below the knee also being given. Here we have another type of irregular
setting out, which is accomplished in the following manner. Saw and plane
the broken portion of the leg true as shown; take the timber which is to
be jointed and treat it in a similar manner; now place four ordinary pins
on the lower portion. Carefully place the top portion to the required
position and smartly give it one tap with the hammer; this will cause the
pin-heads to leave indentations, and if these be taken as centres for
boring, accurate work will result. The new portion of the leg is
afterwards sawn and wrought to the desired shape.
This is an example of work where it is next to impossible to use a
gauge, and as only one joint is required it is not worth the time taken
to make a template.
[Illustration: Fig. 208.--Dowelling a Dining-Table Leg.]
[Illustration: Fig. 209.--Dowel Gauge for Legs.]
[Illustration: Fig. 210.--Dowelling a Cabriole Leg.]
The tools used in dowelling are: Brace, countersink, dowel-rounder, twist
bit, try-square, marking-awl, and the usual bench tools. The first four
are illustrated at Figs. 194, 195, 196 and 197 respectively.
The method of working is: Plane up, mark out, bore holes, countersink,
glue dowels and complete joints.
THE SCARF JOINT
The method known as "scarfing" is used for the joining of timber in the
direction of its length, enabling the workman to produce a joint with a
smooth or flush appearance on all its faces. One of the simplest forms of
scarfed joint is known as the half lap, in which a portion is cut out at
the end of each beam or joist, equal in depth to half the full depth of
the beam, and of equal length to the required scarf.
The two pieces before they are placed together form a joint as shown at
Fig. 211, the projecting part (A) fitting into the recessed portion
marked B and the two pieces being secured in their respective positions
by screws.
Fig. 212 shows a dovetailed scarf joint. This is a variation of Fig. 211,
the length of the dovetail lap being from 6 ins. to 8 ins. in length.
Fig. 213 is an illustration of a joint designed to resist a cross strain.
The face side is left flush, whilst the underside is assisted by an iron
plate. The joint is secured with nuts, bolts, and washers. This type of
joint is frequently used for joining purlins in roof work; the iron plate
on the underside is in this case omitted.
Fig. 214 is designed to resist both tension and compression and is an
excellent joint for all purposes. The joint is brought together by using
folding wedges as shown in the centre.
[Illustration: Fig. 211.--Half-Lap Scarf Joint for Light Timber.]
[Illustration: Fig. 212.--Dovetailed Scarf Joint.]
[Illustration: Fig. 213.--Plated Scarf Joint Used in Roof Work.]
Fig. 215 is a variation of Fig. 214, and it will be noticed that tenons
are provided on the face and underside to resist cross strain. Probably
this is one of the best varieties of the scarfed joint. Unfortunately,
however, its production is somewhat costly, and this may be the reason
that it is not more universally used. Folding wedges are used to secure
the two pieces in position.
[Illustration: Fig. 214.--Tenoned Scarf Joint.]
[Illustration: Fig. 215.--Double Tenoned Scarf Joint.]
[Illustration: Fig. 216.--Scarf Joint with Vee'd ends.]
Fig. 216 is a scarfed joint with undercut vee'd ends which prevent the
joint from lipping up or down or sideways. It is a useful joint, calling
for careful setting out and accurate craftsmanship. Folding wedges are
used in this case to draw up and secure the joint.
Fig. 217 is a "fished joint," and the following difference between a
scarfed and fished joint should be noted. A fished joint need not
necessarily reduce the total length of the beams to be joined, and fish
plates of wood or iron (or a combination of both) are fastened at each
side of the joint. In a scarf joint all surfaces are flush. In Fig. 217
the beams are butt-jointed and secured by wooden plates and iron bolts.
The upper plate is let into each beam, and the lower plate is provided
with two wooden keys to prevent the beams sliding (or "creeping") upon
the lower plate. Iron nuts, bolts, and washers are used to complete the
joint.
[Illustration: Fig. 217.--Fished Joint.]
In the case of the scarfed joint at Fig. 218 (used for purlins) the
length of the scarf is usually made about four times that of the depth of
tie beam. It has two hardwood keys which force the pieces together and
thus tighten the joint.
[Illustration: Fig. 218.--Detail of Scarfed Joint in Purlins.]
The methods of scarfing and fish-jointing are many and varied, and, in
selecting a joint, the nature of the pieces to be joined and the
direction and the amount of the load should be carefully taken into
consideration.
The above joints come under the heading of carpentry, and the ordinary
tools such as the saw, plane, boring-bit and chisels are all that are
requisite and necessary to produce a sound and serviceable joint. Scarfed
joints are generally of large size, and they are usually made by placing
the work upon sawing trestles owing to the bench being too small to
accommodate the large timbers.
[Illustration: Fig. 219.--Example of Tabled Joint with Straps.]
[Illustration: Fig. 220.--Lapped Scarf Joint with Bolts for Heavy
Timber.]
Fig. 219 is a tabled scarf joint which admirably resists tension and
compression. It is very easy to make and fit, and is not materially
affected by shrinkage. The rectangular wrought iron straps are knocked up
over the joint after the two pieces engage. The length of the joint
should be approximately five times its thickness.
Fig. 220 is an example of a lapped scarf joint which is secured with nuts
and bolts. It effectively resists compressional stress in vertical posts
and it may, if required, be strengthened by the addition of wrought iron
fish plates. It is quite a serviceable joint for all general purposes,
such as shed or garage building where fairly heavy timbers are used.
THE HINGED JOINT
One of the most common forms of hinged joint in use to-day is that formed
by using the "butt" hinge, and many troubles experienced by the amateur,
such as "hinge-bound," "stop-bound," and "screw-bound" doors, etc., are
due to a lack of knowledge of the principles of hingeing. Hinges call for
careful gauging and accurate fitting, otherwise trouble is certain to
occur.
A "BOUND" door or box lid is said to be hinge-bound when the recess which
contains the hinge is cut too deep. The frame and the body portion engage
too tightly when closed, the result being that the door has always a
tendency to open a little. This fault may be in many cases remedied by
packing behind the hinge with one or two thicknesses of good stiff brown
paper. For packing purposes such as this paper will be found to be of
much more value than thin strips of wood or knife-cut veneer, the latter
always having a great tendency to split when a screw or bradawl is
inserted.
A stop-bound door is the name applied when the door is not finished to
exactly the same thickness as originally intended. This causes the door
to bind on the stops at the back, as shown at Fig. 221. The difficulty
may be remedied by thinning the door a little at the back, or slightly
rounding away the portion which binds.
Screw-bound is a common fault often overlooked by the amateur. It is
caused by using screws of which the heads are too large for the
countersunk holes in the hinge, and may be avoided by slightly sinking
the holes in the brasswork with a countersink or rose-bit.
[Illustration: Fig. 221.--Stop-bound Door.]
[Illustration: Fig. 222.--Butt Hinge.]
[Illustration: Fig. 223.--Gauging.]
[Illustration: Fig. 224.--Marking for Recess.]
[Illustration: Fig. 225.--Sawing for the Recess.]
ALIGNMENT.--Another fault that is fairly common is having the axes of the
hinges out of alignment. Especially is this the case when three hinges
are used to hang a wardrobe or other large door. It is absolutely
necessary in all cases that the exact centres of the pivot-pins of the
hinges should be in a straight line.
Particular attention to alignment is necessary when the body and the door
frame are shaped on the face side. A familiar example that every reader
may inspect for himself is the curved side of a railway carriage body and
railway carriage door, where he will notice that a specially wide hinge
has to be used at the bottom of the door to give the necessary alignment.
Hinges fixed on work with their centres out of truth are often overlooked
by the inexperienced worker, and this is a frequent cause of creaking.
GAUGING.--Fig. 222 is a sketch of a brass butt hinge, open. Fig. 223
illustrates a similar hinge closed, and shows the gauge set so that the
point of the marker is exactly to the centre of the pivot-pin. This
distance we will call C. Now turn to Fig. 224. The distance C has been
gauged from the face side of the frame. The gauge is then set to the
thickness of the hinge at its thickest portion, and to prevent
"hinge-bind" see that the gauge is set on the _fine_ side. Remember that
the tapered point of the steel spur or marking awl will part the fibres
of the timber a little more than the fine point, and give you a wider
gauge line than was anticipated when you set the gauge. The inexperienced
worker nearly always overlooks this. The result is a hinge-bound door,
the cause of which is not discovered by the worker because he is so sure
that he has set the gauge correctly. The distance B, Fig. 226, shows the
line gauged for the thickness of the hinge.
POSITION OF HINGES.--Another difficulty to the beginner is the position
for his hinges, and it may here be stated that the general rule is to
carry a line across the face of the work from the inside of the cross
rail and place the hinge at E, as Fig. 224.
[Illustration: Fig. 226.--Tool Operation when Paring Out the Hinge Recess
in the Door.]
SAWING FOR THE RECESS.--After marking out for the hinge, as shown at Fig.
224, take a fine-toothed saw (a dovetail saw is considered the best) and
saw down as shown at Fig. 225, care being taken not to cut beyond the
gauge lines. In this sketch three intermediate saw kerfs are shown, but
if the hinge is of great length, say 5 or 6 ins., the removal of the
waste wood will be greatly facilitated by the addition of more
intermediate saw kerfs. These cuts sever the cross fibres and allow the
timber to be easily pared away in short lengths.
In Fig. 226 we see the tool operation when paring out the hinge recess.
At the left of the drawing the recess is shown marked. Take a 3/4 in.
chisel and, using it as a knife (see A), deepen the gauge lines. Then
stab the chisel downwards, as at B, to deepen the end lines. Next, take
the chisel and pare away the back of the recess as at C. The work may
then be completed by paring neatly till the bottom of the recess is flat.
[Illustration: Fig. 227., Fig. 228. The Hingeing of a Box Lid.]
STOPPED HINGED JOINTS FOR BOX WORK.--Fig. 227 is a section through a
small box similar to a lady's work-box (the back of the box in the
illustration is enlarged in thickness to clearly show the position of the
hinge). In this case the knuckle of the hinge is let into the woodwork
until it is flush with the back of the box, and the gauge would have to
be set to the total width of the hinge. The back edges of the lid and the
back edge of the lower portion of the box are planed away at an angle of
45 degrees as indicated by the dotted lines.
Fig. 228 shows the same box with the lid open, and it will be observed
that the chamfered edges come together and form a stop which prevents the
lid falling backwards and breaking the box. This method of letting-in the
knuckle flush is a useful one for box work because the ordinary stock
brass butt hinge can be used. Attention may, however, be called to the
"stopped butt-hinge," which is specially made to answer the above
purpose; in its action a similar mechanical principle as the one applied
to the box is used.
[Illustration: Fig. 229.--Strap Hinge.]
[Illustration: Fig. 230.--Reversible or Double-folding Screen Hinge.]
[Illustration: Fig. 231.--Pivot Hinge for Screens.]
[Illustration: Fig. 232.--Non-reversible Screen Hinge.]
TYPES OF HINGES.--Fig. 229 is an elongated variety of the butt hinge,
known in the trade as "strap hinge," "desk hinge," or "bagatelle hinge."
As its name indicates, it is used on folding bagatelle tables, small
writing desks, and other types of work that have but a narrow margin on
which to fix the hinges. The long, narrow plates are sunk flush into the
wood, the knuckle or rounded portion projecting.
[Illustration: Fig. 233.--Back Flap Hinge.]
[Illustration: Fig. 234.--Card Table Hinge.]
[Illustration: Fig. 235.--Pivot Hinge.]
[Illustration: Fig. 236.--Rising Butt Hinge.]
Fig. 230 is an illustration of the reversible or double-folding screen
hinge. Half the thickness of this hinge is let into each wing of the
draught screen, allowing the screen to be folded either way. The hinge is
costly, but effective in use.
Fig. 231 is a type of pivot hinge which is used to fix at the top and
bottom of a screen.
Fig. 232 is the non-reversible screen hinge and, as its name implies,
will only fold in one direction.
Fig. 233 is a back flap hinge with a specially wide wing, used for the
fall-down leaf of small tables and similar articles.
Fig. 234 is a card table hinge. This is let into the edges of the table,
so that all is flush or level both above and below the surface.
CENTRE OR PIVOT HINGES.--Fig. 235 is a centre or pivot hinge, used on the
top and bottom of wardrobe doors, more particularly the interior door of
a three-winged wardrobe where the method of fixing is confined to the
cornice and plinth. The flange carrying the pins or pivot is let into the
top and bottom of the door, the remaining flange being let into the
cornice and plinth respectively.
RISING BUTT HINGES.--Fig. 236 is the rising butt hinge, used on dining
and drawing-room doors, so that when the door is opened the door rises
sufficiently to clear the thickness of the carpet. This hinge has also an
advantage over the ordinary butt hinge in that it is self-closing,
_i.e._, the weight of the door _plus_ the bevel on the hinge joint causes
the door to close. Band and hook hinges and other ordinary varieties are
too well known to require illustrating.
ACUTE ANGLE HINGEING.--Fig. 237 is a sectional plan of a corner cupboard
showing a good method of hingeing the door. The inset _a_ shows an
enlarged view of the corner carrying the hinge, also the adaptor piece
_c_, which is fitted to the inside edge of the cupboard so that the
hinged edges are at 90 degrees to the face. This is a far better and
stronger method than that shown at _b_, which is often attempted with
disastrous results. The incorrect method _b_ allows insufficient wood for
fixing purposes, and in nearly all cases the thin edge of the door breaks
away during the making and fitting, or soon after completion. The adaptor
piece may have a face mould worked upon it to give a pilaster-like
appearance if fancy so dictates.
[Illustration: Fig. 237.--Hingeing Door of Corner Cupboard.]
[Illustration: Fig. 238.--Inside Hingeing: Method of Letting Butt Hinge
into Door Frame and Carcase.]
INSIDE HINGEING.--When a door is being hung _inside_ the carcase (that
is, not hinged _over_ the ends) it is permissible, in the case of light
work, to let the whole thickness of the hinge into the door; and when
screwing the door to the carcase it is usual to fix the knuckle of the
hinge flush with the face of the carcase, thus allowing the door frame to
stand back, making a break of about 1/8 in. with the face. The marking
gauge should be set to the full width of the hinge; the mark, gauged on
the inside of the carcase end, thus forms a line to guide the worker
whilst fixing the door. To successfully fix a door it generally requires
two persons, one to hold the door in position, whilst the other bores the
holes and fixes the screws.
[Illustration: Fig. 239.--Showing Top and Bottom of Carcase Cut Back to
allow Door to Close.]
[Illustration: Fig. 240.--Outside Hingeing.]
[Illustration: Fig. 241.--Section.]
Fig. 238 shows the correct method of fitting butt hinges on high-class
work. One wing of the hinge is let into the door, and the other wing is
let into the carcase or door jamb, thus distributing a proportion of the
weight to the carcase end instead of allowing the whole of the weight to
be carried by the screws as would be the case in _a_, Fig. 237. The
method of sinking each portion of the hinge into the door and carcase
respectively is costly; hence it is not the general practice in cheap
work. In Fig. 239 the top and bottom of carcase (T and B) are shown set
back to allow the door to close.
OUTSIDE HINGEING.--Fig. 240 illustrates the portion of a door frame and
carcase end when the door is hung on the face of the carcase. The correct
method of letting in the hinge is shown in the enlarged section (Fig.
241), but, as previously mentioned, the hinge may have its entire
thickness let into the door frame where it is of a light character. The
door frame projects slightly over the carcase end, and occasionally a
bead mould is worked on the edge of the door so as to give a finish and
partly hide the joint. The bead would, of course, be the same size as the
diameter of the knuckle of the hinge; and the knuckle, therefore, will
form a continuation of the bead and give a workmanshiplike finish.
FALL FRONTS.--Fig. 242 is a sectional view of a fall front writing bureau
fitted with centre or pivot hinges and arranged so that the edges form a
stop when the desk front is turned to a horizontal position. The position
for the fitting of the brass plates carrying the pivot-pin is somewhat
awkward; but, by first sinking the plates into the carcase ends, and then
slotting the edges of the fall, it will be found that the fall front may
be put in from its horizontal position, and that sufficient room is left
to enable the screwdriver to be manipulated without inconvenience.
[Illustration: Fig. 242.--Fall Front of Writing Bureau.]
[Illustration: Fig. 243.--Revolving Fly Rail for Table. See Pivoted Fly
or Front Rail.]
[Illustration: Fig. 244.--Draught Screen Tape Hinge.]
FLY RAIL.--Fig. 243 is a sketch of a small table with the top removed. A
revolving fly rail is shown pivoted upon a piece of 1/4-in. wire. The
object of this fly rail is to form a support to the small hinged
drop-leaf of the table. This method is suitable for small occasional
tables and similar articles.
DRAUGHT SCREENS.--Fig. 244 illustrates the end elevation and plan of a
draught screen which is constructed of a light framework and covered with
baize or American cloth. The reversible double-folding hinge (Fig. 230)
would answer admirably for such a screen. Cases occur, however, where it
is desired to hinge a screen to be used for an invalid's bedside, and it
is then important that all draught should be excluded through the jointed
edges. The double reversible hinge will not fulfil these conditions, and
the following method is therefore adopted.
In the plan, Fig. 244, A and B, two laths of hardwood (beech, birch or
mahogany answer splendidly) are shown. They are made the same length and
the same width as the edges of the screen, the corners being slightly
rounded away.
A double-folding, draught-proof hinge is then made as follows: Procure
good fine webbing, about 1-1/4 in. wide, and the necessary large-headed
tacks. Lay the laths side by side as shown in Fig. 244, and proceed to
web them as shown. Commence with the web under the lath A; bring it
between the laths and over B; now take it round the left-hand edge of B,
and round the back and between the laths and over A, continuing this
method of wrapping the laths until the lower end is reached, and then
fastening the webbing as indicated by the dotted lines which represent
the tacks. This self-contained hinge is then fixed to the edges of the
screen by boring suitable holes through the laths and using countersunk
screws. This is a cheap and efficient method of overcoming the
difficulty. A similar method is used for the household clothes horse.
[Illustration: Fig. 245.--Finger Joint Hinge.]
[Illustration: Fig. 246.--The Knuckle Joint Hinge.]
FINGER JOINT HINGE.--Fig. 245 is a finger joint--a movable interlocking
joint used to support the leaf of a Pembroke table. The small portion is
screwed to the table rail and the shaped bracket swings out to support
the drop leaf. The shaded portion of the bracket shows the timber
chamfered away so that the fingers may be easily put behind the bracket
to manipulate it. Note that the corners are slightly rounded off, as
indicated by the black portion of the sketch, and that the mortises are
cut about 1/4 in. deeper than the thickness of the timber used. This
joint has now been almost superseded by a cheap stamped galvanised iron
bracket of exactly the same pattern. The joint, however, is still used
for repair work and in cases where a stamped metal bracket has not
sufficient overhang.
[Illustration: Fig. 247.--Open Joint Hingeing.]
KNUCKLE JOINT HINGE.--Fig. 246 is a similar type of joint to the above,
and is called the knuckle joint. This arrangement of hingeing allows the
table leg to swing in an angle of 180 degrees and is much neater in its
appearance. It is often used to connect a movable table leg to the
framing, where it is necessary for the table leg and rail to swing
outwards and support a drop leaf. The pivot is formed by a piece of
1/8-in. or 1/4-in. round iron rod running through the centre of the
joint.
[Illustration: Fig. 248.--Clearing the Architrave Mould.]
OPEN JOINT HINGEING.--The next three illustrations apply more
particularly to the hanging of the ordinary household door.
Fig. 247 is termed "open joint hanging," from the fact that when the door
is open a certain amount of open space exists between the edge of the
door and the doorpost. This open space varies according to the position
in which the butt hinge is fixed. A section is shown at which the pin of
the hinge is let in level with the face of the door. This will allow the
door to open as shown by the dotted line, and it will not clear the
architrave moulding.
[Illustration: Fig. 249.--Close Joint Hingeing.]
Fig. 248 indicates the position of the hinge fixed so as to allow the
door to open and lay flat back to the architrave moulding. In this
instance the butts are made with wider wings, and they are generally
provided to take three screws (see Fig. 233, right-hand wing of hinge).
To determine the position of the centre pin of the hinge the following
rule is observed. The centre of the pivot pin of the hinge must be _half
the distance_ between the face of the door, when closed, and the outside
of the architrave moulding.
CLOSE JOINT HANGING.--The method known as "close joint hanging" ensures
the joint at the hanging stile being in close proximity to the hanging
rail; this is shown at Fig. 249. The first member of the architrave
moulding is generally a bead of the same diameter as the knuckle of the
hinge. The butt hinge is let in as shown in the illustration, and the
door when opened forms a close-fitting joint.
[Illustration: Fig. 250.--Rule Joint Hinge, with Leaf Open.]
THE RULE JOINT HINGE is used to connect the top and the drop leaf of a
table in cases where continuity of design is desired, so that the edge of
the top and the leaf will show an ovolo moulding when the table is either
open or closed. To the inexperienced worker it presents several
difficulties and, if it is a first effort, it is advisable to try out a
sample joint on a couple of odd pieces of timber.
Fig. 250 illustrates the joint when the leaf is opened or in a horizontal
position. At Fig. 252 we have the joint when the leaf is let down to a
vertical position. It should be observed in the latter figure that the
edge A of the drop leaf is in alignment with the axis of the hinge. Steel
or brass back-flap hinges (Fig. 233) are generally used and they are sunk
into the table as suggested.
Set out the work full size as at Fig. 251, and mark point 1, which is to
be the position of the joint. Draw 1, 2, at right angles to the table
top. Mark point 3 on the vertical line for the centre of the hinge, and
mark point 4 approximately as shown.
[Illustration: Fig. 251.--Setting Out for Rule Joint Hinge.]
[Illustration: Fig. 252.--The Rule Joint with Leaf Down.]
With compass point on 3 and radius 3 to 4, describe an arc 4 to 5. This
gives us the true joint line (1, 4, 5). The distance 0 to 3 is usually
determined by the hinge. The knuckle of the back flap hinge is always let
into the under side of the wood and the further it is inserted into the
wood the more the joint will overlap at A (Fig. 252) which shows the
joint when the flap or leaf is down.
SHUTTING JOINTS