in rear, 6, 7, 8, and 9 in front.
CASE IV.--A GUN AND WAGGON--THE GUN LIMBER DISABLED.
(1.) This case can only occur when a gun and its waggon are by
themselves; for if two or more guns and waggons are acting together, a
waggon limber would be taken for the gun, and then the case would be as
No. 6.
(2.) _Unlimber and run the gun in rear of waggon._--At this word 2 and
3 bear down the muzzle; 4 and 5 man the wheels; 6, 7, 8, and 9 man the
trail; and the gun is run in rear of the waggon, with the trail eye
under the rear axletree. Nos. 8 and 9 pass the locking chain through
the trail eye. If it will not pass through, it must be brought up at
the side; but it is better through the eye or handspike ring.
(3.) _Limber up._--Nos. 2 and 3 bear down the muzzle; 4 and 5 man the
wheels; 6 and 7 raise the trail. One of the next numbers passes the
lock chain of the gun over the axletree of the waggon, from rear to
front, across to 8, who will pass it over the axletree from front to
rear, and, assisted by 9, will take a turn under the neck of the trail
plate and round the returns. It is then secured by its own hook.
(4.) _To remove and place the limber boxes._--The limber will be lashed
to the side of the waggon body by the numbers on that side on which
the limber stands. No. 1 in the shafts; 2 and 4 unlash; 6 and 8 untie
the boxes, and slip them a little to the rear. The limber will then be
lashed close to the waggon wheel in the centre of the limber, in line
with the axletree of the waggon. No. 1 then lets down the shaft-prop.
Nos. 2 and 4 mount on the waggon, and 6 and 8 on the footboard of the
limber. Nos. 2 and 6 lift one box on the top of the waggon wheel,
whence they will be assisted by 3 and 5 to place it on the rear box of
the waggon body. Nos. 4 and 8 will then lift on the other box, and,
assisted by 7 and 9, place it on the front box of the waggon body, the
locks front and rear.
(5.) _Dismount the limber._--The limber is now moved forward a little.
Nos. 6 and 7 hold up the splinter bar. Nos. 8 and 9 take out the
shafts, and lay them down; then relieve 6 and 7 at the splinter bar,
who will take hold of the front part of the wheels, and 4 and 5 the
rear part, 6 and 7 attending to the linchpins and washers. Nos. 2 and
3 take hold of the rear of the limber, and at the word "Take off the
wheels," 2, 8, 3 and 9 lift, and 4, 6, 5 and 7 take the wheels off.
Then the whole is laid on the ground.
(6 and 7.) The waggon boxes are unlashed and the wheels placed, as in
Case II.
(8.) The limber body is now turned upside down and placed on the top of
the boxes of the waggon limber, axletree to the rear by the whole of
the numbers, and secured behind by both of the limber box lashings, and
in front of the splinter bar and pitchells by the prolonges or fitting
ropes. Nos. 2, 3, 4, and 5 lashing behind, and 6, 7, 8, and 9 in front.
The small box of spare linchpins and washers to be laid on the disabled
limber by 8.
(9.) The shafts are then placed, one on each side, between the disabled
limber boxes and the guard irons of the waggon body, point to the rear,
and secured by the pocket straps.
CASE V.--WAGGON LIMBER DISABLED.
This case is so similar to Case IV. that the details would only be a
repetition, except when the word "trail" is used in Case IV. use the
word "perch" in this. The waggon body being secured the same as the gun.
* * * * *
{Yoking or harnessing draught oxen.}
In South Africa, the oxen draw from the neck, or, rather, the yoke is
laid upon the neck, and is prevented from slipping backward by the
hump, which, when the ox presses forward, is pushed strongly against
it. The form of the yoke and its furniture is shown on p. 217. The yoke
is about 6ft. in length, and 3in. thick. In its centre is a strong
staple, through which are passed several turns of reim or hide thong,
to lace it to a corresponding ring on the "dissel-boom" (K),
or on the "trek touw" (8). Near each end are two mortices, 3in. long,
3/4in. wide, and about 1ft. apart, through which to pass the "jeuk
skeis," or yoke keys, which keep it in place on the neck of the ox. The
ends should be rounded so as not to chafe the animal. A knobbed head,
more or less ornamented, keeps them from slipping through the mortices,
and on the outside edge of each key are cut two notches, to receive
the throat strap, which is simply a double thong of softened hide, so
twisted as to leave a loop at each end. This is hitched to the upper
or lower notches to tighten or loosen it, and it may be more nicely
adjusted by twisting or untwisting it till it attains the required
length. The strap will readily be recognised on p. 217.
When the oxen are to be "inspanned," the span or team is driven to the
waggon, and the nooses of the reims or raw hide halters are thrown over
the horns and tightened on the forehead. The oxen are then arranged in
pairs, and held by one or more assistants, as seen near waggon No. 9,
on p. 298. The driver then leads out the fore oxen, lifts the yoke
over the neck of the farthest, hitches the throat strap into the nicks,
and then, holding up the yoke with one hand, with the other he draws
forward the other ox, and induces him to walk to his proper place under
the yoke. The "voor looper," or boy that leads them, then holds the
reims of the fore oxen so as to keep the "trek touw" tolerably tight,
while the other oxen are yoked, as seen before waggon No. 2, on p.
298. In outspanning the order is reversed, the fore oxen being left
to keep the trek rope tight till the very last. An ox requires fully
8ft. to pull in; therefore, a trek touw for twelve oxen must be fully
40ft. long, as the two after oxen will be yoked to the dissel-boom, and
require no rope. Our accompanying sketch of Cape oxen in their yokes
will sufficiently show the arrangements. A Cape waggon is supposed to
be loaded with about 2000lb. of cargo, but 3000lb. is not uncommon, and
we have seen a waggon with 4000lb. start as lightly as could be wished,
though when it came on bad roads it was too heavy for the oxen. The
trek touw is usually of hide rope, but hunters sometimes use chain and
sometimes hempen rope, either of which defy the teeth of jackals and
hyænas. Chain may, perhaps, gall the sides of the oxen, but we have
seen it used on long journeys without bad effect. Hemp is apt to rot,
from exposure to alternate wet and excessive dryness, but we have seen
it do good service. With a hempen rope, get a sailor to splice in all
the rings before you leave the coast. A Hottentot will do well with a
hide rope, but not with one composed of hemp.
[Illustration: CAPE OX TEAM.]
In Australia, two-wheeled drays, somewhat like the Scotch cart,
are used. They will sometimes carry 3000lb. of wool over bad
roads. They are very handy, but strain the necks of the pole oxen
rather. [Illustration] Sometimes, only two oxen are used, as in our
sketch--sometimes, six or more. The yoke lies upon the neck, like the
African, but is fastened by iron bows passed up through the yoke and
keyed above it, so that, when once an ox is yoked, nothing on earth can
free him till the bow is removed. The long bamboo whip of Africa is
unknown in Australia. The handle is short, the lash long and heavy, and
is often terminated by a bit of silk, to produce a more effective crack.
In many parts of Spain, the yoke is simply laid across the foreheads
of the two oxen, and lashed fast to the base of their horns. This
is not only a source of great discomfort to the animals, but is an
absolute waste of their muscular power; for, strong as the neck of
an ox undoubtedly is, that part of the spinal column which forms it
cannot with impunity bear the continued heavy strain or the occasional
concussions which might without injury be received upon the shoulder.
[Illustration: THE SWING OX GOAD.]
In some parts of the world the yoke is laid across the back of
the head, and is lashed fast to the roots of the horns. This plan
is followed by some of the Hispano-Americans, who make use of an
enormously long goad, hung in a sling, to drive the cattle with. In
addition to the point of the weapon a sharp "dropper," or bob, is hung
on in such a way that, by lowering the shaft of the goad, it may fall
end downwards on the bullocks, working too close to be attacked by the
point. The preceding illustration will serve to show the nature of this
contrivance and the mode of fastening on the yoke.
[Illustration: GERMAN OX HARNESS.]
Some of the Germans adopt a much better plan. They take a broad band
of stout leather, so stuffed and padded as to form a cushion, and fit
this upon the hump of the ox, as shown in our sketch. In each end of
this are stout rings, to which the traces are attached, and there
is a slight collar and a belly band to keep it from slipping in its
place, but the whole strain comes upon the part best able to support
it, _i.e._, the shoulder hump; and this simple gear has the advantage
of being applicable to one or any number, while the yokes can only
be used for pairs of oxen. Remember that the prudent as well as the
merciful man is merciful to his beast; and if you want an animal to
work for you, take especial care that he is not galled nor incommoded
by superfluous or ill-fitting gear, nor fretted and irritated by
unnecessary chastisement, inflicted in such a manner that he cannot
understand it. If it is necessary to flog him, take care to do it in
such a manner that he can escape the punishment only by going to his
work, and discontinue it as soon as he really does so.
Little good could result from our describing the various modes by which
bullocks are harnessed in different parts of the world, as the explorer
will, in great measure, have to be guided in the selection of the way
in which he intends to work his teams by the description of animal with
which he is about to deal. [Illustration; A, B] Humped cattle draw
efficiently by either the German plan, before described, or the yoke
and pin plan shown in the annexed illustration (A), because a
much larger amount of pressure comes on the anterior point of the hump,
or bearing point of the yoke piece, than in any other direction, the
pin merely keeping the neck of the bullock in the proper position, and
regulating the line of draught; whilst humpless cattle require, in lieu
of a collar, either a neck bow, as shown at B, or some other
mode of adjustment, by which neck and shoulder power can be brought to
bear. The Indian, African, and Eastern cattle work according to the
former rule, whilst the English and Australian draw by the latter.
The Australian ox bow, as we have before stated, is usually composed
of iron, bent into the required form; whilst that in general use
throughout the western counties of England is made from a pole of tough
wood, commonly elm, moulded to the requisite shape by the aid of heat.
The yoke should be made from some tough light timber, and the neck bows
of some wood not liable to splinter.