_Land Conveyance._--50 horses, 35 pack saddles, 15 riding saddles, 50

horse blankets, 800 fathoms tether rope 1-1/2in. and 2in., 20 horse

bells with straps, 100 pair hobbles, 3 light horse drays; 3 sets

harness, 3 horses each; 50 spare girths, 50yds. strong girth web, 50

bridles, 10 pair holster bags, 10 pair stirrup leathers, 5 pair stirrup

irons, 40 pair canvas pack-saddle bags, 100 straps, 200 buckles, 4

leather water bags, 20 pair spurs, 150lb. leather for repairs, 600

horseshoes and nails, 240 provision bags, 300 yds. canvas, 20lb. sewing

twine, 100 needles, 6 palms, 24 saddler's awls, 48 balls hemp, 1/2lb.

bristles, 6lb. resin, 6lb. beeswax, 12 hanks small cord, 6 currycombs

and brushes, 25 tether swivels.

_Arms and Ammunition._--16 double guns, 4 rifles, 10 revolvers, 10

pistols, 200lb. gunpowder, 1000lb. shot and lead, 30,000 percussion

caps, 20 belts and pouches, 15 gun buckets, straps, locks, spare

nipples, moulds, punches, 4 ladles, powder flasks, shot pouches, &c.,

for each gun.

_Camp Furniture._--5 tents 8ft. square calico, 150 yds. calico, 12

camp kettles (1/2 to 3 galls.), 6 doz. pannikins, 4 doz. tin dishes

(small), 1 doz. large, 4 doz. knives and forks, 4 doz. iron spoons, 6

frying pans, 6 leather buckets, 6 water kegs (6, 4, and 2 galls.), 6

spades, 4 socket shovels, 4 pickaxes, 2 spring balances (25 and 50lb.),

1 steelyard (150lb.), 1 sheep net (150 yds.).

_Instruments._--2 sextants (5in. and 6in.), 2 box do., 2 artificial

horizons, 10lb. mercury in 2 iron bottles, 4 prismatic compasses, 11

pocket compasses, spare cards and glasses for compasses, 3 aneroid

barometers, 4 thermometers to 180°, 2 telescopes, 1 duplex watch,

1 lever watch, 1 case drawing instruments; 2 pocket cases, pillar

compass, and protractor; surveying chain and arrows, 2 measuring tapes,

1 drawing board (30 × 40 inches), 2 pocket lenses.

_Stationery and Nautical Tables._

_Tools._--1 portable forge, 1 anvil (1/2 cwt.), 2 hammers and set of

tongs, 10lb. cast steel, 11lb. blister steel, 100lb. bar and rod iron,

3 smiths' files, 3 large axes (American), 6 small do.; 1 large tool

chest.

_Clothing._--120 pair moleskin trowsers, 120 serge shirts, 120 cotton

shirts, 60 pair boots, 40 oiled calico capes, 40 hats (Manilla), 40

blankets.

_Artists' Materials._

_Miscellaneous._--5 yds. mosquito net, green; 500 fish-hooks, 25

fishing-lines, 2 gross matches, 1 gross tobacco-pipes; 2 strong

cases, or instruments, stationery, &c.; 8 doz. pocket-knives, 8 doz.

pocket-combs, 20 yds. red serge for presents to blacks, 20lb. iron

wire, 5lb. brass ditto, grindstone and spindle, coffee-mill, 3 iron

saucepans, 2 iron kettles, 6 galls. linseed oil, 6 pints olive oil,

2lb. red lead, 23lb. alum, 1lb. borax.

_Forage for Horses and Sheep from Moreton Bay to Victoria River, 2200

miles, at 14lb. per diem._--13 tons pressed hay, 9 tons bran, 200

bushels maize or barley, 500 bushels corn for horses after landing.

_Medical Chest_ for 2 years and 20 men.

_Naturalists' Stores._

* * * * *

[Illustration: NORTH AUSTRALIAN EXPEDITION INFLATABLE DOUBLE BOAT.]

{Boats.}

We took, for conveyance across rivers, or navigation of any inland

waters, a portable canoe of inflated canvas, in four sections, each

of which, when inflated and laced to a frame, formed half a boat; the

whole forming a double canoe, on which could be laid a platform of

15ft. by 7ft.

{Inflated canvas boat.}

The boat was made by Messrs. Edgington from a model which we had

previously constructed and tested as to its buoyancy and sailing

qualities. The framework was of ash battens, 3in. wide and 3/4in.

thick. The uprights at stem and stern were mortised into the keel, as

well as into the corresponding fore-and-aft batten above; they were

secured by cross lashings passing through holes properly bored for

the purpose. The gunwales were lashed on; and then the thwart pieces,

6in. wide, were secured in the same manner. The four canvas bags, each

cut so as to form half a whale boat, 15ft. long and 18in. in the half

breadth, were then laced in and inflated. Each rowlock was formed of

two pieces of ash screwed to the gunwale, as seen in the preceding

engraving; and two oars and a lug sail completed the equipment. The

whole might be used either as a double canoe or as two separate

boats, and Mr. Gregory was much pleased with them when put together;

but, in consequence of a technical difficulty at home, they were not

so efficient as they ought to have been. We had agreed with Messrs.

Edgington as to the quality of canvas and of the sewing to be used in

every part, but on applying to the Waterproofing Company he found they

would not waterproof his work, nor allow him to do it. He had therefore

to give over the whole of the work to the company. When finished, we

found that the seams were not stitched at all, but cemented together;

and, though warranted to stand 170° of heat, we found that with the

strain of actual use upon them they softened and gave way. If the

sections in their proper form were made of stout canvas, with the

india-rubber bags, so large that they should bear no strain, inclosed

within them, this would be a serviceable boat--for the india-rubber

did not actually melt with the heat, but just softened, so that it was

unable to resist the strain upon it. We had taken them up the river,

about thirty miles, in the schooner's gig, to fill with fresh water,

and instead of standing a heat of 170° they burst at 120°.

Although, as we have stated, our double inflatable boat partially

failed in Australia, from the inability of the waterproof cement to

bear the intense heat to which it was subjected, we believe that, had

Messrs. Edgington been allowed to waterproof their own work, or had

the company consented to waterproof the sections, properly seamed by

practical tentmakers, according to the directions we gave, the finished

boat would have been as successful in every respect as was the model.

When required for an exploring trip up the river, we decided to use

them not as a double boat, but as two single ones, and we spent some

days in securely stitching round every seam that should have been so

treated by the original maker. Every one will understand how the fibre

of the waterproof cloth would no longer close up round the threads, as

would that of the new canvas, so that, notwithstanding all our care,

there was always a little air leakage; however, spare bellows had been

provided, and one was apportioned to each boat.

Four or five 6lb. tins of preserved beef were thrust in between the

sections in each boat, so as to rest along the keel, our lighter stores

were laid as might be said "on deck," and with two small oars in each

we started, pulling up wherever there was sufficient water, and when we

came to the dry intervals, slinging the boats one at a time under two

oars, and carrying them easily with all their cargo to the next water.

The voyage lasted some days, and the boats, therefore, occasionally

required re-inflating.

{Canoe for one man.}

If the traveller only wishes for the means of ferrying himself over

rivers, he might take a couple of waterproof tubes, not less than 7ft.

long and 8in. in diameter, inclosed in unprepared covers of canvas so

tight as to relieve them from any strain, and connected by one breadth

of canvas for him to sit upon. A small frame should keep these parallel

to each other, and about 20in. or 2ft. apart; and the frame should

be kept just above the water, so as not to impede the motion. It is

a great thing to be independent of native help. If a man has his own

canoe, however small, the people will come to offer theirs; but if he

has none, they will make a hard bargain with him.

{Metal boats.}

Perhaps as good a material as any for a boat, if the explorer is able

to carry it, is pure sheet copper, of about 1lb. to the square foot. It

is flexible, easily worked, will turn and bend in any form and at any

angle; it may be folded down to a sharp edge like a sheet of paper, and

opened again, a test which no iron ordinarily procurable could stand;

it is nearly indestructible, and retains a proportionate value as old

copper however much it may be worn.

We have heard of an officer who had the two ends of a yawl or

whale-boat built of copper, and, though the stem would frequently be

doubled up by touching the ground in crossing the bar of some African

river, no leakage took place, and half an hour's skilful hammering

brought it into shape again. We believe that the boats, or at least

one of them, on the expedition of Mr. Lynch to the Dead Sea and the

Jordan, were of copper. If we remember rightly a copper boat was

carried in sections upon camels to Lake Chad.

Captain Burton took to Zanzibar a boat of corrugated iron, which was

so speedy that the Arabs called her the Runner-away; it would be

interesting to know the details of her construction. We at one time

experimented with galvanised iron, but did not find it sufficiently

flexible to bend so sharply as we required. In consequence of

this--when preparing, in conjunction with a long-known friend, Mr.

James Chapman, for a journey across Africa, from Walvisch Bay, on the

west coast, to the Victoria Falls, from which we hoped to navigate

the Zambesi to the Eastern Sea--we decided on building one of copper;

and many reasons induced us to make this on the principle of a double

canoe or twin steamer: in the first place, it would be difficult to

carry a boat of more than three feet in breadth or depth, in an ox

waggon, and these dimensions would afford room only for the closest

possible stowage of our own persons, and a very scanty equipment. It

was also, probable, that the boats would have, at rapids like Chicova

or Kebrabasi, to be taken out of the water and carried over rugged and

intricate country, where their length would render it impossible to

manage them.

It was necessary, therefore, to build each boat in six watertight

compartments, of 4ft. in length, of one sheet of copper, each of

which overlapped the one behind it, just as the scales of a lobster

are arranged, making the actual length of the boat 22ft. The "skin"

of each section was made of three sheets of copper, 2ft. wide, laid

side by side with their edges doubled over each other, so as to make a

perfectly turned joint that required no riveting, and was only soldered

to render it more certainly watertight. The ends of each section were

marked to the curve required, but cut three inches larger, the extra

circumference being cut with snips directed toward the centre, so that

they might be turned outward to fit the curve of the skin, thus leaving

a flange of 3in. at each end of the section, a strip of copper 6in.

wide was doubled and slipped over both parts, riveted and soldered, the

necessary surfaces having been previously tinned.

We hope the engraving on the next page will make this plan tolerably

plain. The end to the right is left unfinished, with the separate

pieces a little apart ready to be put together; the farther shows

the manner in which the flange of the foremost section overlaps the

after, and is bolted to it with copper screws and nuts, leaving a space

between, into which the hand and arm could be thrust if it were needful

to reach the bottom; the water would flow in or out of this narrow

space freely, the compartments only being guarded against leakage;

the nuts were all on the inside, and the iron key shown in the sketch

was for the purpose of turning them on or off, while the heads were

held outside by the screw wrench. The copper was kept in shape by an

inner frame of wood, and strengthened externally by seven rib-bands or

stringers of good straight grained red deal, running the entire length,

of which two served for gunwales and one for the keel, the ends of

this being let into sockets formed in the pieces of copper which were

doubled over the stem and stern post. One of the connecting beams is

shown in this sketch, and also the rings by which the sections were to

be carried when separated for overland conveyance.

[Illustration: METHOD OF BUILDING AND CONNECTING SECTION OF COPPER

BOAT.]

[Illustration: COPPER BOATS ADJUSTED SIDE BY SIDE.]

For the purpose of keeping the cargo dry and secure from pilfering,

it was necessary that each section should have its own deck, and

this, to bear the weight of people standing on it, had to be made of

3/4in. plank, covered like the other parts with copper. Around each

hatchway were two mouldings, 3/4in. high, the hollow between which,

in heavy rains, we intended to fill with wax or grease, so that when

the corresponding moulding of the hatch fitted into it it might be

watertight. The connecting beams were 12ft. long, and made each of

two pieces of 3/4in. red deal, 2in. wide, so as to afford us, with the

platform laid on them, an available deck space of 12ft. by 20ft., on

which, when the river was broad and open, we might live or work with

comfort; while, if it narrowed, as we expected it would at Kansalo,

Chicova, or Kebrabasi, we could separate the boats and take each

through singly, towing the deck-raft, or even, if necessary, casting

it adrift and trusting to pick it up as the current brought it down.

Two 3/4in. planks, 9in. deep and 4ft. long, so as to catch the bolts

at either end of the section, served to support the rowlocks. Each

boat was provided with her own rudder, and we purposed, if necessary,

to connect the tillers by a light rod, although we believe she would

have steered by one alone. The masts were shipped in a wooden case,

between the foremost and the next section, and the mode of setting the

lug sails and awning will, we trust, be made sufficiently plain by the

engraving. Care had to be taken that no iron or other metal capable of

exerting a corrosive action came in contact with any part of the copper

that was likely to be wetted. And the reader will pardon us if, while

stating that the whole was built piece by piece in a little bedroom

scarce 8ft. by 12ft., we take this opportunity of paying a slight

tribute of gratitude to our warmhearted friend Frederick Logier, to

whose hospitality we were mainly indebted for the means of completing

our equipment, and who fell a victim to the fever so fearfully

prevalent in Cape Town in October, 1867. The ensign, kindly made for us

by a lady of that town, after having floated over our house at Logier

Hill, on the Zambesi, and served as the flag of our little artillery

corps at Otjimbengue, we still preserve as a relic of the journey.

The difficulties of the road, and deficiency of carriage, which

compelled us to leave behind eight out of the twelve sections, and our

expedients to replace them, will be more fully described hereafter:

we, therefore, append only an abstract of the materials employed in

building:--

76 sheets copper, 4ft. by 2ft. 16oz. to the foot, at }

1_s_. 6_d._ per foot (but, as the supply was limited, }

we had to take some heavier, and consequently more } £51 12 0

expensive), one sheet same size 16lb. for stem, and }

stern post and rudder fittings }

100½in. copper, screwed bolts and nuts, 3in., at 1_s._ 1_d._ 5 8 4

80 ditto ditto ditto 5in., at 1_s._ 5_d._ 5 13 4

5 ditto ditto ditto 7in., at 1_s._ 9_d._ 0 8 9

300 leather washers 1 5 0

174½lb. solder, at 1_s._ 6_d._ 13 4 4 }

5lb. fine tin, at 2_s._ 3_d._ 0 11 3 } 17 10 8½

Extra quantity not specified 3 15 1-1/2 }

Men's time for soldering 17 17 6

Coke 1 2 6

2 nut wrenches 0 11 3

4lb. of sal ammoniac, at 1_s._ 6_d._ 0 6 0

4lb. of resin, at 4½_d._ 0 1 6

1 bottle of spirit of salts 0 1 4

6lb. of lead, at 4½_d._ 0 2 3

3lb. of copper boat nails, at 3_s._ 6_d._ 0 10 6

2lb. of nails and 2lb. of rivets, at 3_s._ 0 12 0

3 steel punches, at 1_s._ 0 3 0

2 pair of rowlocks, with sockets and screws 0 7 6

----------

Total £103 13 5½

===========

[Illustration: CAMP SCENE IN AFRICA.]

It is impossible, at this distance of time, to collect every item used,

nor is it necessary to do more than to give an approximate idea of the

cost and proportion used of the principal materials. Perhaps the wood,

with a lad to assist in working it, cost about 10_l._; paint, oil,

sails, and other extras, about 10_l._ more; and 10_l._ freight from

Cape Town to Walvisch Bay. We think 6_d._ per lb. was allowed on such

old copper as was brought back.

Tents, Canvas Buckets and Articles made of Canvas generally.

{Tent-pitching.}

In an army where men are plentiful and tents very few, the eighteen

or twenty fortunate fellows to whom a bell tent may be allotted, can

pitch it easily and rapidly enough; one, standing inside, will hold

up the central pole, while the others, driving pegs all round, draw

out and affix the cords to them. We found, however, when accompanying

the division in Kafirland under General Somerset, that we could set up

our own tent, shared by Mr. Hoole, the interpreter, almost as quickly

alone, leaving our friend's servant at liberty to prepare our meal. Our

plan was to make two knots on the cord used for lashing up the tent,

one marking the radius of the inner line of pegs and the other that of

the outer, setting a central peg into the ground and looping over it

the end of the line; we held another at the knots, and with it drew

the two concentric circles. Twenty pegs are necessary for each. We,

therefore, threw four on the quarters of each circle, and distributing

four between each, drove them all into the ground; then spreading the

tent in the space, we looped on all the lines, and inserting the pole,

raised it up, its division into two pieces much facilitating this,

and tightened the cords at leisure. (See illustration, "Camp Scene in

Africa.")

{Patrol tent.}

Our patrol tent was just three yards of double width calico; a small

cord was stitched along the middle and loops of tape along the sides.

The diagonal pieces cut out of one end were stitched on to form the

flaps of the other, and a couple of small sticks for the supports, the

size of ramrods, were easily secured with the straps of our gun-bucket

on the right side of the saddle.

[Illustration: CALICO PATROL TENT.]

[Illustration: CALICO PATROL TENT.]

Our little tent weighed next to nothing; it was seven feet in length,

thirty inches high, and nearly thirty inches wide. We rolled our

blankets in it, and so kept them clean. The package was carried

strapped across the front of the saddle, and the latter, when set in

one end of the tent, formed an additional protection to the head, and

no rain ever penetrated our little dwelling, unless when a violent

side wind would force through the interstices of the calico a slight

sprinkling of minute drops, which would lie like dew outside the

blanket in the morning. Waterproof material is not required for a tent;

oiling the canvas or calico would only rot it; stout well-woven canvas

is nearly waterproof in itself, and no matter how porous or open the

material, the power of a tent to keep out rain depends more on the

"pitch" of its sides or roof than anything else. Let a plate of glass

lie in a sloping position, and let a drop of water be touched upon its

under surface, if that surface makes an angle of less than 45° with

the horizon the water will drop off it, but if the angle be above 45°

it will run from top to bottom along the lower side; in like manner if

the sides of the tent are pitched at a higher angle than 45° with the

horizon, the heaviest shower will run down them instead of penetrating.

A piece of waterproof is, however, very convenient to lay upon the

ground to spread the blankets on.

{Gipsy tent.}

Most of our readers who have visited the by-lanes and breezy downs

of England, will be familiar with, at least, the exterior of the

gipsy's tent. Its mode of arrangement is both ingenious and thoroughly

practical. We know of no plan by which a comparatively comfortable

resting place can be extemporised equal to it. Blankets, skins, mats,

canvas, or old rugs, serve to form a covering. The thicket furnishes

the hazel wands or "benders," of which there are usually eight, of 7ft.

long, and almost any description of tough wood, the "hole piece" and

farmer's gate shivers are not unfrequently purloined by the Romany Rye

to be thus utilised. A red hot poker serves to bore the holes. A few

pieces of odd cord keep the framework in place, and a set of pegs is

readily cut from the nearest hedge.

[Illustration: GIPSY TENT FRAME.]

The ends of the benders intended for insertion in the earth are usually

fire-hardened, and one set will, with care, last a whole season.

The above illustration will better explain the mode by which the

contrivance is arranged than would any further description.

{Tente d'abri.}

The _tente d'abri_, as used by the French army, is an extremely useful

arrangement for a small band of travellers or explorers to provide

themselves with. It is composed of a number of sheets or pieces of

canvas. Each of these has a row of buttons and button-holes sewn

along the sides and upper edges, in order that they may be joined to

each other, much on the principle of a double-breasted waistcoat, as

shown in the engraving on the next page. The corners of the sheets are

provided with strong short loops of rope, through which the heads

of the tent pegs pass when the tent is pitched. The sheets are 5ft.

8in. by 5ft. 3in. Each member of a party of four or six is supposed to

carry his share of the tent, which consists of one sheet, three tent

pegs, and the half of a round wooden staff ferruled in the centre like

a fishing-rod. This, when put together, measures 4ft. 4in. in length,

and is 1-1/2in. in diameter. The total weight of each share is 3-1/2lb.

Tents of this description can be arranged by either buttoning four or

six sheets together, one sheet being considered as representing the

accommodation of one man; but when it is considered necessary to close

the two ends of the tent four sheets only are used as a covering,

the other two being used as doors. A centre tent pole is also set

up, so that a tent for six men has, when pitched, three poles, ten

pegs, and six sheets of canvas. When both ends are suffered to remain

unclosed, as they would be when shade alone is sought, four tent poles

or sticks and fourteen tent pegs are required; there would, then, be

two spare poles and four pegs. By digging out a cavity in the earth as

described at page 62, the comfort and internal capacity of the _tente

d'abri_ is much increased, and it forms a very convenient and portable

shelter. We remember seeing a French line regiment, which was for some

considerable time stationed on the heights above the Inkerman Valley,

most comfortably domiciled in this way.

[Illustration: TENTE D'ABRI.]

{Lancers' tent.}

The Lancers, in Kafirland, used to form very commodious tents by

sticking upright in the ground one lance and two swords; a second lance

was passed as a ridge pole through the becket or loop of the first and

the hilts of the two swords, as seen in illustration, "Camp Scene in

Africa." One blanket was stretched over it as a tent, and another,

with the saddle cloths, &c., formed a comfortable bed for two soldiers.

A simpler form of tent may be made at a moment's notice. If rain comes

on, sit upright, joining the hands above the head as if you were about

to dive, supporting the blanket on them, and allowing it to hang down

on all sides that the rain may run off. If you have no blanket, you may

still keep your gun, ammunition, or sketch-book dry by sitting on them.

[Illustration: TENT EXTEMPORISED FROM A BLANKET.]

{Australian tent.}

The tents we used on the North Australian expedition were very light,

convenient, and easily set up. They were simply four-sided pyramids of

calico, eight feet square in the base, and from 9ft. to 10ft. in height

(see p. 65). They were lightly roped at the angles, and would set up

with four principal pegs, though there were loops for intermediate

ones along the sides. Poles could not conveniently be carried on the

packhorses, but there were few places in Australia where we could not

cut them if needed; and in fine weather, we mostly dispensed altogether

with the tents, except as mere sun-shades, and slept only in our

blankets. Their weight, dry, was trifling, but, on account of their

bulk, they formed the greater part of the load of one horse, and when

we had to travel--after a rainy night, without drying them--we found

that two wet tents, with the farrier's tools and a few horseshoes, were

quite heavy enough as a load for one animal.

{Cape-waggon tent.}

A very favourite form of tent in the Cape colony is made like the

longitudinal half section of a ridge-pole tent. This is fastened to

the roof of the travelling waggon and stretched beside it. When the

traveller has two of these, one on each side his vehicle, he will find

it of the greatest possible convenience. The waggon, with its own

aristocratic kap-tent, or humble but more durable wattled roof, serves

as the sleeping chamber; while the half tent on one side may serve as

a dining or general reception room, and the other as a working or

retiring apartment. These may either be raised or lowered according

to the position of the sun or wind, or may be completely closed in

at night; or, if required, the two halves can be taken away from the

waggon altogether, laced together, and, with poles cut upon the spot,

set up at once as a double-pole tent, as shown on p. 65.

[Illustration: THE CAPE-WAGGON TENT.]

{Extemporary tents.}

We have found in Australia and Africa, that the possession of a large

square of duck or canvas, eylet-holed at the corners and sides, or a

couple of good sized sheets of stout unbleached calico, with loops

of tape or cord stitched at the sides and angles, have enabled us to

construct extemporary screens from sun or wind, or even rain, and when

not so required have served admirably as the basis for our bedding.

In boat parties the sails or awnings of the boat may be stretched

upon the mast or oars, two oars at each end may be lashed crosswise,

and set up as shear legs, while the mast is used as a ridge pole, and

the sail drawn across them; there is, however, the objection that

the blades of the oars if projecting upward will hold wind, and they

should therefore be "feathered" toward the quarter whence it may be

expected to blow; but never forget that the making of a tent is only a

secondary and exceptional use for a boat's gear; if the sail is chafed

or cut, its proper usefulness will be much deteriorated; and if the

oars are allowed to sag or bend, by undue strain, they become worse

than useless. You can no more pull effectively with a warped or twisted

oar than you can shoot well with a crooked gun. In a boat voyage on a

river, or where you can make fast and shelter your boat at night, if

you set up two stanchions three or four feet higher than the gunwale,

one at the after and another at the bow thwart, and then make fast a

line to the ringbolt in the stern post, and lead it over the stanchions

to the other ring in the stem, it will form a ridge rope on which the

boat's awning with the yards or stretchers removed may be laid, and the

sides sloped down tent fashion to the gunwales, and made fast either to

the rowlocks or, still better, to a stout line passed tightly all round

the boat outside of and just below the gunwale streak.

If you build a hut, and have not time or material to make it weather

proof, the tent may with great advantage be pitched as a lining to it,

and it is wonderful what effective shelter may be obtained from very

imperfect hutting done in this manner.

We have frequently heard of officers and men setting up their tents or

marquees, then building the framework of their hut over them, covering

it roughly, and finishing at their leisure, so that, by the time the

tents have been worn out, very efficient thatched houses have taken

their places.

We should think that a bell tent (such as may be purchased at any town

where military stores are kept), cut in half, and supplemented with a

couple of squares of canvas, eylet-holed at two inches or more from the

edge, so as to lace between the two halves of the bell tent, and used

as a double-pole tent, either with a ridge pole or with a rope extended

at either end as a stay, would form a very commodious habitation, and

would be specially useful where the number of occupants is subject to

changes.

[Illustration: SECTION OF CRIMEAN TENT.]

{Fitting up of tent.}

When a tent is to be occupied for any length of time, it will be

advisable to dig a hole in the earth to pitch it over, doing so not

only adds materially to the space inside the tent, but makes it much

more comfortable to reside in, from the shelter afforded by the sides

of the excavation. Many of the huts built by the Russian soldiers in

the neighbourhood of Sebastopol were sunk to a very great depth, being

in fact merely large holes in the earth with roofs to them. The roofs

were of poles thickly laid over with brushwood, and then covered with

earth, light was admitted through holes in the low framework of the

sides, oiled paper being used as a substitute for glass. About 2ft.

6in. will be found a good depth for the excavation for an ordinary

military tent to stand over. In digging it see that the sides are cut

down evenly, and that the bottom is level. If planks can be procured

to floor and line it so much the better. Some persons leave a round

bank of earth in the middle for the pole to rest on, but we much

prefer fixing a log of wood, cut from a tree trunk, in the centre of

the floor. The habitation we formed for ourselves in the Crimea, when

encamped before Sebastopol, was thus arranged. We first made a hole in

the earth a little less than the diameter of the bottom of the tent,

and of the depth before referred to; we then made a pit in the centre

about 18in. in depth. In this we sank the lower end of a piece of old

tree trunk, 4ft. long and 7in. in diameter. In its upper surface we cut

with a gouge a cup-like cavity. We then nailed a spiral strapping of

forage hoop round a boat mast we were fortunate enough to hunt out at

Balaklava; we then rounded the lower end so as to make it loosely fit

into the cup on the head of the block. The bell or upper portion of an

old tent was then raised on our mast tent pole, and over it our own

new and complete tent, forming so to speak a double roof, having about

a couple of inches of space between the two surfaces of canvas. This,

by holding a certain portion of air, added in an extraordinary degree

to its sheltering properties. We next dug a deep drain completely round

the tent, and placed a quantity of broken stones in its bottom. An old

wooden packing case was then let in, by digging into one of the sides

of the excavation immediately under the doorway. This not only answered

the purpose of a step to enter by, but formed an excellent storehole

for all sorts of stray matters. The pipe from a small Maltese stove

was carried out through the earth, and discharged its smoke outside a

low wall of rough stones which encircled the tent. We drove two strong

posts deeply into the earth beside the door, across their tops we

nailed a strong bar, which served to hitch horses to, rest gun against,

&c.; whilst across their lower portions we stretched a piece of forage

hoop, edge upwards, to perform the part of a bootscraper. Towards the

end of the war we were enabled to procure plank enough to both floor

and line the tent throughout, thereby adding much to our comfort. The

lining is carried out by placing boards the height of the side banks on

their ends, all round the tent, like the staves of a barrel, and then

nailing the flooring boards here and there fast to them. The upper ends

are kept in their places by nailing short battens of wood across the

joints.

The illustration on page 62 is a section of the tent referred to, and

shows the manner in which many of the arrangements described are made.

Many tents we have seen have been dug out to a sufficient depth to

admit of a sort of cellar or lower room being formed; this can only

be done at the expense of much trouble and labour. The arrangement of

the interior of a tent admits of the exercise of a considerable amount

of ingenuity. Cart, waggon, or gun wheels are extremely useful, both

for forming a secure base for the pole to rest on, and for a table and

gun rack. The tent pole, as shown in the engraving on the next page,

rests on one wheel, whilst it passes through the centre of the nave

of another. The hooks for hanging various objects from are formed by

the natural branches of the tree from which the pole has been made.

We seldom make use of the ferruled pole furnished with the tent when

we have young forest trees at hand; in the absence of these, the

conventional deal stick serves to fall back on.

[Illustration: THE UTILIZATION OF WHEELS.]

[Illustration: TENT PEG.]

[Illustration: MODES OF SECURING TENT-POLE AND ROPES IN LOOSE GROUND.]

{Tent peg.}

Much of the efficiency of a tent depends on the way in which it is

pitched. An experienced hand will so adjust his pegs and lines,

that the gale of wind which prostrates the canvas houses of the

inexperienced, passes his harmlessly by. Much has been said and written

in praise of iron tent pegs, and, under some circumstances, they may

be found highly useful, but there are very serious objections to

their use in wild countries. If of sufficient size and length to be

efficient, their weight becomes a matter of considerable importance.

Their value to natives is so great that to prevent loss by theft is

next to impossible; added to which, it is almost certain that one

or two will be left in the ground, every now and then, on striking

camp. We therefore prefer wooden pegs, made from some tough sound

wood. Burn the points in the fire in order to harden them, and keep

a good stock always on hand. The timber of the oriental plane makes

excellent tent pegs. A strong and useful form of peg is shown in the

annexed illustration. The mallet used for driving the pegs should be

made of some heavy and hard wood, such as mimosa or baubul thorn. The

handle should be made larger at one end than the other, so that it

may be removed from the head of the mallet, just as the axe handles

before described are separated from the blades. It not unfrequently

happens, during tropical rains, or in sandy soil, that pegs driven

in the ordinary way will not hold. {Modes of securing tent ropes,

&c.} It then becomes necessary to dig a moderately deep pit at the

point at which the peg should stand. Bind together a small faggot of

brushwood, reeds, or weed stalks; fasten a loop of rope or thong to

it long enough to come 3in. or 4in. above the level of the pit where

the faggot is buried. Place your prepared faggot in the bottom of the

pit crosswise, and then well stamp in the earth over it. A bag of

sand, a stone, or a bundle of old hide answers the same purpose. In

rough stormy weather, it is sometimes necessary to _back_ your pegs;

this is done by driving in an additional one in a line with the first,

and then forming a couple of half hitches with the tent rope over its

head. It was a common practice in the Crimea to employ an old Russian

bayonet in this way, driving it into the earth until the curved neck

alone remained above the surface for the hitch to pass round. All tent

ropes should be relaxed on the approach of rain, or the tightened cord

will, in all probability, draw the pegs, and thus allow the wet canvas

to come flapping down about your ears, causing no end of discomfort

and confusion. A tent may be securely pitched, even on the sands of

the desert, by laying a waggon wheel flat on the ground, fixing

the pole over the hole through which the axle passes on the head of

a plug driven far enough into it to prevent the pole from passing

through; secure your ropes to bags of sand buried in the manner before

described, and no ordinary weather will blow down a tent thus arranged.

{Selection of ground for tent pitching.}

In selecting a spot on which to pitch your tent much will depend on

the period of time you are likely to spend in the locality. The nature

of the country through which you are passing will also influence the

choice. When travelling onwards, and merely resting for one or two days

at a time, a dry, raised, level spot, in the vicinity of wood, grass,

and water, may safely be selected. Do not, however, encamp too _close

to water_ in countries where venomous snakes are met with, as they

generally congregate where it is to be found most abundantly. It is not

wise, either in Australia or Texas, to encamp beneath certain trees,

as the branches at times drop suddenly off and fall with a crash to

the earth. In India or Africa we have always sought the friendly shade

afforded by some wide-spreading forest giant, as we have never known an

instance of "branch-fall" in those countries. In clearing the ground

of stray stones, tufts of weeds, &c., look well about for holes in the

earth, and, when any are discovered, stamp suitable stones or pieces of

broken wood well into them. Reptiles of many kinds are not unfrequently

found in these underground burrows. We have found a large square of

tarpauling invaluable as a tent carpet. When about to set up your tent

for a long sojourn additional precautions are requisite. See well to

the lay of the land as regards the flood level of the nearest river or

lake; the stray bits of driftwood and weeds washed into the branches

of waterside trees will be a useful guide. See that no flags or rushes

are growing near your proposed resting-place, as they are certain

indications of a boggy soil, unfit for camping on. Choose, if possible,

an elevated position, well above the influence of the miasma and night

mists of the low grounds and rivers. We have often seen a slightly

raised hill standing bare and island-like in a sea of humid vapour. See

also that no dry grass is allowed to stand in the vicinity of the camp,

lest it should be ignited by a stray spark or a hostile native.

{Umbrella tent.}

A stout carriage umbrella, with a curtain of 3ft. 6in. buttoned or

laced round the edge, would make a very convenient shelter for one

person. If the curtains were gored so as to give more room below, two

persons might sleep under it comfortably. An extra joint would be

required to give sufficient length to the handle. A similar frame made

proportionately strong, and with a curtain or wall of six or seven

feet, might be found useful in cases where the height of a bell-tent

or marquee is objectionable. Malacca cane would be a good material for

such a frame. We have heard of an adventurous American traveller who

had his umbrella tent made of starred and striped material, so that he

might be always under the protection of his country's flag.

{Canvas buckets.}

Stout canvas buckets answer very well to carry water in for almost any

distance, and if stiffly roped will retain their form when filled, and

collapse when empty; if a little flour is rubbed into the canvas, it

will render them somewhat tighter, and will not materially affect the

taste of the water, but we prefer to take the stoutest canvas. Keep

it perfectly clean, and trust solely to the natural contraction of

the threads when wet, to thicken up and tighten the material so as to

render it for all practical purposes nearly waterproof. India-rubber

bags, especially if carried into a hot sun, and not quite full, always

make the water taste badly. When we served on the North Australian

expedition, we always had a canvas bucket hanging in the doorway of

the hut, just shaded and exposed to a free current of air. The partial

evaporation through its sides kept the water deliciously cool.

[Illustration: CANVAS BUCKET.]

{Mosquito nets.}

If the traveller can afford such a luxury, and is likely to have plenty

of tent room, and a sufficient train of well ordered and obedient

servitors, we should advise him by all means to take plenty of mosquito

net, gauze or tarletan, green or blue. This should be suspended around

his bed so as to form an inner tent, pervious in every direction to

the cooling breeze, but having no aperture whatever by which a single

insect could gain admittance. If the nights are cool, so that he

can bear plenty of bedclothing, the face alone may be protected by

the net; but if they are likely to be warm, so that he lies with the

thinnest possible coverlet, and frequently throws off even that, it

must be large enough to inclose the whole bed, and be tucked in or

otherwise secured all round; in all cases it must be capacious enough

to give him plenty of room to sleep, without touching its sides, for

if an unfortunate limb should by any accident touch the gauze, the

infinitesimal tormentors would assuredly not neglect to improve their

opportunity.

The net may be simply a large square, a portion of the centre may be

gathered in the hand, and a cord knotted to it by which to suspend

it from above, while the edges are brought round and tucked under

the mattrass. If two points of suspension, one near the head and the

other at the feet, can be obtained, with a light rod or ridge pole

between them, the material may be used to more advantage, and it may,

if convenient, be distended by a hoop, square or oblong frame of light

canes or twigs, lashed together with a bit of cord.

We had one when in India, cut, and stitched into a cone, or crinoline

shape, suspended from above, and tucked around under our bedding, and

found it exceedingly serviceable--of course, when the real hard work

comes on, all these luxuries go to the rear; but it is wise to enjoy

them when you can.

In many parts of the world, we might say in all, where flies are found,

dense swarms are sure to seek the shelter of the traveller's tent,

causing endless annoyance to the inmates by settling on, or buzzing

about, their faces, hands, or the work they may be doing--drinking up

every drop of moisture from the angles of the eyes, inserting their

probosces into any cut or open sore on the hands for the same purpose.

Odds and Ends.

{The ditty bag.}

There are a number of articles which, although not strictly found

under either of the heads we have before dealt with, will be found of

very considerable service in wild countries. A "_ditty bag_" should

be made of some tough strong material, such as fustian, velveteen, or

canvas. It should contain a large assortment of needles, especially of

the larger and stouter sizes; half-a-dozen medium-sized sail needles,

three roping needles, two packing needles, half-a-dozen duck needles,

sailmaker's thimble and palm, sail hook, rubber, and piercer; roping,

sail, and duck twine. (Learn how to use the palm from a sailor on the

voyage.) A dozen skeins of black thread, ditto brown; one dozen skeins

of carpet thread, brown; six slips of black silk, six white ditto; six

hanks of worsted, the colour of the socks and shirts. All these skeins

should be wound off on cards, as endless entanglements follow the

attempts made by the inexperienced to use thread from the uncut skein.

We also advise winding on cards, as cut thread is not so well adapted,

from the number of short lengths in it, for splicing broken fishing-rod

joints, &c. A few reels of strong white sewing cotton, a little bag of

buttons of _all sorts_, a lump of beeswax, six pieces of strong tape, a

packet of pins, a bodkin, and a pair of strong large bowed scissors. A

little ingenuity will enable the traveller to perform an endless number

of repairs with the contents of a bag thus furnished. The more needles

you can take the better, as they are at all times eagerly sought after

by natives.

{Bellows.}

A small pair of common bellows can be bought for about a shilling. Do

not fail to provide at least one of these useful contrivances. It is

perfectly surprising to note the number of valuable ends they serve to

answer. Stubborn fires, formed of saturated brushwood and damp moss,

are, by their aid, forced into a blaze, when ordinary coaxing and

fanning only produced suffocating smoke and grievous loss of temper.

The fine sand and almost impalpable dust which, in some regions, finds

its way in some strange manner into your very gun locks is best removed

by the aid of your bellows. Laid flat on the knees a capital board for

writing, drawing, or the examination of minute objects, is formed.

When cutting out leather thongs with the knife, or fashioning raw

hide covers for various things, they may be used for a cutting-board.

When snatching a hasty meal at the camp fire at early dawn, before

starting on the march or hunt, we do not sit on the damp earth, but

usually place our bellows on the ground and sit on that. Most of our

small job work, such as fileing, soldering, fish-hook tying, and tackle

making, is performed on the ever-ready surface of the bellows; and when

small objects of iron or steel require heating, either to be worked,

tempered, or case-hardened, a hole in the ground, a little charcoal and

dry cow dung, by the aid of the bellows, enables us to extemporise a

small forge. Larger forges will be described when smith's work comes

under consideration.

{Canteens.}

Do not on any account be induced to encumber yourself with what is

called a "canteen," a contrivance which is in our opinion much like

the many-bladed knife we have before referred to. A few months since,

when the expedition in search of Dr. Livingstone was about being sent

to Lake Nyassa, two contrivances for cooking were brought to the Royal

Geographical Society for approval, and of these, were they to be used

by a man who would take proper care of them, we could only speak in

terms of unqualified praise. But they were declined simply because it

would be impossible to teach a native cook how to use them, and it

would be easier to give him a fathom of calico to buy half-a-dozen

earthen pots, and to buy more when these were broken. It is, no doubt,

vastly ingenious to make a pepper dredge fit into a tea-canister which

belongs in the teapot, which in turn should go into the saucepan, only

unfortunately the class of persons to whom utensils of this kind are

usually entrusted in wild countries are slow to appreciate mechanical

puzzles, and usually throw the whole lot into the first bag they can

get, when the spout of the teapot gets knocked off, and the pepper

becomes hopelessly amalgamated with the tea, to the decided detriment

of both. {Table necessaries.} Rather provide yourself with a few plain

useful articles for table use. In giving a list of these, we will

suppose that one person has to be catered for: a well-made strong quart

tin pot, with both hook and handle, is better for making tea in than

the conventional teapot; it is also useful for an endless number of

other cooking purposes. A knife, fork, and spoon, should be packed in

a leather _hold-all_, like that filled with small tools, which we have

already represented on page 43. The knife and fork should have the

steel of their blades carried through the handles in a flat plate, to

which the cheeks of the haft are riveted; those made with tangs are

always shifting round or coming out from being washed in hot water or

placed in the sun; the spoon should be of iron, tablespoon size. We

have, on more than one occasion, had to melt lead in ours for bullet

making, which could not be done if it had been made of any other metal.

Get two small wooden bowls, such as bankers keep gold in, take them

to a tin-plate worker's, and have narrow copper hoops _let into_ the

wood just below the edges, this prevents splitting. Nothing is equal to

these for drinking hot tea out of; metal cups of all sorts scald the

lips if the tea is moderately heated, and earthenware vessels are too

liable to be broken. A half-pint horn cup will be found very useful,

and is next to indestructible. We have one which we extemporised

from an old Russian powder horn we picked up in the Redan. This has

travelled many thousands of miles with us since its conversion, and is

just as capable of containing good liquor as ever. {Pots and pans.} A

frying-pan is worth anything to a campaigner; fish, flesh, or fowl are

all equally well cooked in it. Coffee can be roasted, pancakes made,

stews prepared, and a whole host of useful offices performed. Do not

forget your frying-pan. It is a good plan to have a "parasol joint,"

as it is called, made in the handle close to the pan, this will, by

bending the handle a little, admit of its being folded across the pan,

and thus more easily stowed away. It may be well to observe, perhaps,

that the "parasol joint" is formed by cutting two slots in the divided

ends, fitting in a short plate, running two rivet-pins through them,

and then sliding a ferrule over the joint, which keeps it stiff. Take

two dinner plates of enamelled iron; these are best kept with the

hold-all, in a flat leather pouch with partitions. A leather loop,

or D, at each corner enables you to attach the plate pouch to either

your own or the pack saddle. Have a tin canister made; it should be of

cylindrical form, and should have a division in the middle, a cover at

each end, and be capable of holding 2oz. of ground pepper and 4oz. of

fine salt.

The most useful kind of cooking pot we know is the common cast-iron

crock of Meg Merrilies pattern. Use it with moderate care, and it will

last a lifetime. A wooden cover is easily fitted to it in event of the

iron pot lid being lost; and should by any misfortune one of the legs

get broken off, and a hole made in the bottom of the crock, a good

thick pledget of cotton cloth drawn through it will stop the leak, and

remain unconsumed during the boiling process. Bread, meat, birds,

fish, vegetables, or fruit can be baked readily in or under the crock,

as will be seen when bush cookery is treated on. It is also useful for

a variety of other purposes, as will be seen as the work proceeds--take

a crock, therefore, by all means. An all-blaze pan is another most

useful utensil. It is thus made: Have two deep copper bowls made of a

size sufficient to hold about three pints each. These should each have

two lugs or handles riveted to them, and a flange raised round the

edges should admit of the mouths of the two bowls fitting closely into

each other like a box and its cover. The insides must be tinned in the

usual manner, and the handles so adjusted that when the two bowls are

joined they are opposite to each other and near enough together to be

lashed fast with twine. The formula for preparing food by the use of

these pans will be given under the head "Camp Cookery."

{Leather buckets.}

A leather bucket, such as firemen use, will also be found of great

service for an endless number of purposes. We invariably carried, when

in Central India, a miniature bucket composed of leather, attached

to the pack saddle; it held a quart, and by the use of twenty yards

of ordinary sea-fishing line, which was always coiled away in it, we

have often been enabled to obtain water from deep native wells when

other travellers not so provided have been destitute of this priceless

treasure. In some portions of the East, the wells are very deep and

narrow, so that, without some such contrivance as the above, it is

impossible to reach their contents. When collecting specimens of

natural history in Turkey, we were on one occasion in much distress

for want of water, and after a long search discovered one of these

tantalising excavations. There lay the longed-for fluid, glittering

like silver down below, but far too deep to reach without some shift

or expedient, so we betook ourselves to the sea beach, which was not

far off, to see what good fortune would cast in our way. An empty

univalve shell, not unlike that of an overgrown whelk, soon rewarded

our search; we fixed a stick across its mouth, dragged forth the

trailing vines and creepers from a neighbouring thicket, knotted them

together, fastened on our shell in company with a goodly stone to give

it weight, lowered away briskly, drew up cautiously, and thus treated

the parched palate and dry tongue to that which they so much needed.

Again and again did our good sea shell travel up and down until, having

satisfied the cravings of nature, we resumed our journey; and to the

sea shell and vine are we indebted for the design of our miniature

bucket and cord which now invariably accompany us on our wanderings. We

advise, therefore, that one _common_ fire bucket of _leather_, and one

to contain a quart be provided. Guttapercha buckets are very neat and

pleasant to look at, but the sun of the tropics has an awkward habit

of causing their bottoms to fall out; we, on one occasion, saw six

rendered perfectly unserviceable in one day from this cause. Get a good

stock of leather straps and buckles of different sizes from a saddler,

these are useful for a variety of purposes. It will be well also to

provide a goodly number of padlocks, of two sizes; let the largest

be "iron rim," say three inches in diameter, and the smaller size of

brass, such as are sold at _one shilling_ each--sixpenny ones are

useless; keep one key for each size attached to your watch guard, and

carefully lock away all the rest. A butcher's steel, of good quality,

is well worth taking. A selection of fishing gear, too, is of the

greatest value, of this subject we shall treat at length under the head

"Fishing." A corkscrew should be provided, the best pattern we know is

that in which the worm fits by a screw into a hollow tube. {Other odds

and ends.} When required for use, the tube is passed through a flat

ring in the end of the shank, and forms a cross handle; screws of this

kind are conveniently carried in the waistcoat pocket. Tin boxes of

wax vesta matches are exceedingly useful; take a good number of these;

get also a tube and cap "strike-a-light" with a chain, striker, bit of

agate, and spare cotton cord slow match.

Medicine and Dressings for Wounds.

{Medical stores.}

On one of Nelson's boat expeditions up a tropical river, the medical

chest was unanimously voted a piece of lumber; but, before the arduous

voyage had been completed, the only regret was that sufficient medicine

had not been taken. An unmanly fear of fever, or other sickness, would

probably aid in bringing it on, but reasonable precaution ought never

to be neglected.

Many countries have an unenviable notoriety for the prevalence of

peculiar and local diseases: some are perfect hotbeds of fever in

various forms; and wounds from gunshot, sharp-edged tools or weapons,

bruised and fractured bones, are casualties that may befall the

traveller in any country, and therefore a few articles for the dressing

of these should certainly find a place among his stores.

In case of wounds, cleanliness and repeated washing in cold or tepid

water as may be best for the particular case, is the most generally

successful treatment, and for this purpose plenty of sponge or flannel

should be provided; the sponges should be of moderate size, perfectly

clean from grit or bits of shell, close grained, and soft. Flannel

is a good substitute; but if a piece of either is used for washing

an unhealthy wound on one person, it should never again be used upon

another, as it might convey infection, and, indeed, it would be much

safer to destroy it utterly.

_Lint_ is, of course, well known to be one of the best coverings for

an injured part, and a good supply ought to be taken as, although the

underclothing, or sometimes even the bedding, of the party, may supply

bandages, very few travellers going on a serious exploration in a wild

country would think of taking linen shirts, while sheets would be

equally scarce among their bedding.

_Cambric_ or _lawn_ handkerchiefs would be good substitutes.

_Calico_, for bandages or rollers, would be more likely to be at

hand in some parts of Africa, such as the Portuguese stations on the

Zambesi, or at Great Fish Bay, where a wrapper of six feet square forms

the dress of the native who borders on the possessions of the white

man; while in Kafirland or Damaraland, where soft untanned leather is

the prevailing dress, it would be less certain to form any considerable

part of the equipment.

_Adhesive plasters._--Of these perhaps common diachylon is the best;

but in a hot country, like Africa, we have seen a roll of it soften

during the journey, and, in exemplification of its name, sticking so

fast together that it looked more like a field marshal's baton than

anything else, and the spreading out of it again into a sheet was a

hopeless task. It would therefore be better to carry the diachylon in

a gallipot, and spread it when required on thin cotton. Isinglass

and court plaster are useful for keeping clean small hurts--the fluid

obtained by boiling tendons in water spread on silk makes a very useful

plaster--though, in trifling cases, we are in favour of letting the

coagulated blood form the natural covering while the cut heals up

beneath it.

_Cerate_, which may, on occasion, be made of beeswax and pure fat or

oil, in such proportions as the temperature of the country may require,

is very useful, spread on lint or linen, as a cooling ointment for

sores that require to be kept soft.

_Spongio pilene_, a material composed of small fragments of sponge,

attached to a backing of india-rubber sheeting, will be found valuable

in applying hot or cold water to injured surfaces. It can be cut with

readiness to any required size or shape.

During the Zambesi expedition, Dr. Kirk was provided with a good

store of gutta-percha tissue, in sheets, for the purpose of covering

poultices, moist applications, &c. The tissue should be cut much

larger than the lint or other material, the moisture of which is to

be confined. Other sheets were of various thicknesses, from that of

writing paper up to cardboard or millboard, so as to give support, if

necessary, as well as covering. He also carried gutta-percha splints

for the leg or arm, properly fitted, for inside or outside, right or

left; and cases might occur in which the possession of one of these,

at the moment it was required, would be invaluable. They packed very

easily one within the other, occupying little more room than so many

flat sheets.

Millboard in strips, 18in. long and 6in. wide, for leg splints, or

15in. by 4in. for the arm, would stow easily, and by moistening

would be easily moulded on the limb of a healthy person to the shape

required. A few bandages, 3in. wide and 6ft. or 8ft. long, should be

kept rolled up in the medicine chest; but if a store of calico is

carried, there is no need to tear off more till they are wanted. (N.B.

They should _always_ be torn--not cut.) It is not to be expected that

every traveller should carry or be able to use the formidable array

of deadly looking keen-edged knives, of saws, and other instruments

of torture; nevertheless, it would be prudent that a small selection

should be taken, and we extract from a clever little work, "First Help

in Accidents," the following list:--

Lint,

Compressors,

Rollers,

Sticking plaster,

Silk,

Small sponge,

Tourniquet,

Scissors,

Tenaculum,

Suture needles,

Lancet,

Dressing forceps,

Scalpel.

Small pocket cases containing all the requisite instruments are to be

obtained of any surgical instrument maker. Among medicines quinine

stands pre-eminent as an effectual, though perhaps not always an

infallible, febrifuge; it is, however, so excellent a tonic that its

moderate and occasional use may safely be recommended, and we do not

know of a better remedy in case of fever. It is best dissolved in wine,

if the traveller should be fortunate enough to be able to carry any. It

may be given in rum or other spirit, which is more portable and likely

to be at hand, and which is also useful for preserving insects; but if

a man wants any peace while passing through most wild countries, or is

doubtful of his own powers of self-denial, we would recommend him to

convert all his wine into a strong solution of quinine before starting,

and to do the same with half his rum or spirit of wine, having the rest

strongly methylated for use, either in a spirit lamp or preservation

of specimens. Let both these be labelled with a death's head and cross

bones, such as is used by chemists in the Cape and other countries,

where many of the native population cannot read, or do not understand,

English, to signify poison.

A proportion of wine or spirit may, of course, be reserved for prudent

and moderate use, as a glass, or even a bottle judiciously given may go

very far to gain the good will of a native chief, or to induce either

the proper servants or occasional assistants of the traveller to work

heartily in helping him out of some difficulty. We have generally found

a good pannikin of hot coffee accepted readily enough by the people

after a long night journey; but there are times when a fire could not

be made, and a drop of spirit, imparting a momentary sensation of

warmth, even if it produces no other good effect, has, at least, that

of showing that their employer cares for them, and does what he can to

cheer them after their labour.

In most tropical rivers there are extensive deltas, intersected with

netlike labyrinths of shallow impracticable channels, alternated with

shoals, which the advanced guard of mangroves is just reclaiming from

the sea, and where tangled, dank, and unwholesome wildernesses and

swamps are formed, there fever, in its most deadly forms, is sure to

prevail.

The delta of the Zambesi is also a place of danger from this cause;

and persons of a full stout habit are said, and we believe with some

reason, to be more liable to fever than others of a spare and meagre

build; indeed, the Portuguese, when they see a well-framed athletic

man, in prime condition, enter the river, prophetically mark him as

one of the first victims. We have ourselves suffered severely and

continuously from this malady, which generally came on with a cold

shivering or ague, and was succeeded by the fever, accompanied by

intense perspiration, prostration of strength, nausea and inability

to eat, or even to retain the necessary medicine or cooling drink;

an immoderately exaggerated idea of the length of time; short uneasy

slumbers, disturbed by incongruous dreams--generally of some difficulty

previously experienced--or total want of sleep, total failure of

memory, and in bad cases delirium while awake.

When the "Pearl" first entered the Zambesi Dr. Kirk ordered that a

glass of spirit with quinine in it should be served to the men every

morning; and we would frequently, as the large doses administered were

intensely bitter, make up the quinine into pills, with chocolate or

cocoa paste, or sometimes place the quinine powder dry on the tongue,

and then swallow a copious draught of water to wash it down.

We give, first, Dr. Livingstone's remedy for fever; but, useful and

effective as it really is, we cannot say, from experience, that it

is infallible; and the fatality among the gentlemen of the mission

proves that we do not, as yet, possess a remedy for the fever that will

supply the place of a sufficient and generous diet, total cessation of

exposure to the malaria, and removal to a more elevated and healthy

country, even though it be but a few hours' journey from the infected

district. The doctor's receipt is as follows:--

"Linyante, 12th of September, 1855.

"A pill composed of three or four grains of resin of jalap, three or

four of calomel, and an equal number of quinine; a drop or two of

tincture of cardamoms to dissolve the resin to form the bolus.

"I have had a great many cases in hand, and never met with a single

case of failure; it ought not to purge; the quantity of resin must

be regulated to produce only a gentle movement, which, when felt,

is accompanied by perspiration and a sound sleep. A check to this

perspiration has, in my own experience, given rise to vomiting large

quantities of pure blood."

In another letter:--

"We make a pill of equal parts of resin of jalap, calomel, rhubarb,

and quinine; say for a powerful man eight grains of resin of jalap,

eight grains of calomel, four or six grains of rhubarb, and four or

six grains of quinine; make the whole into pills with tincture of

cardamoms. This relieves the very worst cases in a few hours.

"We then give quinine till the system is affected with cinchonism[A],

the calomel is removed at once from the system, and, curiously enough,

decreasing doses serve. In some of us half a grain of the mass produces

as much effect as twenty-four grains did at first."

[A] Singing in the ears.

A friend in Capetown, who had travelled in the Brazils, gave us the

following receipt, used, we believe, by an Italian doctor; there he

tells us it was efficacious, but we have not had opportunity to put it

to the test:--

"To one bottle of water add 36grs. of sulphate of quinine, 2

teaspoonfuls of Epsom salts, 34 drops of sulphuric acid, and 40 drops

of ether; this mixture is called antiperiodic water; a wine-glassful

three times a day as soon as the first symptoms are perceived, and

continued for three or four days after recovery. If delirious, an

injection of 1 tablespoonful of vinegar to 10 of this water."

Warburg's fever drops are well spoken of. Very large doses of quinine

are given in India and Africa, sixteen or twenty grains at a time; and

we have frequently taken in powder as much as would lie upon a shilling.

Sometimes violent exertion, producing perspiration and exhaustion,

if practised in time, may avert an attack. We have heard of a doctor

visiting a man when the shivering fit was about to come on, who locked

the door, mixed two glasses of stiff hot grog, put on the gloves, and

engaged his patient in a boxing match, which, at least, for that time

averted the fever.

We do not give our unqualified recommendation of this treatment; but

we have often found that, during a period of severe and long sustained

labour, we have remained in health, but that an attack of fever has

accompanied the reaction induced by an intermission of the work.

Simple aperients should be taken; we have used Cockle's anti-bilious

pills, salts, senna, or jalap; and their opposites in case of

diarrhoea. With a little opium and a bit of carpenter's chalk, we

have been able to give almost marvellous relief to a poor coloured

woman in excruciating agony.

Take a good supply of _Chlorodyne_. Opium both in gum and tincture. A

few drops of the latter, placed within the eyelids of those suffering

from snow blindness, often prove of the greatest advantage; chloroform

must be used with caution; still, in cases of great suffering, it is

worth while to try it. We have known one exceedingly severe case of

illness in which messengers had to be sent to every white man within

240 miles for medicines, and letters were written on the chance that

some passing vessel might take them to a port whence by some other

agency a supply of drugs might be forwarded.

_Emetics_, which are commonly sold in doses, white and grey, and of

different degrees of strength.

_Sudorifics_--among which we have used Dover's powders as a convenient

form.

_Eyewashes._--Weak solutions, sulphate of zinc and diacetate of lead,

or weak brandy and water, may be used.

It may be needful to carry a small quantity of blistering plaster--or

rather the materials of which to make it--soft wash-leather, ointment

of Spanish fly, &c., or mustard.

_Tincture of arnica_, used in the proportion of one part tincture to

eight parts water, is a valuable application for strains or contusions.

_Glycerine_, or cold cream, may be used as cooling applications to

irritated surfaces.

_Effervescing powders._--The blue paper contains carbonate of soda,

30grs.; the white, tartaric acid, 25grs. 1lb. of carbonate of soda, and

13-1/2oz. of tartaric acid, make 256 powders of each sort; or, 1-1/2oz.

of carbonate of soda, and 3oz. of tartarised soda, packed in blue, and

7drs. of tartaric acid, in white, will make twelve sets.

All salts must be kept in bottles closely stoppered, and only put in

paper for immediate use.

_Antiscorbutics._--Almost any vegetable; plenty of sugar; fresh

fruit; dried tamarinds; good lime juice, vinegar, or citric acid; raw

potatoes, with the strong earthy taste as fresh as possible; the pulp

of the cream of tartar tree or Baobab in Africa, or of the Gouty-stem

(_Adansonia Gregorii_) in Australia. Dr. Kane, in his Arctic voyages,

found fresh raw meat a remedy.

It will be well for the traveller to limit his equipment to a few

simple and really useful medicines, of which a sufficient supply for

the maladies to be expected in the country he is bound for should be

taken. A complicated assortment would serve only to confuse him, and

it is better even to trust solely to nature than to tamper unskilfully

with dangerous remedies.

{Poisons and antidotes.}

Poisoning, whether from accident or otherwise, should always be

provided for, and it will be well to be supplied with a few antidotes.

Some poisons are best ejected by vomiting--draughts of salt or mustard

and warm water, half a wine-glassful of ipecacuanha wine, or a glassful

of warm water with twenty or thirty grains of sulphate of zinc.

Antimonial preparations, as tartar emetic, are too depressing, and not

controllable.

In others, the action on the stomach may be diminished by mucilaginous

or oily drinks, as milk, barley water, white of egg, and salad oil.

For _poisonous acids_ use no emetics; alkaline remedies are proper.

Soda or potash in water, given plentifully; carbonate of magnesia,

Dinneford's solution, common whitening, or chalk in water, followed by

some mucilaginous fluid, as milk or barley water.

Against _alkalies_, as potash, soda, &c., acids must be used--diluted

vinegar, citric or tartaric acid, lemon juice or sour beer; soothing

drinks as before, after the poison has been neutralised.

For _metallic poisons_ an emetic may generally be tried.

For _arsenic_, avoid emetics. Take a mixture of milk and lime water, or

soda water in equal quantities. Light magnesia diffused in water may be

taken. Common animal charcoal may be tried.

For _corrosive sublimate_ give white of egg and plenty of milk; if eggs

are not at hand, use flour mixed with water.

_Vegetable irritants._--Give an early emetic and demulcent drinks.

_Narcotic poisons._--Opium. Give an emetic; pour cold water on the head

and neck and shoulders; place mustard poultices on the calves of the

legs or feet; give hot strong coffee and free air; keep the patient

moving till drowsiness passes off.

_Prussic acid in small doses._--Give ammonia or strong coffee; pour

cold water on head and chest, rubbing dry with warm towels, and give

free air; in large doses no treatment will avail.

_Strychnine._--In Australia, South Africa, and some other countries

strychnine is extensively used; and a correspondent thus writes in the

_Field_ concerning it:--"It sometimes happens that dogs are poisoned,

accidentally or otherwise, by nux-vomica, or its alkaloid. It may not,

therefore, be useless to inform the reader what treatment should be

adopted in such a case. The poison acts very rapidly, tetanus comes on,

and the dog soon dies, exhausted by the violence of the fits. If the

poison have only been just taken, and no fits have occurred, the best

remedy is tannin, in the form of pounded galls, or the areca-nut powder

so much used in kennels. But if the dog be already seized with tetanus,

the only remedy is the permanganate of potash. I have found, in several

experiments on animals, that, when once the tetanic spasm has set

in, permanganate of potash is the only remedy giving any chance of

recovery; if administered in time it is most successful. Condy's fluid,

now so much used in the stable and kennel, is the most convenient form

for its administration. A wineglassful of Condy's fluid, slightly

diluted, may be given. During the treatment the dog must be kept quiet,

and touched as little as possible. This treatment, which has never yet

been suggested (to my knowledge), I beg to offer to those readers who

may be in need of it; but I cannot speak of its effects on the human

subject."

_Alcohol in excess._--Evacuation of the stomach, followed by hot

coffee, external stimulants and friction.

_Suffocation by gases, &c._--Removal to pure air, cold water on face

and chest, artificial inducement of respiration, friction of surface,

followed by hot coffee or brandy and water.

_Animal poisons_--stings of insects, snake-bites, &c.--If a sting

remains in the wound, extract it, and apply a strong wash of ammonia

in spirit or water, or, in its absence, warm oil; if faintness

follows, some stimulant, as brandy and water, may be given freely for

snake-bites; in addition to this cauterise the wound with nitric acid

or a white-hot iron.

The trappers of America place great dependance on strong whisky; if

great exertion can be maintained, so as to produce excessive fatigue

and perspiration, the system may throw off the poison.

In the Cape colony an antidote for snake-bites is sold under the

name of Croft's Tincture of Life. This was analysed, when we were

in Grahamstown, by the faculty, and the ingredients they found

were pronounced good; but there were others which the maker would

not reveal. We have seen several testimonials as to its efficacy.

The medical men, however, arranged a case somewhat larger than a

fifty-likeness _carte-de-visite_ album, containing lancet, ligature,

cupping-glass, a bottle of ammonia, lint, and a piece of lunar caustic;

but it was much too large to be carried about by any traveller in

expectation of being bitten by a snake. We therefore took a small tin

vesta match box, put a lancet, small bottle of ammonia, lunar caustic,

in a stoppered bottle, lint, and ligature in it, and kept it in the

waggon. We are happy to say we never had to put it to the test, for we

were never bitten by a serpent. Sometimes a little judicious humouring

of the patient does as much good as medicine.

In the Bushman country around Lake Ngami, where the entrails of the

Ngwa or poisonous grub are used to give such fatal effect to the

insignificant-looking arrows, a small plant with a yellow star-like

flower, called the _Kala-haetlwe_, is used as an antidote. Fat is also

rubbed into the wound and also given internally till the effect of the

poison is neutralised.

The snake-stone of India, if it has any good qualities, seems to owe

them entirely to its absorbent properties, and these would be more

efficiently performed by scarification and the cupping glass.

Ipecacuanha, applied as a poultice, has been by some considered a most

valuable antidote to snake-bites. This antidote is equally effective in

the stings of scorpions and other venomous reptiles.

The fiction of the cup of rhinoceros horn, which caused all poisonous

drink to effervesce and bubble over, is so firmly believed, that we

have known a Cape trader offer to drink any poison we could give him

out of such a cup; but we declined the experiment.

A preparation of the guaco plant is highly esteemed on the Spanish main

as an antidote against bites of snakes of all kinds.

Acetic acid rubbed on the wound caused by the bite of scorpions or

centipedes is very efficacious. In the absence of this, chewed tobacco

is often made use of; but the natives are of opinion that the scorpion

inflicting the wound crushed between two stones and laid on the injured

part is a certain remedy, and, from what we have been enabled to learn

from them on the subject, there seems to be some foundation for the

belief.

{Imaginary ailments of natives.}

The imaginary ailments of natives are neither few nor far between;

but it is not at all times wise to disregard them. We have known our

followers come, night after night, with small sicknesses, when we had

but a few doses of fever mixture left, and, by some chance or other,

a little currie powder. Now, had we sent away a man with his "little

sickness," he would have been really ill next morning. We therefore

looked as wise as possible, felt his pulse, looked at his tongue, read

a paragraph or two, and sent him to boil some water and bring it to us;

we then carefully measured out a spoonful of currie powder, mixed it,

saw him drink it off, and sent him to make himself as warm as he could

till next morning.

Horse Medicines and Farrier's Stores.

If an expedition is about to be undertaken where the services of

many horses or mules are required, a list of medicine stores should

be furnished for them, which may be approximately as follows, the

quantities being arranged for twenty animals for six months:--

Raw linseed oil, 4 galls.

Olive oil, 2 galls.

Spirits of nitre, ether, 4lb.

Nitrate of potash, 6lb.

Barbadoes aloes, 2lb.

Potassio tartrate of antimony, 1lb.

Camphor, 1lb.

Ginger, in powder, 6lb.

Palm oil, 6lb.

Tincture of opium, 4lb.

Spirits of ammonia, 4lb.

Spirits of turpentine, 1 gall.

Cantharides, in powder, 1lb.

Lard, 6lb.

Linseed meal, 8lb.

Compound tincture of myrrh and aloes, 2lb.

Calomel, 1oz.

Nitrate of silver, 1/2oz.

Sulphate of copper, 2lb.

Alum, 2lb.

Sugar of lead, 1lb.

Sulphate of iron, 2lb.

Powdered gentian, 4lb.

Prepared chalk, 6lb.

Stockholm tar, 10lb.

Tow, 6lb.

Old flannel and sheeting for bandages, two or three sponges, a packet

of pins, a hank of fine twine, six pieces of coarse tape, a pestle and

mortar, set of scales and weights, palate knife, graduated measure,

a quire of whitey-brown paper, two pairs of scissors, one straight

and the other curved; a drenching-horn, phleam, lancet (horse size),

glyster syringe (quart size), and blood can. Hoof picker, searcher,

drawing knife, buffer, pincers, shoeing hammer, hoof rasp, and set of

hobbles. The use of these matters will be treated on under the head of

"Veterinary Surgery."

Lamps, Lights, and Lanterns.

{Lamps.}

About the most simple and effective lamp we have ever seen is that

used by the Portuguese at Tette, in their illuminations; it consists

of a shallow pan of clay, as big as the palm of the hand, slightly

baked, or, perhaps, merely sun-dried--to contain the oil--a spoonful

of salt is tied up in a piece of rag, the ends being left just long

enough for a wick, and this cheap and simple arrangement serves all the

purposes of out-door illumination. Sticks about three feet high, with

their upper ends cleft into three parts, which are kept open by the

insertion of a wedge, are planted in lines along the streets, and the

lamps supported on these, or ranged along the porticoes or fences of

the various houses, burn brightly and steadily for many hours, defying

even a tolerably stiff breeze to blow them out. The oil used is that

of the ground nut, which, beside being cheap and plentiful, is so pure

that it may be used for almost any purpose, scarcely an article of food

in Tette being prepared without it; in fact, the nut itself, which may

be eaten plain, roasted, treated as a "confect" in various ways, or

infused as a substitute for coffee, contains so much essential oil that

it will burn for more than a minute with as bright a flame as a good

candle; when arranged one over the other on a stick or wire they give a

good permanent light.

[Illustration: MAKE-SHIFT LAMPS.]

It is often necessary, however, for the traveller to supply himself

with light when the grease at his command is neither liquid enough

to rise through the fibres of a wick, nor hard enough to be moulded

into a candle. In this case, the wick should be allowed to rest on

and overhang a little the sides of the vessel used as a lamp--a cup

of earthenware, a common tin cap box, or even a bit of tin or sheet

iron bent up will answer well enough; the flame soon heats the side

sufficiently to melt a portion of the fat, and a constant supply is

thus kept up as the wick requires it.

Almost anything will serve as a wick--a bit of old rag, or the

flax-like fibres of the various plants used as cordage by the natives;

strips of bark beaten to separate the fibres, or even small twigs may

be used; rushes with enough of the outer covering removed to expose

the pith, while on one side a strip of bark is left sufficiently

strong to support it, are also worth looking to in case of need; but

it is best to be provided with a sufficiency of cotton which is cheap,

easily carried, and useful for many other purposes. If possible, a

good supply of the best sperm candles, or others of material not

likely to be affected by changes of climate, should be carried. On the

Australian expedition, we used Price's vegetable wax candles; and some

of these--after having twice crossed the line, gone round Australia and

part of the Indian archipelago, and made the circuit of the globe--are

now in Kew Museum in as good condition as when they were issued from

the factory.

The common bull's-eye or police lamp is very useful if only required

by one person for a specific purpose, such as reading off a sextant

after observation of a star, but it does not diffuse light enough for

general purposes. In fact, if wood is plentiful, a roaring fire will

give greater facility for reading, writing, or such other occupations

as are likely to employ a traveller's evening than anything else. If

you want warmth, let your fire be on the ground and sit round it; if

you want light to work by, make it on a slight elevation, say from

eighteen inches to two feet high. If you want wood, and your native

attendants, when called on, make excuses, or Jem tells Sambo and Sambo

tells the old woman to fetch wood for the master, do not put yourself

to the trouble of scolding them, but take the wood off their fire and

put it on your own, and let them settle whose duty it is to bring more.

_Experto crede._

A horn lantern is good "to keep the light from going out;" but then,

perhaps, the operator may desire that the light should not be so

literally "kept in;" and it is said that a piece of rag dipped in salt

and water, and wrapped round a candle, will answer the purpose of

preserving it from extinction in windy weather without lessening its

illuminating powers. This, however, requires continuous attention, in

order that it may be cut down as the candle burns low. The Esquimaux

lamp is a piece of soft stone with a slight groove along the front

edge; in this is laid a wick of moss or other material, and, the heat

imparted to the stone being quite sufficient to melt the fat laid on

it, it is fed with very little trouble. One who has made a turnip

lantern in his youth will seldom be at a loss to extemporise a shelter

for his bit of candle. A calabash or gourd, with perforations to

allow the passage of the light, covered or not with oiled calico or

paper; a worn-out pannikin or preserved meat tin; the body of a quart

bottle, the more transparent the better; or, what is best of all, one

of the oblong tins in which fancy biscuits are generally sold, will

answer admirably; the polished surface of the latter serving also as

a powerful reflector. We had one of these slung from the roof of the

waggon, the bowl of a broken ladle was secured in the bottom of it, and

with a bit of cotton wick and a few pieces of hard fat, a light steady

enough to work by was secured for the evening; the common forecastle

lamp used on board our merchantmen is a useful form, and the shadowless

railway lamp we found very servicable, as long as the glass could be

preserved.

We have constructed a very powerful reflecting lamp from a large sheet

of tin, nearly two feet in height, curved round so as to form half a

cylinder, six or eight inches in diameter; about eight inches from its

base, we made a shelf to sustain the oil lamp, and a socket to contain

the candle if we should be fortunate enough to have one, and behind

this we arranged a couple of sixpenny trade looking-glasses at an angle

of 90° with each other, and by the light thus thrown forward we were

able to write or sketch with facility during many hours of the weary

night. (See p. 85.)

A lamp commonly used in India is a tumbler half full of water with oil

on the top, and a wick wrapped round a stone or bit of lead, with its

end projecting above the oil; but it has this disadvantage, that rats

may upset the glass while drinking the oil, carry off the burning wick,

and so expose the house to great danger. A float may easily be made of

bottle wire and three bits of cork, in which half an inch of wick is

enough to last all night.

{Candles.}

It is often desirable to make candles, and for this purpose the hard

fat and tallow of any animal that may be killed should be preserved,

that is, if it can be spared from the no less important purpose of

greasing the axles; or beeswax, if it can be obtained, may be used

either in combination with it or separately. If you wish to make dip

candles, take a sufficient number of strands twice the length you

require, twist them slightly and double them, and let the parts twist

together; pass a small rod through the "bights" of as many of these

wicks as you find convenient, say half a dozen; take a bucketful of

hot water, throw the fat or wax in, and it will soon melt and float

upon the surface; let the wicks absorb as much as they will, straighten

and let them harden; then, holding the rod by the end left for that

purpose, dip them quickly to their full length, withdraw and allow

them to cool, and repeat the operation till your candles attain the

desired size. If you have fat enough you may have half a dozen or more

sets of wicks and can keep on dipping in rotation, thus allowing each

plenty of time to cool before its turn comes round again. If you aspire

to mould candles, nothing is better for your purpose than a piece off

the end of a gun-barrel--and very few African hunters make a journey

without shortening some lengthy weapon by eight or ten inches. In this

case, pass a small stick an inch or two in length through the bight of

the wick, bring the end out through the "mould" and make it fast to

another, or pass it through a gun wad or section of a cork, so as to

stretch it fairly and evenly in the centre, and stop the lower end;

then pour in the tallow or wax, and, when cool, warm the mould slightly

and the candle will draw out. In some countries wood may be found

sufficiently resinous to be used as candles, but a supply of sticks cut

to a convenient size must be prepared and a rest of some sort contrived

so that they may be easily placed in it or withdrawn when nearly

burnt out; the angle they ought to make with the horizon varies with

the quality of the wood, if very combustible they may be set nearly

upright, if less so they must be more nearly horizontal.

All candles, however, waste rapidly unless screened from the wind, if

the traveller can carry a spring burner, this inconvenience is in a

great measure obviated; but often this is impossible, and he must make

the best shelter he can with a bit of bent tin, a joint of bamboo, or

whatever material may be at hand. If the candles have to be packed in

bags where stowage is of importance, and cases must be thrown away, it

is best to cut them in two, as the risk of breakage is much reduced by

the diminution of their length; in cutting them the knife should be

warmed slightly, as it divides them without chipping off fragments. In

lighting the lower half, if you have wax vestas, and stick one of them

in alongside the wick that has been cut, you avoid the necessity of

cutting down the wax to expose the end, and so may save three quarters

of an inch of candle.

{Torches.}

We have seen the Malays, in the Island of Timor, take a soft porous

stick, or the pith of a peculiar rush, and then wrap round it a coating

of beeswax, to serve as a torch or candle. The natives of the shores of

British Columbia and Vancouver Island use a fish known as the Eulachon,

or North-West Capelin, as a source of light. The leaf of the cocoa-nut

palm possesses strong illuminating power. The pine knot and birch bark

of North America and Canada are extensively used for giving light in

deer-hunting, fish-spearing, and on other occasions. The bog deal of

Ireland is also used. The Damaras, who have a custom of obtaining their

fire only from that kept burning at the hut of their chief, carry with

them dry flakes of "Kraal mist" or cattle droppings, ignited and held

between the forks of a cleft stick; and the Indian matchlock men carry

fire in the same way. The mussalchees or torch-bearers of Central

India, who commonly accompany troops during night marches, use long

sausage-shaped rolls of cotton cloth; the ends of these they from time

to time moisten with oil poured from a vessel carried for the purpose.

The hill guides usually employ large splinters cut from the Deodar

cedar. In Mexico, the brilliant fire-flies are sometimes caught and

used for giving a temporary light: the direction of a letter, or the

points of a compass, may be read by them.

The sparks from a flint and steel, a bit of quartz, sulphuret of iron

or agate, and a pocket knife, will give light enough to read the

compass, or to form a night signal.

There are many very nice arrangements for the purpose of light giving

and cooking, which may be obtained from any military outfitter; but

their chief defect is, that they will only answer their purpose under

tolerably convenient circumstances, and become useless when the real

hard work of travel begins.

{Samovar.}

Travellers, both on sea and land, often require to cook a small

allowance of coffee or tea when, from severity of weather, scarcity of

fuel, or the impossibility of halting long enough, it is impossible

to kindle a fire in any of the ordinary methods, and frequently when,

from the pitching of a small vessel or the jolting of a waggon, it

would be dangerous to use a spirit lamp, an Etna, or an uncovered fire

of any kind. Under these circumstances we should think the principle of

internal heat, as applied in the Russian _samovar_ or tea urn, might be

successfully adopted. This, with various modifications in outward form,

may be described as a small furnace for burning wood or charcoal in

that part which serves as the base of the urn, with a funnel or stove

pipe, wide at the bottom, but tapering rather sharply upward, leading

straight up through the water, and having at top a telescope joint,

by which the funnel can be lengthened and the draught increased when

requisite.

[Illustration: SAMOVAR.]

Our own idea is to have an upright cylinder of copper tinned inside,

and from about a couple of inches above the lower part of this an

internal cone, like an inverted funnel, exactly fitting the cylinder at

its lower edge, and tapering up to a small aperture at top. A double

floor would be let into the cylinder about an inch from its base, so

that it might be set upon a plank without danger from the fire. The

cover would have a central hole for the funnel or smoke pipe to rise

through; a small lip spout would serve to pour off the water, and ring

handles, with chains long enough to obviate all danger, would serve to

suspend it from the waggon roof, or from the beams of a small vessel,

while others on either side would help to stay and steady it. A broad

cap or roof of copper hooked on to links of the chains an inch or two

above the end of the smoke pipe would prevent any possible risk from

fire reaching any woodwork from which the samovar might be suspended.