Transcriber's Note
The title page consists of an image, which has been transcribed.
This version of the text cannot represent certain typographical effects.
Italics are delimited with the '_' character as _italic_. There are
instances of vowels modified by macrons. These are given as, e.g.,
[=e], [=u], etc. Symbols in the form of bold figures are printed as
=T=, =V=, =Y=, etc. There is one instance of an inverted T, which
is represented as [=invertedT=]. The 'oe' ligature is given as
separate characters, that is, 'OE' or 'oe'.
For consistency, fractions are usually represented, for example,
as 2-1/2 for 2½. In tabular data, the available Latin-1 fractions
¼, ½, ¾ were used on occasion to minimize width. Superscripted
characters are indicated using the carat '^'.
The few footnotes have been positioned following the paragraph where
their references appeared.
There are many invaluable illustrations, most without captions,
which could not be included in this version. These are almost always
referred to and described in the text. The positions of sketches
without captions are usually indicated in-line as [Illustration],
except where the reference to its position is obvious. Where there is
a caption, the illustration is positioned either before or after the
paragraph where it is referenced. Many illustrations are composite
sketches, which use numbers or letters to indicate the parts thereof.
A caption has been added indicating the number of these sketches as
[Illustration: 1-20], to give the reader a notion of which sketch is
which. The reader who would like to see these illustration is referred
to the following link, where HTML, Kindle and Epub versions may be
found at: www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/46446
There are many sidenotes, or paragraph descriptions, which are
sometimes used as keywords for cross-reference. Those which seem
to describe the entire paragraph, or its first topic are given as
{Sidenote} in a separate line at the top of the paragraph. Other notes,
which are usually brief, are placed in-line in the text, again enclosed
in brackets as above.
Please see the notes at the end of this text for a more detailed list
of specific issues encountered and the resolutions of each.
[Illustration: SWINGING THE PACKS OF THE NORTH AUSTRALIAN EXPEDITION
OVER A BRANCH OF JASPER CREEK VICTORIA RIVER 1856.]
[Illustration:
SHIFTS AND EXPEDIENTS
OF CAMP LIFE
TRAVEL & EXPLORATION
BY W.B. LORD
ROYAL ARTILLERY
&
T. BAINES F.R.G.S.
LONDON
HORACE COX
39 STRAND WC
1871
]
CONTENTS.
PAGE.
CHAPTER I.
OUTFIT TO TAKE ABROAD 3
CHAPTER II.
BOATS, RAFTS, AND MAKE-SHIFT FLOATS 91
CHAPTER III.
WORKING IN METALS 192
CHAPTER IV.
HUTS AND HOUSES 268
CHAPTER V.
EXTEMPORE BRIDGES AND MAKESHIFTS FOR CROSSING RIVERS OR RAVINES 317
CHAPTER VI.
TIMBER AND ITS UTILISATION 355
CHAPTER VII.
SLEDGES AND SLEDGE TRAVELLERS 394
CHAPTER VIII.
BOOTS, SHOES, AND SANDALS 412
CHAPTER IX.
WAGGONS AND OTHER WHEELED VEHICLES 432
CHAPTER X.
HARNESS AND PACK ANIMALS 457
CHAPTER XI.
CATTLE MARKING 478
CHAPTER XII.
HINTS ON HYGEENS AND CAMELS 483
CHAPTER XIII.
WATER, AND THE SAP OF PLANTS 491
CHAPTER XIV.
CAMP COOKERY 535
CHAPTER XV.
FISH AND AMPHIBIOUS ANIMALS 585
CHAPTER XVI.
POISONED WEAPONS, ARROWS, SPEARS, &C. 619
CHAPTER XVII.
TRACKING, HUNTING, AND TRAPPING 628
CHAPTER XVIII.
PALANQUINS, STRETCHERS, AMBULANCES, &C. 682
CHAPTER XIX.
ON SKETCHING AND PAINTING UNDER THE ORDINARY DIFFICULTIES
OF TRAVEL 716
CHAPTER XX.
THE ESTIMATION OF DISTANCES AND HINTS ON FIELD OBSERVING 726
CHAPTER XXI.
HINTS TO EXPLORERS ON COLLECTING AND PRESERVING OBJECTS
OF NATURAL HISTORY 761
CHAPTER XXII.
ROPES AND TWINE 788
CHAPTER XXIII.
BUSH VETERINARY SURGERY AND MEDICINE 798
APPENDIX 808
INDEX 815
DIRECTIONS TO THE BINDER.
SWINGING THE PACKS OF THE NORTH AUSTRALIAN EXPEDITION }
OVER A BRANCH OF JASPER CREEK, VICTORIA RIVER, 1856 } _Frontispiece._
CAMP SCENE IN AFRICA _To face page_ 55
BOAT BUILDING ON THE LOGIER RIVER 125
SENDING LINE FROM WRECK TO LEE SHORE BY MEANS OF A KITE 185
LEAD SMELTING IN THE FOREST 228
SEARCHING FOR GOLD 251
INDIAN LODGES 309
THE TREATMENT OF TIMBER BY STEAM AND SAW 376
SLEDGING OVER ROUGH ICE 402
THE WILSON MULE WAGGON (UNITED STATES OF AMERICA) 443
GROUP OF HARNESS 465
INDIAN WELL 508
HIPPOPOTAMUS TRAP 613
TRAPS FOR SMALL GAME 673
VARIOUS MODES OF CARRYING THE SICK OR WOUNDED 688
Shifts and Expedients
OF
CAMP LIFE, TRAVEL, AND EXPLORATION.
INTRODUCTION.
Like two voyagers returned from a long cruise in far-off seas, we throw
together our joint gleanings in many lands. These do not consist of
jewels, gems, gold, or furs; no piles of costly merchandise do we lay
at the reader's feet as offerings from distant climes, but simply the
experiences of two roving Englishmen who have roughed it. By those who
have to pass through a campaign, travel wild countries, or explore
little known regions, shifts must be made, and expedients of many kinds
had recourse to, of which the inexperienced in such matters would but
little dream.
As necessity is the mother of invention, so is self-reliance the
father of its practical application, and it is with a strong desire
(by explaining how constantly recurring wants may be overcome, and
apparently hopeless difficulties surmounted) to strengthen that
quality in those who roam that we write this volume. In our travels
and adventures we have not been associated, the paths trodden by us
being widely separated. Whilst one was exploring in the wilds of North
Australia, the other was dwelling in a canvas-covered hole in the earth
before Sebastopol. The scenes change; Southern and Tropical Africa is
visited by the late Australian traveller, whilst the Crimea, with
its rugged hills and wild ravines, is exchanged for the jungles of
Central India by the other. So the two barques have drifted here and
there on the world's tide, but are anchored side by side, and have
compared logs at last; and if amongst the heterogeneous odds and ends
therein contained the reader can find the aid he seeks, our shifts and
expedients will not have been made in vain.
CHAPTER I.
OUTFIT TO TAKE ABROAD.
{Equipment to be purchased in England.}
In dealing with this portion of our subject we can but generalise, as
the destination of the traveller and the objects he has in view will
materially modify the nature and extent of his equipment. The military
officer who is bound on a long march, through a comparatively wild
country, needs a very different outfit from that which a hunter or
trader of experience would procure for himself before starting for
the home of the elephant and the savage. The man who, with his wife
and family, seeks a new home beyond the border line which divides the
unreclaimed wilderness from civilised society, needs an infinitely
more voluminous store of requisites--not to say comforts--than the
small band of hardy explorers or hunter naturalists, who, with horse,
mule, pack and rifle, wend their way over prairies and mountains
without path, and thread the forests and thickets where no traveller
has penetrated. There are other members of the human family who prefer
prosecuting their wanderings alone, carry all their worldly possessions
with them, and whose equipment is usually of a particularly simple
and practical character. The sea, the inland lake, and the rivers
flowing through little known regions, each have their explorers, for
whose use a variety of contrivances are needed. Some of these are
best made at home; others it will be found most convenient to prepare
in the localities in which their aid are required; whilst at times
adverse circumstances will render it necessary to improvise rough and
ready appliances to save life and prolong its duration when saved. We
shall therefore endeavour to give such hints and directions as will
enable our readers who intend visiting far-off countries to select
such matters as may be best purchased before quitting England, and to
avoid encumbering themselves with useless impedimenta. As we have first
made mention of the military officer about to depart on service, we
will suppose that he is in London, or any other large town, gathering
together his traps for a start. We will then accompany him on his
shopping expeditions, and give him a few hints as to what will prove
most useful. On matters of uniform we can have nothing to say further
than to advise, as we do in every case of purchase, that it be obtained
from some tradesman of well-established reputation. The raiment
calculated to meet the requirements of refined society, when the
uniform is for the time cast aside, must also be left to the dictates
of the prevailing mode and the good taste of the wearer.
{Shirt making and clothing.}
Where fashion and the dress regulations of the army end there do we
begin, and as flannel is, perhaps, the most important as an article
of under clothing, we will first make a few remarks on shirts of that
material, of which plenty should be taken. First, then, have them made
to measure from flannel which has been previously well shrunk, of
thoroughly good quality, of medium substance, and unobtrusive pattern
or colour. It will be well to order them of extra length, both of
sleeve and body, so as to allow for the shrinkage which is certain
to take place after a few washings, in spite of all precautions. Two
breast pockets should be made in each. These are very convenient for
holding a variety of small matters when no waistcoat is worn. For outer
clothing nothing can surpass good heather-coloured tweed, or Waterford
frieze, for ordinary wear; jackets of shooting-coat pattern, made with
plenty of pockets, formed from much stronger materials than are usually
made use of by tailors for that purpose, will be found most useful
for knocking about in. One or two pairs of trousers may be strapped
up the inside and bottoms of the legs with leather, after the cavalry
rough-rider pattern. A pair or two of Oxford cord hunting breeches
will also be found useful to wear with long boots, with ankle jacks
and gaiters. The waistcoats should be cut rather long, made with four
pockets, two breast and two bottom. All these should have flaps or
"salt-box" covers to them. Each half of the waistcoat, from about the
level of the bottom button and button-hole to where the back is joined
in, should be lined with a strip of leather. A long loose gaberdine
of woollen stuff, made to button up the front, and secured round the
waist by a long narrow scarf or "cummerbund," is an immense comfort
in camp or quarters, let the climate be hot or cold. A good supply of
reddish-brown woollen socks should be laid in; a moderate number of
long stockings, of the same material, to wear with the breeches; and
a few dozen pairs of the "heelless cotton" socks, for use on board
ship, or when the weather is hot; nothing can be more agreeable to
wear, except silk, and the cost is a mere trifle when compared to that
of other hosiery. White cotton pocket handkerchiefs, as a rule, last
their owners very much longer than silk, being less tempting to native
servants or followers. Braces should be always ordered of the saddler,
and made from the material used for the surcingles of racehorses. One
pair of these lasts longer than half-a-dozen of the flimsy affairs
usually sold ready made. There are those who dispense with braces, find
great relief by the practice, and wear an ordinary waist-belt instead;
but to some persons much discomfort is caused by so doing. A soft felt
hat, with a moderately wide brim, is a convenient head dress in most
temperate climates. With the head gear made use of in the tropics and
the far north we shall have to speak hereafter. The best gloves for
general and moderately rough usage are those sold under the name of
driving gloves. They should be obtained of the regular glover, and have
buckskin let in between the fingers. A pair of common hedging gloves
well repays the trouble of taking, when the brush of the thicket has to
be handled and firewood arranged.
{Hats, ground sheets, and india-rubber garments.}
Take a blue cloth pilot coat, cut long enough to reach just below
the knees; have it lined throughout with woollen material; let the
pockets be made extra strong, and order the buttons to be large, of
black horn, and sewn on with double-waxed thread. The left hand breast
pocket should be deep and lined with leather, as it not unfrequently
becomes a resting-place for the revolver when you do not wish to make
an ostentatious display of it. Get a couple of real Scotch caps, such
as the Highland shepherds wear; nothing can equal them for sleeping in
when camping out, and they form a most convenient head-covering for
camp use, or when the sun is not too powerful. Get from some sailors'
outfitter a regular seagoing sou'wester hat, with ear and neck flaps,
and a pair of oiled canvas overalls to match. Procure also from some
first-class maker a thoroughly good india-rubber coat; long enough to
come well below the tops of the butcher boots. Buttons should be sewn
in at the back and sides of the collar, in order to admit of a hood
of the same material being put on when needed. An arrangement of this
kind we have found most useful for boat work and in heavy tropical
rains. Order also a piece of the best Russia duck, 9ft. by 8ft.; have
this subjected to the waterproofing process; have the edges turned in
to form a 2in. hem; and at every two feet, at both sides and ends,
have good sized wide flanged brass eyelets punched in. Then in the
centre of the piece have a longitudinal slit made 16in. in length,
have the raw edge bound with a broad strong tape, and at every 3in.
on each side have an eyelet of less size than those at the edges put
in. This arrangement admits of the slit being laced close when it
is not required. A waterproof square of this kind is useful for an
almost endless number of purposes. In the first place it can be used
as a ground sheet to sleep on; it can, by thrusting the head through
the unlaced opening, be converted into an excellent cloak; it can by
fastening strings and pegs to the sides, and cutting a ridge pole,
be converted into a very fair substitute for a small tent; it forms
an excellent carpet to lay by the side of the tent bed, when you are
fortunate enough to be able to use one, keeping down insects, and
protecting the feet from sharp grass, stumps, and twigs. If during
rain the tent should admit water, as it sometimes will (especially if
heedlessly touched when saturated with moisture), this universal square
of duck can by the aid of some upright sticks or canes, one at the head
and another at the foot of the bed, and a bit of rope stretched like a
clothes line from one to the other, be at once made use of as a roof
to the bed, the sides being made to slope and stand out by attaching
pieces of twine to a few of the side poles. Clothes and other matters
can be securely carried when rolled up in this, even in the heaviest
rain. On a pinch, even a river might be crossed with its assistance,
but the method adopted for constructing extempore rafts, boats, canoes,
and floats, will be fully treated on when that subject comes under
consideration.
{Boots and shoes.}
Boots and shoes for real work are in no part of the world equal to
those made at home, and a thoroughly good stock should be laid in
before quitting England; "butcher boots," so made as to fit the leg
compactly just below the bend of the knee, with low heels, and broad
heel seats; several pairs of shooting boots of the regular ankle-jack
gamekeeper's pattern, tipped at toe and heel. A pair or two of high
shoes made from soft undressed russet leather will be found very useful
to wear instead of slippers, or for camp use when the ground is dry. A
pair of Cording's wading boots will be found invaluable. They occupy
little space, are comparatively light, and keep the legs and feet dry
and warm when nothing else will. The late Mr. Wheelwright--better known
in the sporting and scientific world as the "Old Bushman"--thus speaks
of them in a communication to the _Field_: "I can add the testimony
of five years' experience to all you can say in their favour. For
wading, flight shooting, boat fishing or punting, and all winter water
work, they are invaluable. They are a little too heavy for a hard
day's walking, and soon cut through in the leg or foot among stakes
or bushes; but use them carefully, and they will be found by far the
best water boots ever made. They are very warm, stand a long while, are
perfectly water-tight to the last, and they have this advantage over a
leather boot--they want no dressing. Only never keep them near a fire.
I lost three or four pairs in the bush by neglecting to draw them off
before I lay down for the night before a camp fire. And what is worth
all the rest, they never get hard, but are always as easy to draw off
and on as a glove." It will be well also to provide two or three pairs
of brown leather shooting boots without heels and with single soles,
free from nails, and flexible enough to admit of the wearer walking
softly and with perfect freedom.
Foot gear, adapted to the nature of most countries to which the
traveller is likely to proceed, will be fully described when bush
shoemaking is under consideration.
It will be well also to procure from a saddler a good supply of
bootlaces. These should be cut straight and in the way of the grain of
the hide. The white leather used by carters for mending their harness
is by far the best for the purpose. Strips of this cut to about the
eighth of an inch square, and well greased with mutton suet, are next
to indestructible, and are available for all sorts of purposes apart
from that of lacing boots or shoes. Slightly burning or roasting the
ends in the candle or fire hardens them sufficiently to pass freely
through the lace holes without a tag.
Trunks and Boxes.
[Illustration: TWO BOXES ON ENDS OF POLE.]
For ordinary travel the solid leather bullock trunks, of regulation
size, will be found both convenient and durable. All strap guides,
loops, and handles must be riveted as well as sewn to the body of the
trunk. Spare keys should also be fitted to the locks. In countries
where it is customary for baggage to be carried by porters through
narrow bush paths, and where destructive insects are numerous, we
recommend the use of sheet copper boxes, 16in. long, 12in. wide, and
12in. deep, made with copper wire strengthening rods, worked in the
edges of the plates or sheets. Ring handles, also of copper, should
be fitted to both sides and ends, as iron when wet would corrode the
copper. These serve to pass straps, cords, or lashings through. In
making these boxes great care should be taken to fit the joints and
cover so as to render them rainproof. The insides should be tinned just
as coppersmiths tin cooking pots. The above illustration will serve
to show the manner in which one porter carries two of these cases,
which, to be transported in this way, should not, with their contents,
weigh over 20lb. each. If one box is carried, as shown in the annexed
engraving, from 35lb. to 40lb. weight may be placed in it. Boxes for
Cape waggon travelling should be about 3ft. long by 16in. wide and
deep. They are best made of well-seasoned Memel deal, 1in. thick,
dovetailed and angle plated. Such packing cases as are taken will
require lining; thin sheet lead is convenient for this purpose, as it
serves for bullet-making when the boxes are taken on shore.
[Illustration: RESTING POLE FOR BURDENS ON TUE ZAMBESI.]
Shooting Gear.
{Bullets.}
To the traveller whose means of transport confine him to the possession
of one gun, we say, without hesitation, purchase a plain, strong,
muzzle-loading, double-barrelled smooth bore of 11 or 12 gauge. Length
of barrel, 2ft. 6in., weight 8-1/2lb. without the ramrod, a front
action bar, side locks, and ramrod pipes large enough to carry a rod of
extra large size and power. Two pairs of spare nipples, and one pair of
fitted main springs, in addition to those in the locks. A bell-metal or
iron spherical bullet mould must be selected with the greatest care,
as it by no means follows that because the figure 12 or 11 is stamped
on it, that, like a wadding punch, it is calculated for a gun of the
same gauge. Our plan, when about to purchase a new mould, is to form,
with beeswax, heated in warm water or before the fire, a ball, and
to trim, mould, and finally to roll it on a polished table under the
hand, until, when placed on a piece of thin, soft, greased kid, and
gently pressed down, it fits the bore accurately; then, with this ball
as a guide, we search the moulds until one is found just the size to
contain it without undue pressure being used in entering the hardened
wax ball. This mould we secure, caring nothing for the conventional
numbers placed on it. The spherical leaden ball, when encased in kid,
should fit the bore just tight enough to require one steady downward
thrust of the rod to force it home. If it travels on without pressure,
it is too loose; if, on the other hand, tapping with the rod is needed,
it is too tight, and liable to welt or disfigure the barrel. We have
seen many much injured, and rendered very unsafe, from this cause. If
several guns can be taken, then it will be well to purchase one or
more breech-loaders of No. 12 gauge. {Rifles and guns.} In the choice
of rifles, our readers must be mainly guided by the character and
size of the game they intend pursuing. A poly-groove muzzle-loader,
No. 12 bore, 2ft. 4in. in the barrels, and of about 10lb. weight,
will be found a generally useful and reliable gun. There are, without
doubt, many advantages attendant on the use of breech-loading guns
and rifles. There are also drawbacks, which, except under peculiar
circumstances, more than outweigh them. That the breech-loading form
of construction, varied as it is, is of less strength and durability
than that of an equally well made muzzle-loader, few will be disposed
to dispute. The hinge joints, levers, and slides, should they chance to
become bent, loose, or, worse still, broken, would require repair by
an experienced gunsmith; whilst, as will be seen as the work proceeds,
nearly all the common accidents to which even the strongest and best
made muzzle-loaders are liable in the bush, can, by the exercise of a
little ingenuity, be readily made efficient weapons by their unskilled
owners. Gunpowder, lead, and percussion caps, such as they are, can,
when your own store is expended, destroyed, or lost, be readily
procured even in very out of the way corners of the earth; whilst the
cartridges calculated for breech-loaders could be only procured in
towns or trading posts of importance, where the cost would, as a matter
of necessity, be great, and their efficiency questionable. Strong flint
muskets (old army regulation) will be found best calculated for the use
of native servants. A bit of agate, common quartz, or iron pyrites,
answers the purpose of a flint, should one be lost. Nevertheless,
some breech-loaders so perfectly combine the qualities of simplicity
of construction, excellence of shooting, and facility of re-loading,
that we forbear to put too general a veto upon them, especially when,
by inserting a metallic wad, they can be converted in case of need into
muzzle-loaders. Terry and Calishers, Westley Richards, and others,
are favourites in the Cape colony; and we carried for four years in
tropical South Africa one by T. Wilson, of Birmingham: it was compact
and simple in action, devoid of hinges and levers. We have loaded with
facility while running from a wounded elephant, and turned to fire
again within eighty yards. The cartridge was easily made with wads of
the proper size and a bit of tissue paper saturated with common fat;
each shot ejected the greased wad of the previous charge, cleaning
the barrel as it went. It could, if necessary, have been used as a
muzzle-loader, and is now, after 1600 rounds have been fired from it,
in as good condition as could be desired. The long sword bayonet we
never used, but, instead, cut down a smaller sword to the proportion of
a bush knife, and, by a little smith's craft and patience, fitted it
to be used as a bayonet if needed. A breech-loader has this advantage,
that with a small bayonet a man, even in a sharp skirmish, is not
defenceless while loading, for he has his point always before him ready
for use should his enemy close. We have since had a spring locker let
into the stock, to hold half a dozen cartridges and caps; so that, even
when snatched up without the belt, the gun should not become useless
after the first discharge.
Before quitting the subject, it may not be amiss to give a few hints
on the purchase of second-hand guns; these are often to be obtained
for considerably less than their original cost, and just as good as
when perfectly new. There are many establishments in London, where
second-hand fire-arms in considerable numbers are regularly kept to
select from; amongst these may be mentioned Whistler in the Strand,
Vaughan in the Strand, Hewett of Blackman-street, Borough, and Watson
of 313, Holborn. After deciding on the description of gun you require,
and ascertaining the cost, see that the maker's name is a good one,
take the number of the gun, and either call, write, or telegraph as
to identity and original price, which matters of information the
manufacturer will immediately furnish. This is not an unnecessary
caution, as, unless the would-be purchaser is experienced in style
of finish, and quality of workmanship, he may possibly invest in an
article sailing under false colours; and here let us most emphatically
impress on the reader that at neither of the shops above referred to
would he knowingly be allowed to be deceived. But that there are guns
in the market with names on them which are forgeries few will deny,
and it requires both the experience of the dealer, and the caution
of the buyer, to guard against being taken in by them. Do not rashly
reject a sound useful gun because it is made by a provincial Irish
or Scotch maker, as there are many gunsmiths out of London who turn
out guns equal in quality and shooting powers to any in the world.
When examining a gun you are about to buy, try the locks by cocking
and uncocking, see that the pitch suits your mode of shooting, draw
the ramrod, lift the hammers to half-cock, drift out the bolt and
reverse the barrels, when on looking underneath near the breech you
will probably see the proof marks and the number of gauge at which
the gun was proved; place the gun gauge in the muzzles and see that
the two numbers correspond, as it occasionally happens that guns are
proved at one number and bored out until they represent another--a most
reprehensible practice, which militates greatly against the safety
of the owner of the gun which has been thus tampered with. Do not,
however, hastily cast aside a well-made Irish gun with a known maker's
name engraved on it because there are no proof marks, as, for some
strange reason or another, the law of proof does not appear to extend
to Ireland; and we have seen many guns of surpassing excellence made
in both Dublin and Cork unstamped. The reason for this anomalous state
of affairs we never have succeeded in getting clearly explained; we
therefore merely speak of matters as we have found them.
Before removing the locks, see that they are neatly and compactly
fitted into the wood of the stock; see also that the timber of the
stock in the bed of the barrels immediately in front of the false
breech is sound; some makers lay in plates of metal at this joint,
which is an excellent plan. On removing the bolt and taking off the
locks, see that all the cavities into which the projections and
springs fit have been cleanly and evenly cut out with the tool. See
also that the triggers work freely and have back springs to them.
See that the interiors of the locks are well fitted together, and
if you can find the name of "Joseph Brazier, Ashes," engraved on the
inside of the plate, you may discontinue your scrutiny so far as the
lock department is concerned, as it is a guarantee for excellence of
quality which we have always found beyond question. Have the breeches
and nipples removed; see that both male and female screws are perfect;
look carefully through the barrels, and see that the inner surfaces
are clear, bright, and free from rust or honeycombing. Cast a general
glance over the gun furniture to see that all is firm and sound. See
that there are no shakes or cracks in the stock, and if there is no
varnish on it so much the better. Whether the barrels are to be of
Damascus or laminated steel, or twisted stubs, we must leave in great
measure to the taste of the purchaser. Each kind has its advocates.
We do not advise having guns without ramrods, as we have seen much
inconvenience arise in wild countries from having the loading rod to
carry and depend on. It is well to have one with a large powerful worm
inside the driving top or end, but it should be regarded rather in the
light of an auxiliary than an instrument to be depended on. {Testing
firearms.} It will also be advisable, before concluding your purchase,
to test the shooting powers of the weapon selected. If a smooth bore,
experiment on it first for accuracy of shooting with shot, in order
to ascertain if the barrels are accurately fitted together. This is
very easily done by trying a few shots from both barrels, at two or
three different ranges, at a small object such as a visiting card. By
fastening this to the centre of the target, and shooting steadily at
it, you will at once ascertain if both the barrels perform their work
satisfactorily, and do not shoot to the right or left. With such a gun
as we have recommended, 3drs. of powder and 1-1/4oz. of No. 5 or 6
shot will be found a fair average charge. Equal quantities by measure
of powder and shot form a charge almost universal in its usefulness.
The next test should be for pattern or regularity of distribution, at
different distances, which may begin at twenty paces and extend to
sixty, using the same charge. A large piece of sheet iron, painted
over with a mixture of pipeclay or whitening and water, should, in
the absence of one of Government pattern, be made use of. Form a
round black space in the middle, and, as in the case of the former
experiment, shoot steadily at it, at the different ranges indicated. It
will then be seen whether the shot are equally and evenly distributed
over a moderately large space of the metal. There are two modes of
testing penetration usually had recourse to. The most common is to
fire the gun, at different ranges, at a number of sheets of paper. Old
books, with the covers removed, answer the purpose as well as anything.
These, when firmly secured against the target, a door, or tree, are
fired at with a fair average charge, in order to ascertain the number
of leaves the shot has found its way through. To carry an experiment
of this kind out satisfactorily, it will be well to test the intended
purchase against some gun of known excellence, as no arbitrary rule can
be laid down as to the number of sheets which should be penetrated, no
two surfaces of paper being exactly alike in quality, substance, and
mode of arrangement. Tin powder canisters are also used as a test of
penetrating power. Some guns will riddle them from side to side, whilst
others, with the same charge, and at the same distance, merely throw
the shot through one thickness of the tin plate. Powder canisters are
not always of the same substance; therefore, we recommend a competitive
trial with them.
The accompanying table of results, which were some time since arrived
at and communicated to the _Field_ by an experienced correspondent,
will serve to show what varied results follow the use of particular
guns and canisters of more than ordinary strength.
"I was struck with the strength and sharpness of shooting of the
7-1/2lb. 11-gauge gun at the trials, of which I sent you the report,
and decided on trying the canisters again. The first was a very hard,
strong canister of Curtis and Harvey's, nearly square, being 4-3/4in.
by 4-1/2in. and 1-3/4in. nearly through. I fired eight barrels, two or
three pellets of each barrel going clean through both sides, and such
as did not go through both sides deeply indenting the second side. I
tried another of Curtis and Harvey's 6-1/2in. by 3-1/4in. by 1-3/8in.,
with like results--No. 5 shot 40 yards (by tape), and the canisters
standing loose on the top of a post. I then tried my heavy gun, 9lb.
11-gauge, barrels 5-1/2lb., 31in. long. I have drawn out a table of
charges and results. The patterns with No. 5 were very good--first-rate
many of them--and the strongest; with the 3-1/2drs. and 1-1/2oz. very
great, the other charge would not do. With No. 4 the strength is very
great, but I cannot rely on the pattern. I then put up a Curtis and
Harvey tin canister (apparently like the last in size and substance),
6-1/2in. by 3-1/4in. by 1-3/8in., and let go my right barrel at 40
yards with No. 5; to my amazement, five pellets stuck in the first
side, but none went through. I then examined it, and it was very
clearly a tough and strong subject. My keeper tried the other barrel
with the same results. He was, however, quite sure that my other gun
would send No. 5 through both sides. I tried several shots the next day
with the other gun at this same canister, but could not get through the
first side; the shots stuck in, and so hard that a strong clasp knife
would hardly extract them. I was astonished, I confess, for the shots
which struck the stone gate-post were flattened as thin as the edge of
a knife; and, standing about 5 yards wide of the mark, the strength
seemed sufficient to go through anything. However, facts are facts; and
the three canisters are now lying on the ground before me. I have since
been experimenting with the light gun and No. 6; the day was not very
favourable, being windy, but I did not like the patterns.
-----+------+------+------+---------+--------+------------------------
| | | | Right | Left |
Dr. | Oz. | No. | Yds. | Barrel. | Barrel.| LIGHT GUN, 7-1/2lb.,
| | | | | | barrels 4-3/4lb. 30in.
-----+------+------+------+---------+--------+------------------------
3 |1-1/4 |No. 6 | 40 | 116 | 110 | Very good. Very good.
| | | | 110 | 107 | Very good. Very good.
| | | | 112 | 93 | Good. Left went to the
| | | | | | left.
| | | 60 | 46 | 41 | Tolerable. Left low.
| |No. 5 | ... | 42 | 31 | Good pattern, and very
hard.
Targets 6ft. by 4-1/2ft., with circle 30in. in diameter; shots on
circle not counted.
----------------------------------------------------------------------
"I do not like No. 6; it comes up hard, too--very hard. I stood behind
the target while my keeper shot at it, both at 40 yards and 60 yards,
so I could judge well; but the patterns had not the killing regularity
of No. 5; a part was thick as dust shot, and another like No. 5, but
without its broad splashes, though the pellets were all as flat as
wafers at 60 yards. I would have backed the bird for ever. I cannot
help thinking that, in windy weather, very little execution could be
done at 40 yards with No. 6. I have since tried other charges--3drs.
1-1/8oz., 3drs. 1-3/10oz., both Nos. 5 and 6; also 3-1/4drs. 1-3/8oz.,
but I do not find any charge beats 3drs. and 1-1/4oz.
------+------+------+------+---------+--------+-----------------------
| | | | Right | Left |
Dr. | Oz. | No. | Yds. | Barrel. | Barrel.| Heavy Gun.
------+------+------+------+---------+--------+-----------------------
3-1/4 |1-3/8 |No. 5 | 40 | 65 | 66 | Right good. Left
excellent.
| | | | 66 | 88 | Right two holes or
| | | | | | spaced. Left first
| | | | | | rate.
| | | 50 | 46 | 39 | Not good. Not good.
| | | | 31 | 40 | Moderate. Moderate.
| | | | | | Want of strength,
| | | | | | not the charge.
| | | | | |
3-1/2 |1-1/2 |No. 5 | 40 | 84 | 81 | Right very good. Left
| | | | | | first-rate.
| | | | 80 | 81 | Right good. Left
| | | | | | excellent.
| | | | 83 | 84 | Right first-rate.
| | | | | | Left first-rate.
| | | 50 | 42 | 50 | Right excellent. Left
| | | | | | excellent.
| | | | 46 | 44 | Right not regular.
| | | | | | Left very good.
| | | | 53 | 51 | Right first-rate.
| | | | | | Left first-rate.
| | | | | | Very regular, very
| | | | | | hard, very close.
| | | | | |
3-1/2 |1-1/2 |No. 4 | 40 | 47 | 52 | Very good.
| | | 50 | 27 | 19 | Not good at all.
Targets 2ft. square, iron, tape measurement; gun 9lb., without ramrod;
barrels 5-1/2lb. and 31in."
----------------------------------------------------------------------
{Rifle sights.}
A rifle, before purchase, should also be carefully tested as to
accuracy of shooting; this can be best done on some rifle range. For
sporting purposes, accuracy of delivery and power of penetration at
moderate distances are much more valuable qualities than length of
range. Accuracy of shooting is best ascertained by firing steadily
from increasing distances at an ordinary target centre, up to 200yds.
A generally useful charge for spherical balls consists of the
bullet-mouldful of the very best powder. Use a greased kid patch for
the ball; see that it has no defects or faults in it; and never strike
it with the driving end of the rod when it has once reached the surface
of the powder in the barrel. Send the ball well home with a steady
pressure from above, and then withdraw the rod. Should it be found
that the balls are sent to the right of the object, in all probability
it will be found on examination that either the hind sight is placed
too far towards the right, or the fore sight too far in the opposite
direction. So with rifles which shoot to the left. If the hind sight
has been shifted in its slot, and driven too far to the left of the
exact line, or the front sight in a direction towards the right, the
balls will be found to assume an untrue flight; and the greater the
distance they have to travel, the more marked will the error become.
The handle of an old tooth brush, fashioned with a file into the form
of an elongated wedge, will, with the aid of a mallet or hammer, serve
to drift the slides into their proper position. This, when once found,
should be noted by making a small but deep cut with the point of a
penknife across both slide and barrel rib, so that if moved the two
ends of the cut will not correspond. Gunmakers usually either cut a
notch or punch in a piece of platinum, with the same view. Rifles will
not unfrequently need re-sighting from accidents in wild countries, but
this subject will be treated of at length hereafter. The penetration
of rifle balls is best ascertained by firing them at a number of thin
elm boards, placed one on the other like a pack of cards. The number of
layers or boards penetrated is at once ascertained by taking off the
planks one by one until the ball is reached.
{Ammunition.}
We are not unfrequently asked to advise as to the quantity of
ammunition a single sportsman should take abroad in order to enjoy a
fair amount of shooting. The duration of the proposed excursion, nature
of game about to be followed, and the proclivities of the intending
traveller, will all influence the bulk of the store he should provide
himself with. Still, a hint or two may at any rate serve for a basis
for him to regulate his purchases by. Supposing, then, that a No. 12
or 11 muzzle-loader, an 11 or 12 bore muzzle-loading rifle, and either
a brace of double pistols or a revolver, are taken; 4lb. of best
sporting powder, 2lb. of rifle ditto, 2000 best caps for guns, which
_should have nipples alike_, and 250 pistol caps; two 28lb. bags of
No. 6 shot, one bag No. 4, and one bag BB. Have sail-canvas bags made
to go outside the ordinary shot bags, as these are sure to burst with
rough travelling. Take six bags of ordinary mercurial gun wads, and six
of extra thick felt ditto as powder wads. These can be split in two
if you run short. Wads of this kind are invaluable, as they keep the
gun clean, improve its power of shooting considerably, and are less
liable to rise in the barrel than those of thin material. Get a stout
elm box made; have it lined with sheet lead; have a division of stout
plank made in the middle, so that the shot may rest at one end and the
powder, wads, and caps at the other. Pack in every crevice with tow,
as that will come handy for cleaning purposes, solder down your lead
cover, and then screw on your elm box-lid. A stout pair of elm cleets
or bars should be secured to both bottom and top of the box. They not
only strengthen it, but prevent the planking from coming in contact
with the earth or wet decks. They also serve to prevent ropes used in
slinging or fastening the case in its various haulings up and lowerings
down from slipping. Cleets of this kind are useful appendages to all
wooden boxes used by travellers.
{Pistols.}
The most efficient and powerful pistol we have used is the holster
revolver of Colonel Colt, but its weight (4lb. 2oz.) is far too great
to admit of its being generally carried except on horseback. There
are not so many objections to the use of breech-loading revolvers and
pistols as there are to guns and rifles made on that plan. In the
first place, they are less liable to breakage or derangement; and in
the next, from the very limited number of cartridges which would be
actually fired, a sufficient number may be very easily taken to last
through a long campaign or expedition. It is an immense advantage
being able to instantly load or unload the chamber without discharging
it. It is customary with many travellers, ourselves amongst the
number, to fire the revolver off every Saturday to clean, re-load,
and re-cap them, thereby sacrificing six charges, six caps, and some
little labour. Notwithstanding all the ingenuity which has of late
been devoted to the production of breech-loading revolvers, we have
not seen one which we can recommend without reservation--the great
fault in every case being smallness of bore. Long range is, as a rule,
not required in a pistol, but that which is required is the power
of inflicting a severe shock to the system at comparatively close
quarters. Numerous cases might be cited when, after lodging two or even
three of the tiny pellets fired from small revolvers in the body of an
enemy, the enemy has had decidedly the best of it, and coolly finished
off the owner of the mechanical popgun with some old-world weapon of
greater power. Until a large-bored and handy breech-loading revolver
is produced, we recommend for use on horseback, either double-barelled
smooth-bore Lefaucheux-pattern pistols with 7-1/2in. barrels and 14
bore, or muzzle-loaders of the same size and gauge, with bar side
locks and swivel ramrods. The over and under double pistol is an
excellent weapon, and is carried by many soldiers and travellers of
great experience; but for our part, we prefer the barrels mounted side
by side, precisely as they are in a double gun. To carry in the belt
for use on foot, the Tranter breech-loader is perhaps as good as any,
although as a rule the trigger pull is too heavy; but this is an evil
which admits of correction.
{Powder flasks, barrel rods, &c.}
Take three Sykes powder-flasks, one to hold a pound and the others
of medium size; have them of tinned copper stitched over with saddle
pig-skin. We prefer for carrying shot a double shot-belt with patent
side springs to any of the lever cut-off contrivances; it is a very
old-fashioned plan we know, but a very effective and useful one for all
that. Two sizes of shot can be carried in it; it can be worn much more
comfortably than a pouch, which is always getting in the way, and there
is no loss of shot from chance blows on the lever: a still greater
advantage lays in your being able to see that which goes into your gun.
If only one size shot can be taken, select No. 6 for general use; but
No. 8, No. 4, and Bristol B. should be added if practicable. Gunpowder
of excellent quality is now to be obtained of all the first-class
makers. For percussion caps, thick felt gun-wads, and ordinary
mercurial ditto, go to either Joyce or Ely. The wire cartridges of
the latter maker are invaluable if they can be carried: we have done
wonders with them. When having your shooting gear put in order, have
two well-seasoned deal rods made, so that they may fit tightly into the
barrels of the gun when covered with two layers of flannel, which must
be firmly stitched on; the sticks are cut exactly the length of the
barrels, and connected at the muzzle ends by a short piece of strong
tape; this serves to draw them out by. Before placing the sticks in the
barrels for final packing up, rub them over with mercurial ointment,
as should be done to both the outsides of the barrels and the gun
furniture; there is little fear of rust attacking your firearms when
treated in this way.
A brass mould for casting buck shot will be found very useful. One we
have found of infinite service is thus made: Two long narrow cheeks of
brass are fitted at one end with a hinge, each cheek has the halves
of fifteen shot sockets at each edge, making, when the two halves are
closed, thirty perfect spherical moulds for shot. A groove and row
of inlets run along each edge, and two movable steel plates cut off
the necks of the shot when cool. There are two handles, and the whole
affair is not unlike a long narrow pair of nutcrackers. The shot thus
cast are about the size of garden peas, and an ounce of them, with
3-1/2drs. of powder behind it from a No. 11 gun, forms a charge which
will be found most formidable if used at moderately close quarters.
When defending a camp or waggon fort against the attacks of savages
nothing is equal to it.
Stationery and Artist's Materials.
It is to be supposed that most persons visiting little-known regions
will at least keep a diary for private gratification, if not for public
use; and now that drawing from nature is so essential a branch of
education, they will most likely also wish to sketch such objects or
scenes as may be most interesting. Some who aspire to more exactitude
of detail than an artist can hope for in a hasty sketch may wish to
practise photography; and in this beautiful art the greatest possible
facilities are offered to those who practise it. We have lately seen in
London many most beautiful pictures taken by Dr. Kirk on the Zambesi
with a small and inexpensive camera, carried as a mere supplement to
his private equipment; but unless the traveller possesses, as Kirk did,
chemical knowledge enough to enable him to contend successfully against
the various contingencies of changing climate, impurity or scarcity of
water, and innumerable other new and unexpected difficulties, we are
inclined to think that the pencil, guided with what artistic skill the
individual may be able to command, will afford, if not the best, at
least the most certainly available results; and, without undervaluing
photography, we may in this preliminary chapter notice principally the
appliances which will enable a man to keep his journal and illustrate
it with sketches of interesting scenes or objects.
{The journal.}
First, then, as to the journal. Of course, for purposes of
correspondence, a traveller will take care to supply himself with some
one of the substantial and economical portable desks in which pens,
ink, note-paper, and envelopes are always at hand to enable him to
write a creditable letter from almost any part of the world. But the
journal or diary is another matter; its value consists chiefly in its
being what its name indicates--a diary or diurnal record. It must be
written while the events described are fresh on the memory, or there
is neither life nor spirit in it. If the journal of to-day is put off,
the events of to-morrow will confuse and dim the impressions that
ought in all their pristine vigour to have been committed to paper;
procrastination is the thief of time, and we may well say that it will
rob the journal of the traveller of all that freshness and vivacity
which alone can make it interesting.
[Illustration]
The question, then, is, how shall he carry with him material so that
each night, by the blazing camp-fire, the scantily-fed oil lamp, or
the last half hour of the quickly waning twilight, he may record his
impressions of the events of the day? We will suppose that the chase
has occupied him; or he has been engaged, as we have, in desultory
warfare in Kaffirland or India; or even, it may be, passing through
a peaceful country, with no other than the common difficulties of
exploration and objects of interest in botany, zoology, or any of the
innumerable departments of science crowding on him at every hour. He
will, perhaps, wish to send home one or more copies of his diary as
correspondence, and it is absolutely necessary that he himself should
retain a perfect copy. Ink he cannot at all times carry, nor could he
use it, for the drying up of the fluid, the clogging and corroding
of his pens, would be insuperable difficulties; and, beside this, as
his time is not sufficient for him to write in detail, even for the
first time, all that he wishes, how shall he obtain a copy? In answer
we will simply state the plan we have successfully adopted. Pen and
ink we discarded altogether, and trusted simply to the powers of a
good HH. pencil and a supply of thin white foolscap interleaved with
semi-carbonic paper, as shown in the illustration here given. By this
arrangement we were able at any time to record all needful remarks or
observations in duplicate, and could have extended this if necessary
to five copies, while all the labour of re-writing was saved and all
chance of error obviated by this simple process.
{Artist's materials.}
With regard to artist's materials, until we have an opportunity of
going farther into detail, perhaps all that need be said is that the
traveller, knowing his own capabilities and requirements, should
supply himself with material from some respectable colourman--Reeves,
Winsor and Newton, or others--with such materials as he requires. To
one who has real facility in sketching, the black-lead pencil and a
few quires of sketching cartridge paper will be the means of affording
illustrations which, compared with the simple means employed, may be
accounted marvellous; but if he has skill in colouring and will add
to this a water-colour box, with tubes, or moist colours in porcelain
pans, in assortments (always kept by the best colourmen), with a few
sable or other pencils, and brushes of the best quality (for there is
really no saving in buying cheap goods), he may obtain results that
will in after years more than repay the cost and labour he has expended
upon them.
Details of our own outfit and expenditure will hereafter be given; and
we may now briefly mention that, for pure and careful painting, white
paper--say Whatman's--is indispensable; but where strict accuracy of
tint is not essential, it is very soothing to the eye, especially under
the fervid rays of an almost vertical sun, to have the paper slightly
tinted with pearl, warm grey, light drab, or neutral colours, which, if
well chosen, will enable the artist to make very effective drawings in
sepia, or colours heightened with Chinese white.
For persons wishing to employ their leisure in pleasing mementoes of
the scenes they visit, perhaps the following brief list--amplified,
should they desire it--will afford sufficient guidance; and they will
also do well to choose one or more of the shilling handbooks published
by Rowney and Co., or Winsor and Newton.
A sketching portfolio, with folding tin frame to confine the paper
while in use, and pocket for spare paper--quarto size. Do not take
sketching blocks where they have to stand rough usage.
One of folio size, if desired.
A good strong havresac of canvas, with leather slings for each folio.
Stout canvas is almost waterproof. This should have pockets for colour
box, water bottle, pencils, and penknife.
Half quire Whatman's drawing paper (white). Some of it should be cut to
the size of the folio.
Half quire sketching cartridge for less finished work.
Half quire tinted drawing paper (pearl, light drab, cool and warm
greys).
A proportion of all these papers should be cut to the size of the
sketch book when purchased; but a few sheets should be kept whole, as a
larger drawing may be required.
Two dozen drawing pencils--8 HH., 12 H., and 4 HB. In practice, it will
be found HB. is black enough, and it should be used sparingly, as,
unless a drawing is fixed immediately, the deep shades are very apt to
smear when the backs of other sketches are packed against them.
Two single bladed penknives.
Very compact sketching boxes with assorted colours in cakes, in
porcelain pans, or in collapsible tubes, are provided; and the amateur
can hardly do better than select one of these with any number of
colours from two to twenty-four.
We prefer to use the collapsible tubes, as from them any amount of
colour may be placed upon the palette ready for use, without the
trouble of grinding from the cake or washing up from the moist pan.
Another advantage is that the colour remaining in the tube cannot be
spoiled by the admixture of any other--the tubes might be carried loose
in the pocket of a white waistcoat without fear of spoiling it. There
are, however, a few which do not keep well, as, from their weight, they
separate from the medium they are mixed with and become hard. Some of
these are seldom used; but, where they are necessary, we should advise
that they be taken in cakes.
On tinted paper very nice effective sketches may be made with one tube
of sepia and a cake of Chinese white. With these we should advise three
brown sable pencils in flat German silver ferrules--Nos. 1, 3, and 6.
With the addition to these of the three primitive colours--red, blue,
and yellow--a considerable range of subjects may be painted; indeed
could we obtain these in perfect purity, we should require no other.
But, as this is impossible, we subjoin a list of colours, placing first
in order those that we have found most useful (Chinese white and sepia
have been already mentioned):--
Indian yellow,
Carmine,
French blue,
Yellow ochre,
Light red,
Prussian blue,
Gamboge,
Rose madder (perhaps in cake),
Cobalt,
Raw sienna (cake),
Burnt sienna,
Indigo,
Yellow lake,
Mars orange,
Payne's grey,
Vermilion (cake),
Vandyke brown,
Emerald green,
Scarlet lake (cake),
Crimson lake,
Purple lake,
Cadmium yellow (cake),
Brown madder (cake),
Purple madder (cake).
With these, the whole set from 1 to 6 of the sables in flat albata
will be needed, and we advise two each of 1, 2, and 3, as well as one
or two large swans' quills for washing in the sky or flat tints. A
tripod sketching stool folding to the size of a special's staff would
be useful, but the rivet should be strong and well clinched. Let the
watercolour box have divisions on the edge of the palette for every
colour it contains. If you take an easel, do not trust an india-rubber
collar joint; it will not stand tropical heat; let the joint be brass.
The tripod easel, folding up like a single rod, is most portable. We
have in this said nothing of oil colours; amateurs will hardly need
them in a wild country; but when we treat more at length on this
subject our own equipment will be given.
Scientific Instruments.
{Instruments for mapping the route.}
If the traveller aims at exploring and approximately mapping the
country he passes through, astronomical instruments are indispensable,
and of these none are more useful than the compass; the sextant, with
artificial horizon; the note book, conveniently ruled, for recording
observations; and the protractor, the scale, and the dividers, for
laying them down upon the map. If merely a pleasure excursion in a
sufficiently known country is contemplated, a pocket compass will be
all that is needed; and even that is dispensed with by hunters and
traders, who push farther every year into the wilderness without fear
of either mistaking their way or being unable to return upon their own
tracks.
A great amount of detail may be filled in with the following simple
outfit:--A pocket compass, not only showing the points as in common
use, but graduated on the outer circle with degrees, reading
uninterruptedly from zero all round to 360: this will give the
direction of the road, the bearings of any two objects, and the angle
between them. A waistcoat-pocket ivory 6in. folding rule: this will
serve the purpose both of scale and protractor; the eighths of an inch
may be conveniently taken to represent miles, and by laying the rule
upon the compass, so that its joint coincides with the centre on which
the needle turns, and opening the legs to the degrees marked upon the
circumference, the required angle may be approximately transferred to
the note book. For observing latitudes a sextant is indispensable. If
great accuracy is not required, a pocket or box sextant of from three
to four inches diameter, and reading to half miles, will answer; but
for more precision one of at least 8in. radius should be taken, framed
entirely of metal, as wood will shrink and warp; it should read to 15
or even to 10 seconds, or sixtieths of a mile. There are many forms of
artificial horizon, but of these the mercurial is the best, and, in
fact, the only one we can confidently recommend. The trough should not
be less than five inches long by three broad, and we prefer an oval
form, with a convenient spout for pouring off the quicksilver when
done with. A glass roof is used to protect the surface of the mercury,
should there be any wind, and this may be made to fold into a very
small compass, if desired. Six, or at least four, pounds of mercury
should be provided; and this should be kept in an iron bottle, with
screwed stopper and cover, serving as a funnel, which should be further
protected by a piece of washleather tied over it. We have used as a
substitute a common stoneware ink bottle, with leather securely tied
over the cork, but wooden bottles are sure to split and leak when taken
to hot countries.
With this equipment, a superior compass, for the more accurate
determination of bearings, will be required. A prismatic compass is
very useful, but we have used, with great convenience and accuracy, a
flat one with a card of three inches diameter, divested of everything
but the slit and hair line sights, which are used just as those of a
rifle are, and protected only by a stout glass, which saved the trouble
of removing and replacing the cover. A small pouch on the waist belt
was appropriated exclusively to this. The note book may be of good
non-metallic writing-paper, such as is in common use. This may be
written on very conveniently with a H. or HH. drawing pencil, which is
practically indelible. It would be convenient to have lines ruled along
the side of the page for the courses and time or estimated distance;
£. _s._ _d._ columns will do very well for this. For mapping, paper
may be purchased ruled with squares of almost any desired size; the
inches are marked with strong lines, and the subdivisions, eights or
tenths, with fainter. This should be cut to fit one of the quarto
sketching folios, with folding frame to confine the sheet in use, and
pocket for spare paper as commonly used by artists. The instruments
absolutely necessary for plotting the result are a semicircular,
or, still better, a circular protractor, marked like the compass
with degrees from 0 to 360, and made of brass, or preferably of some
transparent material. A 6in. scale, with the usual divisions, and a
good pair of compasses or dividers, with points as fine as possible,
but somewhat obtuse, to prevent the possibility of their piercing the
paper and breaking off in it. For heights of mountains, the simplest
and most reliable instrument is the hypsometrical or boiling-point
apparatus, which, though not so accurate as the mountain barometer, is
sufficiently so for ordinary purposes, and has this great merit--it
cannot easily be put out of order. The rainfall, should the country be
blessed with any, may be measured by a Casella rain gauge, which we
have also used very successfully on a pinch as a funnel for drawing off
rum from a barrel. Thermometers reading up to boiling point ought to
be carried, and in addition to these the traveller may provide himself
with a self-registering maximum and minimum, and a wet and dry bulb
thermometer.
[Illustration]
One of the greatest difficulties that an observer working on shore with
the artificial horizon can meet with is--that the actual angle to be
observed is doubled by reflection in the quicksilver. Few sextants read
higher than 120° or 130°, consequently, when the sun is 70° high, it
is beyond the reach of ordinary instruments. To meet this, Captain C.
George, R.N., of the Royal Geographical Society, has invented a very
beautiful little instrument, in the form of a double box sextant, and
the object of which is either to take two angles at one observation,
by referring two distant objects to a common centre, and completing at
once a perfect triangle, or, by the increased power of the instrument,
to take any required angle that may be too great for those in ordinary
use. The instrument is best described as being a special arrangement
of two sextants placed one over the other. Each sextant is complete in
all its essential details, and, if so required, can be detached and
separately used.
The "Improved Double Sextant" is capable of being applied to the
following uses:--
(1.) To the measurement of angles of nearly double the arc which
can be measured by the ordinary sextant.
(2.) To the simultaneous measurement of two angles.
(3.) To laying out a direct line between any two objects, thus
acting as a substitute for a Raper's instrument.
(4.) To laying out curves for railways, harbour works, &c., &c.
(5.) It can be used as an optical square.
(6.) It can be used as a dip-sector.
(7.) It can be used on shipboard to measure the supplement of the
meridian altitude, in cases where the land intervenes between
the observer and the direct meridional horizon.
(8.) It can be used on shore with the artificial horizon in
obtaining altitudes of objects near the zenith.
(9.) It is also available as two distinct sextants, one of which
can be used in case of the other being damaged, or one can be
used by an assistant, and the other retained by the observer.
A pocket compass is now made in which the northern half is black with
white points, and the southern white with black points; the advantage
of which by night or twilight is obvious. We prefer that the card
should travel with the magnet, as all the points then come naturally
into position, and the excessive liveliness of the needle which renders
a rapid observation so difficult is obviated. We have carried a pocket
compass with a swivel ring, so that it could be worn on the left
thumb, while we held the note book and kept the right hand free for
writing or guiding the horse. It is easier to make pencil notes on
horseback than in a waggon. For the proper registration of the time and
distance travelled, a good well-going hunting watch is necessary; and
if it has a black dial and white figures so much the better. This will
serve sufficiently well for taking time in the observation of lunar
distances. Unless under very exceptional circumstances it would be
useless for an explorer to trouble himself with a chronometer. A good
binocular field glass for day and night will be found useful.
[Illustration: PORTABLE OBSERVATORY.]
[Illustration: TRIANGULAR COMPASSES.]
[Illustration: SLIDING BEAM COMPASSES.]
{Portable observatory.}
We give a sketch of a very convenient arrangement made for us by Mr.
Casella, in which the roof of the artificial horizon, slung with
its point downward in a leather case, with pieces of tin let in to
protect the glass from injury, was filled up with a block of light
cedar, with hollows cut in it for the reception of the pocket sextant,
iron-stoppered bottle of mercury and funnel cap, prismatic compass,
note book with tables of declination cut from Hannay and Dietrichsen's
Almanac pasted in it, pencil, skin of chamois leather, and over all the
horizon trough. Lieutenant Skead, R.N., who accompanied the expedition
to the Zambesi, frequently used it, and called it "a portable
observatory." If the traveller intends to be long absent, he should
supply himself with the Nautical Almanac for three years in advance,
as well as with Norie's or Raper's Epitome, or Kerigan's Navigation.
In addition to the instruments we have described, triangular compasses
are very useful for taking the exact relative position of three
points, and sliding beam compasses for long distances. Proportional
compasses are also very useful in plotting the result of observations;
we were accustomed to pin down half a dozen sheets over each other
on the drawing board, and with a fine needle point prick the course
through the whole of them; then by underlaying them with semi-carbonic
paper, and writing the names on the upper sheet with a HHH. pencil,
three or even more copies at a time might be obtained, the number,
of course, depending much on the thinness of the paper we worked
on. (See accompanying illustration.) [Illustration] {Measurement of
distances.} Bear in mind that what an explorer wants is the means of
approximately laying down his course and distance travelled, and his
latitude precisely; the sextant and artificial horizon will do the
last within a mile. The compass will give the course very nearly if he
walks or rides; no instrument can be perfectly depended on. A pedometer
will do for short distances, but when he becomes weary it counts his
feeble steps just as it did his vigorous strides at the beginning, and
thus shows more than the truth. If wheel carriages can be used, take
a trochiameter, and contrive if possible to have the wheel on which
it is fixed exactly _five yards in circumference_; it saves no end of
trouble if there are no odd half inches to calculate. For mapping,
do not take a case of instruments unless they are really good; have
rather a few good ones wrapped in a chamois skin, a small ivory rule on
which the eighths of an inch serve for miles, a pair of good dividing
compasses, a good circular protractor transparent marked, from 0 to
360, a small parallel rule, HHH. pencils, a cake of blue for rivers,
and carmine for roads, with a couple of sable pencils and a fine
incorrodible metallic pen, will enable you to make a very complete and
reliable map.
In the map room of the Royal Geographical Society a small selection of
practical works is kept, a list of which, by the courtesy of Captain C.
George, we are enabled to insert here. It is as follows:--
The Traveller's Library.
_Astronomy._
Outlines of Astronomy. Sir J. Herschel, Bart. (Longman and Co. 1858.)
11_s._
Astronomy and General Physics. W. Whewell. (W. Pickering. 1857.) 4_s._
Illustrated London Astronomy. J. R. Hind. (Ingram and Co. 1853.) 1_s._
6_d._
Handbook--Descriptive and Practical Astronomy. G. F. Chambers. (J.
Murray. 1861.) 10_s._
Elements of Plane Astronomy. J. Brinkley, D.D. (Hodges and Smith.
1845.) 6_s._
Orbs of Heaven; Planetary and Stellar Worlds. O. M. Mitchell. (N.
Cooke. 1856.) 2_s._ 3_d._
_Navigation._
Navigation and Nautical Astronomy. Rev. J. Inman. (Rivingtons. 1862.)
6_s._ 3_d._
Complete Epitome of Practical Navigation. (J. W. Norie. 1864.) 14_s._
[N.B. The latest edition should be asked for.]
Lunar Time Tables. J. Gordon. (Imray. 1853.) 7_s._
Handbook for the Stars. H. W. Jeans. (Levey, Robson, and Co. 1848.)
3_s._ 6_d._
_Mathematics, Trigonometry, and Spherics._
Manual of Mathematical Tables. Galbraith and Houghton. (Longman and
Co. 1860.) 2_s._
Mathematical Tracts. G. B. Airy. (J. W. Parker. 1842.) 9_s._ 6_d._
Treatise on Practical Mensuration. A. Nesbit. (Longman and Co. 1864.)
5_s._ 4_d._
Practical Introduction to Spherics and Nautical Astronomy. P. Kelly,
LL.D. (Baldwin and Co. 1822.) 7_s._
Treatise on Trigonometry. G. B. Airy. (Griffin and Co. 1855.) 2_s._
3_d._
_For Travellers._
What to Observe; or, Travelling Remembrancer. Col. Jackson. Revised by
Dr. Norton Shaw. (Houlston and Wright. 1861.) 9_s._ 6_d.
_Geodesy and Surveying, Military, Nautical, and Land Surveying._
Treatise on Military Surveying. Lieut. Col. Jackson. (Allen and Co.
1860.) 12_s._
Outline of Method of conducting a Trigonometrical Survey. Col. Frome.
(Weale. 1862.) 10_s._ 6_d._
Practical Geodesy. J. W. Williams. (Parker and Son. 1835.) 7_s._ 6_d._
Trigonometrical Surveying, Levelling, and Engineering. W. Galbraith.
(Blackwood and Son. 1842.) 6_s._ 9_d._
Engineering Field Notes on Parish and Railway Surveying and Levelling.
H. J. Castle. (Simpkin and Co. 1847.) 8_s._
Practice of Engineering Field Work. W. D. Haskoll. (Atchley and Co.
1858.) 17_s._ 6_d._
Treatise on Nautical Surveyings. Com. Belcher. (Richardson. 1835.)
12_s._
_Weights and Measures._
Weights and Measures of All Nations. W. Woolhouse. (Virtue Bros.
1863.) 1_s._ 6_d._
Foreign Measures and their English Values. R. C. Carrington. (Potter.
1864.)
_Construction of Maps._
Manual of Map-making. A. Jamieson. (Fullarton. 1846.) 2_s._
Manual of Topographical Drawing. Lieut. R. Smith. (J. Wiley. 1854.)
5_s._
_Projection of the Sphere._
Projection and Calculation of the Sphere. S. M. Saxby. (Longman and
Co. 1861.) 4_s._ 3_d._
_Use of Instruments._
Treatise on Principal Mathematical and Drawing Instruments. F.
Williams. (Weale. 1857.) 3_s._ 2_d._
The Sextant and its Applications. Simms. (Troughton and Simms. 1858.)
4_s._ 6_d._
Treatise on Mathematical Instruments. J. Heather. (Virtue Bros. 1863.)
1_s._
_Geography._
Geography Generalised. R. Sullivan. (Longman and Co. 1863.) 2_s._
In addition to these, every one ought to possess the Admiralty Manual
of Scientific Enquiry, which is a series of papers written for the
direction of explorers by men of the highest standing in various
sciences; and no better general work can be recommended.
[Illustration: NORTH AUSTRALIAN EXPEDITION SADDLE EQUIPMENT.
NAMAQUA GUN BUCKET.]
Horse Equipment.
{Saddles.}
A good roomy hunting saddle, turned out as only an experienced
English maker can, or, at any rate, so far as our experience has
gone, ever does, we look on as the very perfection of that on which a
horseman should sit; and we strongly advise every one leaving England
for any country in which he has to ride, to provide himself with at
least one. The various saddles used abroad will be described farther
on. It will be requisite to have a number of "Ds" fastened on in the
most convenient situations for attaching by straps the various matters
which it is at times requisite to carry. Two soft leather holsters
should be fitted to the front, and a wallet (see engraving), made to
rest behind the off saddle flap and thigh of the rider, suspended by
straps from Ds sewn firmly on for that purpose. At the rear of the
saddle should also be attached a double row of Ds for the purpose of
securing a sort of leather cover or envelope (see engraving), within
which, when on the march, the head and heel ropes, with their pins,
are secured. The mode of using these, as well as "knee halters," &c.,
will be described when treating on that subject. Two "numdahs," or
saddle cloths, should accompany the saddle. The best we have seen of
late are composed of a thick species of felt; but, during the most
rapid and fatiguing forced marches through Central India, at the time
of the mutiny, we used two of quilted cotton of native manufacture,
which were put on alternately, one getting dry whilst the other was
becoming saturated with perspiration from the horse, and so, by a
constant change of these, avoiding one of the worst misfortunes that
can befall the horse of the traveller through a wild country, viz., "a
sore back." The skin of the klip springer, prepared with the hair on,
forms an admirable numdah. Saddles are greatly protected during rough
travel, and their durability much increased, by having cases made for
them of soft "russet" leather, or that which is infinitely better, when
it can be obtained, "saumber skin." We have had covers for all our
saddles made of it, to protect the pig skin from the tremendous thorns
of tropical forests, as well as the numerous other sources of injury to
which saddles are liable. The stirrup-iron should be of large size, so
as to admit of the free passage in and out of a thick boot with some
mud or clay about it. Two or three pairs of substantial hunting spurs,
with wide straps, will be found the most reliable kind of "persuader."
{Bridle.} The most useful bridle we ever had was of the "shifting
bead collar pattern," so constructed that, by unbuckling a pair of
side straps, both bits, with the reins attached, came off, leaving a
strong head collar, with a chin strap, on which was an iron ring for
a coil of rope to be suspended from, as shown in the illustration on
page 37. Numerous opinions exist touching "bits," and much diversity
of opinion must remain after all the arguments which have from time
to time been expended on the subject; as the temperaments of horses
and men vary, and as the peculiar purposes to which the horse, in the
number of phases or conditions in which he is called on to minister
to the wants and pleasures of his master, are changed, so will some
modification of the means used for his control and direction be
required. Pall-mall is one place and the forest another; and it by no
means follows, because the equipment one has used with English hunters
in an English hunting-field has been found all that could be desired,
that native bred or colonial horses, ridden in pursuit of game, require
no other. We do not think it would be profitable to the reader to enter
here on a description of the bits used by various nations and tribes.
We advise as nearly as possible adhering in this, as well as in many
other customs, to the mode adopted by the particular race or nation
amongst whom the traveller may chance to sojourn. Still, we recommend
him to take out from England (besides the bit fitted on the head
collar bridle, which may be a plain strong snaffle) two "segundras" of
medium power. Have no more buckles in either heads or reins than are
absolutely needed. Nothing tends to weaken a bridle so much, during the
exposure consequent on an outdoor life, as the rusting out of buckles
and the breaking or pulling through of their tongues--both sources of
endless trouble and annoyance.
{Pack saddles.}
For simple and efficient equipment both for pack and saddle horses we
do not know a better model than that adopted by Augustus C. Gregory,
Commander of the North Australian Expedition, and now Gold Medallist
of the Royal Geographical Society, with whom we had the honour of
serving from 1855 to 1857. The pack saddles, elaborately constructed
in England, which we took out to him were at once condemned for two
reasons; first, that they were unnecessarily heavy, and next that the
points of suspension for the load were so high that the least swaying
of the saddle would severely wring the horse's back. The large flaps
were saved as a reserve of useful leather for emergencies, and the
thick felt saddle cloths were gladly appropriated to their proper
use; but the complicated arrangement of wood and iron, combining the
undesirable qualities of weakness, weight, and inconvenience, was left
in store to await the sale of surplus equipment on our return.
The pack saddle, made under the direction of Mr. Gregory, consisted
simply of two boards of Australian cedar, about twenty inches long
by seven broad, inclined at such an angle as to sit fairly on the
horse's ribs, and at such a distance from each other that the spine
should remain uninjured between them. These were connected by two stout
bows of iron, 1-1/2in. broad by 3/8in. thick, arching well clear of
the horse's back, and having on each side hooks firmly riveted into
them for the suspension of the bags in which our provisions, &c.,
were stowed. The crupper was buckled round the aftermost bow, and the
straps for the attachment of the breasting, breeching, and girths were
screwed on the outside of the cedar planks. We hope the illustration on
the next page is sufficiently clear to indicate the position of these
without further description; it will be seen that the girths cross each
other as they pass under the belly.
[Illustration: NORTH AUSTRALIAN EXPEDITION PACKHORSE EQUIPMENT.]
A pair of pads, sufficiently large to prevent not only the saddle but
also the packs chafing the horse, were attached to the boards by thongs
passing through holes bored in either end, so that upon occasion we
could easily remove them to re-arrange the stuffing, and tie them again
in their places. One of the thick felted saddle cloths before mentioned
was invaluable as an additional protection. The form of the bags will
also be readily understood by a glance at the frontispiece. They were
of stout canvas, as wide as one breadth of the material, and the ends
were formed by a pear-shaped piece let in, and strongly roped round the
seams; the loops at the upper part were bound with leather, and iron
cringles or grummets were let in, by which to hang them on the hooks.
No other fastening was used, so that if a horse fell in the rugged
mountain paths, or in fording a rough and swollen torrent, it was an
advantage to him to shake off his bags at once, while we were generally
able to fish them up again before even such perishable stores as sugar
could be reached by water, through the pack and double bags of canvas
in which we kept them. Nothing whatever was allowed to be fastened to
the bows above the suspension hooks; indeed there was a general order
that the horse should carry nothing that was not contained in the side
bags. The smaller bags for flour, sugar, and other stores, were also
the length of one breadth of canvas. One end was formed by a circular
piece of canvas about eight inches in diameter, and the other was left
to be closed when they were filled. The inner bag was of plain canvas,
and this was covered by another that had been well saturated with
boiled linseed oil; these held about fifty pounds of flour, &c., and
in each flour bag two 1/2lb. tins of gunpowder were kept _perfectly
secure from fire or water_; we generally ate the flour as fast as we
wanted the powder. Each pair of side bags was numbered, and carefully
balanced one against the other, the stowage of each being from seventy
to seventy-five pounds, so that the total load of the horse should not
much exceed 160lb.
[Illustration]
All the horses were furnished with a stout headstall and halter, which
may be readily understood from the above engraving, and to which, when
requisite, the bit and bridle could be buckled by short straps attached
to the ring for that purpose.
Our riding saddles were provided with stout Ds, the straps of which
were not stitched to the leather, but either firmly screwed into the
wood, or passed round the frame of the saddle. Three of these in front
served to receive the straps for buckling on "the swag," or a couple of
stout red or blue blankets, which, with the extra shirt and trowsers
serving as a pillow, formed our sole bedding. This was formed into a
roll a little more than 3ft. long, and 6in. diameter, and carefully
adjusted so as to arch well clear of the horse's withers. In front
of the saddle bar, on the off side, was a stout ring, through which
passed the slings of the gun bucket, which was made quite roomy enough
to allow a double barrel to be withdrawn or again inserted without
trouble, and was kept from collapsing by a ring of iron stitched into
its upper edge; and the tedious process of unbuckling the strap usually
passed round and round the grip of the gun stock was obviated by the
very simple spring and swivel catch shown in the sketch.
It may be mentioned that we found the spring bar a very convenient
arrangement, and only once we lost a stirrup leather when a rider had
dismounted to allow his horse to descend more easily a difficult hill;
but for such contingencies spare stirrups, &c., had been provided by
the commander. Two Ds on either side supported such saddle pouches
as were required; we preferred the nearly square form shown in the
sketch of saddle on page 36, as being more roomy, containing in one the
quarto sketch book actually in use, and in the other, a store of paper,
&c., for further supply. Small loops, the attachment of which is just
indicated on the inside of one of these bags, led forward for the girth
to pass through and keep the pouches from flapping.
Some of us carried a valise, such as is separately represented, and
others would make a roll of spare clothing; but it was imperative on
all that nothing whatever should be allowed to rest on the horse's
spine, but should be padded or otherwise arranged so as to pass clear
over it. The hobbles were formed of a band of stout leather, double
the required width, turned up and stitched so as to form a flat edge
and a round one. In use, the sewn edge was always uppermost, so that
the fetlock might not be chafed. They were connected by a short chain,
having a swivel in the centre, and a double hook at each end, the hooks
having holes pierced in their extremities for the reception of thongs,
by which one end of each hobble was moused or secured from falling
off. The hobbles were carried on the off side of the saddle, behind
the pouches; and were not unfrequently balanced by the pannikin and
tin quart, so essential to an Australian, that Henry, our commander's
brother, declared his conviction that no one could become a successful
traveller till he reduced his equipment to a clasp knife and a quart
pot. Bells were hung to the headstalls of the horses most apt to stray,
but thongs were fastened to the clappers, that they might be tied up
during the day's march.
Our personal equipment consisted of a brown leather waist-belt, with
snake fastening, carrying a small ammunition pouch, a revolver, and a
compass; the naturalist, geologist, botanist, or artist adding to this
such instruments as they required. Some few of us favoured braces, but
with the majority they were at a discount. A cabbage-tree hat, or one
of soft felt, a striped cotton shirt for fine weather, serge for wet,
moleskin trowsers, light woollen socks, and ankle boots, completing our
general costume.
Some hundred fathoms of small rope formed an essential portion of our
equipment, the use of which will be best understood on reference to
the frontispiece (which illustrates an expedient strictly within the
range of actual travel, and is here introduced chiefly to show the
form of pack-saddle bag which we found convenient, and can, therefore,
recommend to intending explorers). This shift will hereafter be more
fully described when we have to treat of those which must be improvised
by every traveller on such emergencies.
[Illustration: NAMAQUA, WITH GUN, ON RIDING OX.]
{Gun slings.}
An excellent method of carrying the gun on horse or ox back we have
seen in common use among the semi-civilised Hottentots of Namaqua land;
it consists simply of a bag or bucket of tolerably stout leather,
large enough to contain the stock of the gun butt downward, nearly as
far as the lock; it can be fastened to the saddle in exactly the same
manner as that in use among us, or it can be fastened to the saddle
bar on the near side and thrown over to the off. It is generally made
of the softened but untanned leather of the country, and fastened by
a thong and noose where we should, for more convenience and neatness,
use a buckle. Its merits are that the gun lies easily before the thigh,
pointing upward behind the right arm, so that an accidental discharge,
if such a thing were possible, could hurt no one; it is easily removed
by shifting the arm within and lifting it from the bag without the
trouble of casting off any secondary fastening; and above all, it is
impossible that even in the roughest riding the charge could be jerked
forward in the barrel to the imminent danger of bursting it, as we
ourselves have witnessed at the first discharge, where the gun has been
carried muzzle downwards. The illustration below shows another very
convenient form of gun sling, which we have found to answer admirably.
When in use, the muzzles of the gun are above the left shoulder, and
the stock behind the right thigh. By bringing the right hand back the
toggle securing the loop round the grip is instantly released, when the
gun drops into the right hand, releasing itself from the ring by its
own weight, and is ready for instant use.
[Illustration: GUN SLING.]
Cutlery.
{Knives.}
Do not be induced to encumber yourself with one of those ornamented,
highly polished, useless abominations popularly known as hunting
knives; they are worse than useless, and only serve to exasperate the
owner. For general rough and ready work, nothing is better than a
strong well-made butcher's knife. The blade should be continued through
the handle, which is formed by pinning two cheeks of hard wood or horn
together. The hand grip should be long, and the steel sufficiently
soft to be cut by a common hand saw file; and we strongly recommend
our readers to apply the file test to every cutting tool they provide
themselves with, as the hard woods of tropical countries cause endless
breakages and notchings when highly-tempered instruments are made use
of. In the purchase of a pocket knife, choose one that is small enough
to be a constant companion; one, or at most two blades will be found
sufficient for one handle. A very convenient description of knife is to
be met with in most hardware shops. The handle is straight and flat.
A stout stick-cutting blade is at one end of the haft, and a strong
scalpel-shaped pen blade at the other. The miniature tool chests sold
under the name of pocket knives to emigrants are jacks of all trades
in their way, having all sorts of supposed capabilities, associated
with a general tendency to uselessness. A pair of stout large bowed
scissors will be found very useful, as well as a small piece of Turkey
or Washita oilstone. This should have a little wooden box with a slide
cover made for it, in order to preserve it from breakage. A few tools,
well selected, can scarcely be dispensed with. {Tools.} The following
list we can recommend, but our readers must of course be guided as to
the number they will take by the purposes of their proposed journey:--
[Illustration]
Small hand axe, felling axe (American pattern).
Belt tomahawk.
Hand saw (medium size).
Three chisels (3/4in., 1/2in., and 1/4in.), and one cold chisel.
Three gouges (of the same sizes as the chisels).
Three gimblets (from ten-penny nail size downwards).
Six bradawls (assorted), to fit in one boxwood handle.
Six saddler's awls, ditto ditto.
Six shoemaker's awls, ditto ditto.
One 1/2in. shell auger (without handle).
One screw driver (1/2in).
One engineer's riveting hammer (1/2lb).
One pair of carpenter's pincers.
One pair of strong pliers (bell-hanger's pattern).
Three hand-saw files (one rat-tail; one flat; one half-round).
One rasp, one soldering bolt, one pair of tin snips, ingot of solder,
a lump of resin, and small ladle for lead melting.
A few nails, screws, pump tacks, and coils of copper and iron wire,
will be found useful.
Billhook, as in illustration.
{Billhooks.}
One or more billhooks will be found of great value when traversing the
tangled thickets, for dividing vines, lianas, briars, and entangled
branches. We have found the following form of hook extremely powerful,
and capable of cutting through most formidable impediments. The
following illustration represents the two sides of the hook, which, as
will be seen on examination, are not alike. [Illustration] The near
side of the blade, or that which would, when the instrument is used by
a right-handed man, lay towards the left, is slightly hollowed, and the
edge, instead of being bevelled, remains perfectly flush with it, like
the front of a very large gouge. The off-side edge is bevelled, and
exactly like that of a chisel. The plate of the blade should be 10in.
long, and stouter at the back than most ordinary English billhooks.
Instead of terminating in a tang or spill, the metal should be
continued throughout the handle as far as the point at which the curved
knob at its end is carved out. Handles for these hooks are best made
from natural-grown sticks of suitable bend. The wood must be tough,
strong, durable, and well seasoned. When nearly finished, a saw cut
must be made the exact length of the continuation of metal from the
blade, and this must be opened and widened with a flat file until the
plate fits exactly in it. A strong wide ring must now be driven on at
the upper end, and three stout soft iron pins passed through both the
wood and iron of the handle, riveting the ends securely in countersunk
holes prepared for their reception. The handle may now be finished,
and made to fit the grip of the hand by the use of the rasp, and some
pieces of broken glass as scrapers. The temper of these tools must be
regulated by the file test. Leather sheaths should be made for them,
with guide straps for the belt to go through.
[Illustration]
{Tool hold-all.}
All the small tools can be conveniently packed and carried in a
leather or canvas hold-all. This is merely a long strip of either
canvas or leather, with longitudinal bands sewn on the inside. The
tools are arranged side by side under these, and then rolled up and
tied carefully together with a wide tape string. All the edge tools
should be tempered or let down to meet the file test, ground and set,
before being finally packed. The axe handle should be of well-seasoned
hickory, and so made as to admit of being knocked forward through the
eye of the blade, and so removed from it, as shown in the illustration
of the group of tools on the next page. [Illustration] A grooved
strip of wood should be fitted to the edge of the saw, in order to
preserve the teeth and keep the blade straight. A leather bag may be
also made for it with advantage. To those who do not require such
tools as we have described, and yet wish to provide themselves with a
very few, of small size, we can confidently recommend the following
arrangement. {Portable tool chest.} Order from a tin-plate worker a
stout, wire-edged tin box, with wire hinges. Let it be 7in. long, 3in.
wide, and 2-1/2in. deep. In this, several small files, one or two small
chisels, a number of both straight and curved awl blades, a screw
driver, hammer head, pliers, a few sail needles, a small hand vice, a
watchmaker's drill and bits, a jointed blowpipe, some bits of solder,
a little lump of resin, bits of brass and copper wire, some pieces of
watchspring for cutting metal, a narrow cold chisel, and several other
odds and ends, may be conveniently stowed away. A watch-spring saw
needs no teeth; it is only requisite to occasionally run the face of a
file from end to end, flat on the edge, as if in the act of blunting
it, to renew its cutting power. A gun barrel, or a bar of iron the
thickness of a walking-stick, can be cut through in an inconceivably
short time with one of these little instruments, aided by a little
sweet oil.
Camp Furniture.
{Beds.}
The best camp bed we ever possessed was made on the stretcher
principle. The side bars were of birch wood, and ferruled in the
centre, so as to admit of their being taken into four lengths. The
legs, also of birchwood, shut and opened like two pairs of scissors.
The centre piece of the bed was of stout canvas, sewn into pipes at
the sides, through which the side bars passed. The head of the bed
was formed by fixing two uprights in holes made for them, and then
fixing a cross bar on their ends to keep them in place. A very thin
cocoa-fibre mattress, cocoa-fibre pillow, and three thoroughly good
brown blankets, are conveniently packed in a painted canvas bag, with
the framework of the bed. Camp beds, of endless variety, are sold
by all outfitters; but we describe that mentioned above as having
stood the test of no ordinary wear and tear most satisfactorily. The
various modes by which beds, hammocks, and litters are extemporised
by travellers will be fully dealt with when that subject comes under
consideration. In this section of our work we merely point out that
which is best purchased at home, leaving the multiplication of the
various objects, in some measure, to the judgment of the intending
traveller.
[Illustration]
{Hammock.}
A hammock is a very luxurious sort of bed, but most people are alarmed
by the very elaborate system of clews and rings by which it is
suspended, and in very deed, even with the most scrupulous cleanliness,
these are apt, in places where vermin abound, to harbour a great many;
but this might be avoided by having the canvas 10ft. or 12ft. long, and
gathering it at the ends so as to dispense with clews altogether. It
would then have the advantage that, when it could not be suspended, it
might be folded as a double sheet upon the ground to lay the rest of
the bedding on. A hammock can be slung in very unpromising places. We
were accustomed to keep two (washed, clews and all, every fortnight),
stretched to a bamboo pole, which we slung from the beams overhead.
One end may be fastened to a tree or to the waggon wheel, and the rope
attached to the other may pass over forked sticks set up as shears, and
lead to a tent peg driven firmly into the ground. A sheet may be thrown
over the pole or ridge rope, to serve as a tent or curtain.
{Wrapper.}
It is a very favourite plan in South Africa to have the blanket covered
on both sides with chintz or printed cotton, quilted to it. This
keeps it clean for a long time, and makes it much more efficient as a
coverlet.
Most countries have some peculiar wrapper of their own, as the buffalo
robe of North America, the opossum rug of Australia, or the Vel
Komboars or sheepskin blanket of the Cape colony. We have used as a
pillow an inflated swimming belt, but in all cases when india-rubber
goods are used, they must be kept from much exposure to the sun, and,
above all, from contact with grease. We have had a waterproof overcoat
so heated when folded away that we could not again open it; but one of
these lined with calico, and covered with thin non-adhesive stuff, we
should think would be useful.
* * * * *
The following statement will serve to show approximately the nature and
quantity of stores, &c., required for an expedition such as that to
which we were attached in Australia:--
_The Party._--Commander, A. C. Gregory; Assistant, H. C. Gregory;
Geologist, J. G. Wilson; Artist and Storekeeper, T. Baines; Surgeon
and Naturalist, J. R. Elsey; Botanist, F. Müller; Collector, Natural
History, &c., -- Flood; Overseer, J. Phibbs; Farrier and Smith;
Harness-maker; Stockmen, European (9); Shepherds, Native (2)--Total, 21.
_Provisions, &c. for 18 months._--17,000lb. flour, 5000lb. salt pork,
2000lb. bacon, 2000lb. preserved fresh meat in 6lb. tins, 2800lb. rice,
2500lb. sugar, 400lb. tea, 350lb. tobacco, 350lb. soap, 50lb. pepper,
500lb. salt, 100 galls. vinegar, 300 sheep, 200lb. sago, 640 pints
peas, 2 cwt. coffee, 500lb. lime juice, 6 galls. lamp oil, 1lb. cotton
wick, 3 cwt. preserved potatoes.