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WOODWORK JOINTS
(_THE WOODWORKER SERIES_)
_REVISED EDITION_
WOODWORK
JOINTS
HOW THEY ARE SET OUT, HOW MADE AND
WHERE USED; WITH FOUR HUNDRED
ILLUSTRATIONS AND INDEX
_REVISED EDITION_
LONDON
EVANS BROTHERS, LIMITED
MONTAGUE HOUSE, RUSSELL SQUARE, W.C.1
_THE WOODWORKER SERIES_
WOODWORK JOINTS.
CABINET CONSTRUCTION.
STAINING AND POLISHING.
WOODWORK TOOLS.
PRACTICAL UPHOLSTERY.
WOOD TURNING.
WOODCARVING.
TIMBERS FOR WOODWORK.
FURNITURE REPAIRING AND RE-UPHOLSTERY.
HOUSEHOLD REPAIRS AND RENOVATIONS.
CARPENTRY FOR BEGINNERS.
KITCHEN FURNITURE DESIGNS.
BUREAU AND BOOKCASE DESIGNS.
LIGHT CARPENTRY DESIGNS.
DOORMAKING.
EVANS BROTHERS, LIMITED,
MONTAGUE HOUSE, RUSSELL SQUARE,
LONDON, W.C.1.
EDITORIAL FOREWORD
To be successful in woodwork construction the possession of two secrets
is essential--to know the right joint to use, and to know how to make
that joint in the right way. The woodwork structure or the piece of
cabinet-work that endures is the one on which skilful hands have combined
to carry out what the constructive mind planned. And it is just here that
the present Volume will help, not alone the beginner who wishes
preliminary instruction, but also the expert who desires guidance over
ground hitherto unexplored by him.
In the preparation of this new edition the Publishers have secured the
services of Mr. William Fairham, by whom the chapters have been carefully
revised and re-illustrated. Although intended for the practical man, and
not professing to be a graded course of "educational woodwork," the
Volume is one which Handicraft Instructors will find of the greatest
value in conducting woodwork classes. No book hitherto published contains
such a variety of illustrations of joints, almost all of which will form
suitable exercises of practical educational importance in a woodworking
course.
J. C. S. B.
[Illustration: Old Oak Chests, showing the Method of Structure which
forms the origin of most of our English Furniture. (From _The
Woodworker_, January, 1927.)]
CONTENTS
PAGE
THE GLUED JOINT 1
THE HALVED JOINT 13
THE BRIDLE JOINT 35
THE TONGUED AND GROOVED JOINT 48
THE MORTISE AND TENON JOINT 64
THE DOWELLING JOINT 93
THE SCARF JOINT 103
THE HINGED JOINT 109
SHUTTING JOINTS 127
THE DOVETAIL JOINT 132
DOVETAIL GROOVING 160
THE MITRED JOINT 163
JOINTS FOR CURVED WORK 172
MISCELLANEOUS JOINTS 176
PUZZLE JOINTS 189
INDEX 209
[Illustration: Staircase of the Second Half of Seventeenth Century. (From
_The Woodworker_, September, 1929.)]
THE GLUED JOINT
The glued joint in its various forms is in use in every country in the
world, and is frequently met with in mummy cases and other examples of
ancient woodwork. Alternative names under which it is known are the butt
joint, the rubbed joint, the slipped joint, whilst in certain localities
it is known as the slaped (pronounced _slayped_) joint.
[Illustration: Fig. 1.--Simplest Form of Glued or Rubbed Joint.]
The glued joint is made by planing two pieces of timber so that when
placed together they are in contact with each other at every point; they
are then usually united with glue. Fig. 1 shows a sketch of a butt joint
in its simplest form. In Fig. 2 is indicated the method of holding the
joint whilst being glued; the upright portion is held rigid in the bench
vice, thus leaving the left hand to hold the piece which is to be
jointed, whilst the right hand operates the glue brush. The pieces of
wood which form a butt joint may be glued together with or without the
aid of cramps or artificial pressure. If the joint is to be made without
cramping, the two surfaces of the timber are warmed so as not to chill
the glue. The surfaces are then glued and put together and rubbed
backwards and forwards so as to get rid of the superfluous glue. They are
then put aside to dry.
GLUEING.--The better the glue penetrates into the pores of the wood, the
stronger the joint will be; for this reason timber of the loose-fibred
variety, such as pine, etc., will hold up at the joint better than
hardwoods like teak and rosewood. The glue used for jointing should be
neither too thick nor too thin; the consistency of cream will be found
suitable for most purposes. It should be nice and hot, and be rapidly
spread over the surface of the wood.
[Illustration: Fig. 2.--How the Wood is held whilst Glueing.]
If light-coloured woods, such as pine, satinwood, sycamore, etc., have to
be jointed, a little flake white should be procured and mixed into the
liquid glue. This will prevent the glue showing a thin black line on the
joint.
Broad surfaces of close-grained hardwood having a shiny surface are
usually carefully roughened with a fine toothing plane blade previous to
glueing.
SUPPORTING THE JOINT.--The jointed boards should not be reared up against
a "bench leg" or wall without having any support in the centre, as dotted
line at Fig. 5, because in all probability they will fracture before the
glue has time to set; and, when we go to take them up to renew working
operations, we shall be annoyed to find that they have assumed a
position similar to that at Fig. 5 (shown exaggerated), and this will, of
course, necessitate re-jointing.
[Illustration: Fig. 3.--Correct Jointing.]
[Illustration: Fig. 4.--Faulty Jointing.]
[Illustration: Fig. 5.--Boards unsupported.]
[Illustration: Fig. 6.--Boards supported.]
[Illustration: Fig. 7.--(A) Glued Slip, (B) Glued Moulding.]
[Illustration: Fig. 8.--Grain alternating.]
A correct method to adopt is seen at Fig. 6. Here we have supported the
joint by rearing up against the wall a couple of pieces of batten, one
at each end of the board, thus supporting it throughout its entire width
until the glue is thoroughly set. The two or more pieces of timber in a
butt joint adhere by crystallisation of the glue and atmospheric
pressure. A well-fitted joint made with good quality glue is so strong
that, when boards of 3 feet and upwards are jointed together by this
method, the timber in most cases will break with the grain sooner than
part at the joint.
Butt joints may be cramped up, if desired, and it is customary to warm
them as previously stated. In the absence of the usual iron cramp, the
amateur may make an excellent wooden arrangement out of any odd pieces of
timber that happen to be handy. Two blocks of hardwood are screwed on the
base board at a suitable distance for the work in hand; the boards to be
jointed are glued and placed in position between the blocks; and the two
hardwood wedges are inserted and hammered in opposite directions to each
other, thus exerting the desired pressure. An example of this method of
cramping is shown in Fig. 25, which also indicates the use of iron
"dogs."
When jointing, care should be taken to first plane up the boards true on
one side--_i.e._, take them out of winding. The method of testing for
this is shown at Fig. 9, and it may with advantage be used when jointing
the edges of the boards. Two laths or strips of wood are planed up to
exactly the same width, having their edges straight and parallel. One
edge of each lath may, if desired, be bevelled a little. The method of
using these "twist sticks" or "winding laths" is to put them on the board
as indicated, and sight along their top edges. The winding laths, being
much longer than the width of the board, show up the irregularity greatly
pronounced.
THE TOOLS generally used for making the butt joints are:--
The jack plane, for roughing the edges, etc.
The wooden trying plane (or iron jointing plane) for trueing up the work.
The try square for testing purposes.
The winding laths and straight edge.
THE METHOD OF WORK is as follows: Each board is in turn put in the vice
and planed straight lengthwise; it is then tested with winding laths and
a try square (the latter method is shown at Fig. 22).
[Illustration: Fig. 9.--Testing Surface with Winding Laths.]
The boards are then put on the top of one another as at Fig. 1 and tested
with a straight edge; they should appear true as shown at Fig. 3; if they
show faulty as at Fig. 4 the joints must be again fitted until the
required degree of accuracy is obtained. Difficulties may be avoided by
care in selecting timber suitable for jointing, and it must be remembered
that timber shrinks circumferentially (the heart side becoming curved) as
dotted lines in Fig. 10. If the timber be jointed with all the heart side
one way as at Fig. 10, the tendency will be for it to cast as shown by
the dotted line. If the timber be alternated as at Fig. 11, the tendency
will be to cast wavy, whereas if quartered timber can be obtained it will
stand practically straight as the tendency to shrink is in thickness
only. The grain of quartered timber is shown in Fig. 12.
[Illustration: Fig. 10.--Showing Heart side of Timber one way.]
[Illustration: Fig. 11.--Heart side of Timber shown alternated.]
[Illustration: Fig. 12.--Grain of Quartered Timber.]
[Illustration: Fig. 13.--Boards showing uniformity of Grain.]
Judgment should also be exercised to avoid jointing in which one piece of
timber is wild and large in the grain, and the adjoining piece of a
mild-grained nature. Jointed boards should always be glued up with the
grain running in the same direction if possible; this we show at Fig. 13,
and nothing looks worse than a dressing chest end or similar piece of
work in which the grain runs haphazard. When jointing thin timber (say,
1/4-in., 3/8-in., 1/2-in. and 5/8-in. boards) the best method is to use a
shooting board (Fig. 26). It must be noted, however, that a shooting
board and plane practically never give a true right angle, owing to wear
and the grinding of the blade. Therefore, the boards _should not_ all be
laid with the "face mark" on the shooting board whilst the edges are
shot, because any inequality would be multiplied by the number of pieces
jointed. A better method is to alternate the boards, face side up, then
face side down, whilst shooting the edges; this will prevent convexity or
concavity on the face of the jointed board, because any slight error in
the angle is neutralised (see Fig. 8).
APPLICATIONS OF THE JOINT.--The following show various applications of
the butt or glued joint:--
[Illustration: Fig. 14.--Carcase Wing-pieces Glued on.]
Fig. 7A shows a mahogany or other hardwood slip glued on the edge of a
cheaper wood, such as pine or whitewood, as is the case on bookcase
shelves when only the front edge is seen and polished.
Fig. 7B shows a moulding glued on a shelf, both mould and shelf in this
instance being of polished hardwood. A shelf of this type might be used
in a recess, the object of the overhanging moulding being to hide a small
3/8-in. iron rod which would carry the curtain rings and heading of the
curtain which covers the recess. The shelf would be fixed about 3 ft. 9
ins. to 4 ft. 3 ins. from the floor.
Fig. 14 shows the wing pieces glued on the top bearer of carcase work.
The application of this bearer in its position will be shown in the
chapter on Dovetailing.
Fig. 15 shows a butt joint planed at an angle of 45 degrees (commonly
called a mitre), used for box feet, etc.
Fig. 16 shows jointing up of an ogee-shaped panel. The dotted lines
indicate the thickness of the timber previous to its being worked up to
the finished shape. Bow-fronted and semicircular panels are jointed in a
similar manner.
[Illustration: Fig. 15.--Butting Mitred Angle Joint.]
[Illustration: Fig. 16.--Jointing Ogee-shaped Panel.]
Fig. 17 shows timber jointed at right angles to the upright piece, and at
an angle of 30 degrees.
Fig. 18 indicates quarter-circle jointing, as used in round-cornered
chests of drawers, wardrobes, cupboards, etc.
Fig. 19 is similar to Fig. 18, but with hollow (or concave) corners.
[Illustration: Fig. 17.--Jointed Timber at 30° and 90° angles.]
[Illustration: Fig. 18 (above).--Convex Corner.]
[Illustration: Fig. 19 (below).--Concave Corner.]
[Illustration: Fig. 20.--Jointing a shaped Spandrel.]
[Illustration: Fig. 21.--Building up Case of Piano Front.]
[Illustration: Fig. 22.--Use of the Try-square for Testing Edge.]
[Illustration: Fig. 23.--Example of Circular Laminated work.]
[Illustration: Fig. 24.--Glueing Ploughslips to Drawer.]
[Illustration: Fig. 25.--Method of holding Glued Joints with Iron Dogs.]
[Illustration: Fig. 26.--Method of using Shooting Board.]
Fig. 20 gives us the jointing up of a shaped spandrel to the required
width. In a case of this description suitably grained and coloured wood
should be selected, otherwise the bad match will at once draw attention
to the joint.
Fig. 21 shows the application of butt or glued jointing to the building
up of the core of a piano fall previous to shaping up and veneering.
Fig. 23.--Laminated work--the building up of circular rims for cabinet
and joinery work. Plan and elevation show rim pattern of a pulley as used
in the pattern-making trade.
[Illustration: Fig. 27.--Cramping Glued Joints: Handscrews and Batten
shown at left; temporary Batten at right to keep the wood flat.]
Fig. 24.--The glueing of a ploughslip to a drawer side is seen here, the
ploughslip being used to carry the drawer bottom.
Fig. 26 shows the method of jointing with shooting board and trying
plane; the right hand operates the plane whilst the left hand holds the
wood firm upon the shooting board.
Owing to the importation of narrow and faulty timber the necessity of
jointing is greater to-day than ever it was, wide timber of course
meaning higher cost for raw material.
The method of using iron dogs is illustrated in Fig. 25, and it will be
observed that owing to the wedge-like formation of each fang (see
enlarged sketch) the dog exerts the necessary pressure to close the
joint. At the centre of this illustration is suggested the home-made
hardwood blocks, baseboard and wedges referred to on page 4.
Fig. 27 shows how the iron sash cramps are used to apply pressure to the
joint. As this method is in some cases apt to bend and distort thin
boards it is wise practice to fix (as a temporary measure) a stout piece
of straight wood on to the board to be joined by using two handscrews as
shown at the left hand of the illustration. At the right hand of the
sketch a wooden cramping arrangement of the box type is given, and by
wedging up the boards are closed together. It is obvious that if this
type of box cramp be used it will prevent the boards buckling and the
handscrew method at the left may be dispensed with.
THE HALVED JOINT
The halved joint is frequently known as half-lapping, and sometimes as
checking and half-checking. In the majority of cases it is made by
halving the two pieces, _i.e._, by cutting half the depth of the wood
away. There are, however, exceptions to this rule, as in the case of
"three-piece halving" (or, as it is sometimes called, "third lapping")
and in the halving of timber with rebated or moulded edges. Halving is
one of the simplest methods of connecting two pieces of timber,
especially where it is desired to make frames and bracket supports for
either inside or outside use.
[Illustration: Fig. 28.--Frame, with various halved joints. These joints,
numbered 1, 2, 3, etc., are shown in detail in Figs. 29 to 38.]
Fig. 28 shows the elevation of an imaginary frame which is indicated as
made up of a number of halving joints; it shows also the application of
the various joints to this class of work. Each joint used in the
construction of this frame may be dealt with separately. The numbers
marked on Fig. 28 refer to the individual joints, shown separately in
Figs. 29 to 38.
[Illustration: Fig. 29.--Halved Corner Joint.]
[Illustration: Fig. 30.--Halved T Joint.]
Fig. 29 shows the "Halved Joint" at the corner of the frame where the two
pieces form a right angle (see Fig. 28, 1). Each piece is halved and
shouldered at opposite sides, thus forming a perfect fit one with the
other and giving a strong joint with a minimum amount of labour. For
inside work the joint would be glued and screwed together, the screw
heads being countersunk so as not to come in contact with the cutting
iron of the plane when levelling off the work. For outside work, in
exposed positions where the work will have to withstand the weather, the
alternative method of smearing the joint with paint or with a mixture of
varnish and white lead would be advisable, the joint being nailed or
screwed. Fig. 29 shows the two pieces separated.
Fig. 30 shows a similar joint to the above, but in this case the top rail
runs through and it is generally spoken of as a "Halved T Joint" (Fig.
28, 2). It may be used in nearly all cases where a top or bottom rail
runs through an upright. The method of securing the joint is as before.
Fig. 30 shows a sketch of the joint separated.
[Illustration: Fig. 31.--Oblique Halving with Shoulder.]
[Illustration: Fig. 32.--Oblique Halving.]
At Fig. 31 is shown an "Oblique Halving Joint," where the oblique piece,
or strut, does not run through (Fig. 28, 3). This type of joint is used
for strengthening framings and shelf brackets; an example of the latter
is shown at Fig. 48. A strut or rail of this type prevents movement or
distortion to a frame diagonally (generally spoken of in the trade as
"racking"). Fig. 31 shows the joint apart.
Fig. 32 is an example of Oblique Halving with the upper piece running
through (Fig. 28, 4). This joint is used in similar positions to Fig.
31, and has in some cases the disadvantage of showing end grain at the
top of the frame. The sketch shows the two pieces separated.
Fig. 33 is "Dovetail Halving," the dovetail running through the top piece
(Fig. 28, 5). This is a strong joint, used where outside strain is likely
to occur in the top piece, the dovetail preventing the rail from being
drawn away from the shoulder. The two pieces are shown separate.
[Illustration: Fig. 33.--Dovetail Halving.]
[Illustration: Fig. 34.--Mitre Halving.]
At Fig. 34 is seen "Mitred Halving," a somewhat weak joint, but necessary
in mirror frames, etc., where good appearance is required on the face
side (Fig. 28, 6). Its use is obvious if the face of the frame be moulded
with beads or other sections which require to intersect one with the
other. This also applies if the frame be moulded on its face edges.
Fig. 35 is a halved joint with one side of the piece dovetailed (Fig. 28,
8). This joint is used in similar positions to Fig. 33, and rather less
labour is required in the making. The two pieces are shown separate for
clearness.
Fig. 36 indicates the "Halved Joint," the pieces at one end showing a
double dovetail (Fig. 28, 7). This particular joint is seldom used except
for Manual Training purposes. The illustration shows a sketch of the
joint apart.
Fig. 37 is "Oblique Dovetail Halving," one side of the piece being
dovetailed. The joint is used to prevent "racking," and as a cross brace
to framing. It is occasionally made with both its sides dovetailed as
shown at Fig. 33. (For reference, see Fig. 28, 9.)
[Illustration: Fig. 35.--Halved Joint with one side Dovetailed.]
[Illustration: Fig. 36.--Halved Joint with Double Dovetail.]
[Illustration: Fig. 37.--Oblique Dovetail Halving.]
[Illustration: Fig. 38.--Stopped Dovetail Halving.]
Fig. 38 shows "Stopped Dovetail Halving." In this case the dovetail is
similar to Fig. 33, with the exception that it does not run through the
bottom rail. This is an advantage if the bottom edge of the rail is in
evidence, or if it is required to glue a moulding or hardwood facing slip
on the lower edge. The glue adheres better _with_ the grain than it would
_end way_ of the grain, and if slight shrinkage occurs across the width
of the bottom rail the moulding would not be forced away by the upright
(see example at Fig. 28, 10).
[Illustration: Fig. 39.--Cross Halving Joint.]
[Illustration: Fig. 40.--Cross Halving Joint Edgeways.]
[Illustration: Fig. 41.--Tee Halving Joint.]
The joint lettered B in Fig. 28 is a "Cross Halving Joint" where each
piece runs through the other. Fig. 39 shows this joint separated, and
Fig. 40 shows a similar joint separated where the joint is made edgeways.
Fig. 41 shows a "Tee Halving Joint" with a dovetail cut on the edge. This
is seldom used except as a woodwork exercise.
Fig. 42 is a "Dovetailed Halving Joint" used for lengthening timber, and
is also a favourite Manual Training model. It might also come under the
heading of scarf joint, although rarely used in actual practice as such.
As a practical woodwork exercise it calls for accurate marking out and
careful fitting.
[Illustration: Fig. 42.--Dovetailed Halving Joint used for Lengthening
Timber.]
[Illustration: Fig. 43.--Dovetailed and Halved Joint.]
[Illustration: Fig. 44.--Dovetailed Halved Joint with Shoulders.]
Fig. 43 shows a combination of a halved joint dovetailed edgeways, whilst
Fig. 44 shows a dovetailed halved joint with the shoulders housed. This
latter is seldom used in actual work.
At Fig. 45 we have the application of halving joints when constructing a
barrow wheel. The centre portion is an example of three pieces
half-lapped or, as it is sometimes called, one-third lapped. A sketch of
the three pieces separated is shown at L, B, C, Fig. 46.
This joint is extensively used in the pattern making trade for
lap-jointing the arms of pulley patterns, etc. It is probably the most
difficult of the halving joints to mark out and construct with the
desired degree of accuracy.
[Illustration: Fig. 45.--Halved Joints on Barrow Wheels.]
[Illustration: Fig. 46.--Detail of Halved Joints in Fig. 45.]
Fig. 47 shows a combination of a bevelled dovetail half-lapped joint.
This is only used as a puzzle joint. When neatly constructed and glued
together it is apparently impossible to make it, showing as it does a
half lap on one side and a dovetailed half lap on the reverse side.
Fig. 48 is the end view of a kitchen table with drop leaf,
showing the skirting board scribed to the solid side. A table of
this type is fastened to the wall with two iron holdfasts which
engage the ends of the table. The hinged bracket frame shows the
application of the halving joint to bracket supports for this and
similar purposes, such as brackets to support shelving, etc. In
this example the hinged brackets turn underneath the table top,
and allow the leaf to drop out of the way when not required. The
dotted lines show the position of a shelf for boots and shoes.
[Illustration: Fig. 47.--Bevelled Dovetailed Half Lap.]
[Illustration: Fig. 48.--Bracket of Drop Table.]
[Illustration: Figs. 49 and 50.--Separate pieces of Halved Moulded
Joint.]
[Illustration: Fig. 51.--Oblique Cross Halving Joint.]
[Illustration: Fig. 52.--Manual Training Halved Exercise Joint.]
[Illustration: Fig. 53.--Exercise Dovetail Joint.]
[Illustration: Fig. 54.--Carpentry Tie Joint.]
Figs. 49 and 50 indicate the halving of cross pieces which have their
edges moulded; the pieces are shown separately, the moulding being
omitted to give a clearer representation of the method of construction.
[Illustration: Fig. 55.--Cross Halving Joint with Housed Corners.]
[Illustration: Fig. 56.--The parts of Fig. 55 shown separate.]
Fig. 51 is an "Oblique Cross Halving Joint" where the two pieces are not
at right angles. A plan and elevation of the joint are shown at the left,
whilst a sketch of one piece of the joint is given in the right-hand
illustration.
Figs. 52 and 53 are principally used as Manual Training models, and call
for patience and manual dexterity.
Fig. 54 is used in carpentry and joinery where a tie or cross piece ties
joists or beams at an angle.
Fig. 55 shows the elevation and end view of a "Cross Halving Joint" with
housed or notched shoulders. This joint is seldom used in actual
practice. The separate parts are given in Fig. 56.
At Fig. 57 are shown two cross rails and an upright halved together. This
type of joint is used where three pieces meet, as is the case in
building the framing of a poultry house. The joint is nailed together.
[Illustration: Fig. 57.--Cross Rail and Upright Halved Joint.]
[Illustration: Fig. 58.--Workshop Trestle Joint.]
[Illustration: Fig. 59.--Cellarette Partition Joints.]
Fig. 58 is the end view of an ordinary workshop trestle, showing the
application of dovetailed halving where the legs have a tendency to
strain outwards. The inset sketch of joint shows the housing of the top
rail to receive the legs.
Fig. 59 shows a deep drawer, generally known as a cellarette, and used in
a sideboard to accommodate wine bottles. Here we have a good example of
halving the cross pieces so as to form compartments. The part shown
separately illustrates the method of construction. The ends of these
pieces engage the housings or grooves of the drawer sides. Pigeon holes
or compartments in stationery cases, bookcases and writing bureaux are
constructed in a similar manner, although the method of housing, or
combined halving and housing, is to be preferred in some cases.
[Illustration: Fig. 60.--Joint used for Table with Circular Top or Rim.]
At Fig. 60 is the plan of a circular table having a small circular shelf
with the top removed. The rims or framing are built by the method known
as laminating (see Fig. 23 in chapter on the The Glued Joint), after
which they are veneered on the face sides. The application of the
halving joint to the shaped bottom rails, which in this case carry and
support the small shelf, is shown in the part elevation.
[Illustration: Fig. 61 (A).--Oxford Frame with Halved Joints. (Four
alternative corner treatments are given.)]
[Illustration: Fig. 61 (B).--Halved Joint of Oxford Frame with front
edges champered.]
[Illustration: Fig. 61 (C).--Back view of Oxford Frame.]
Fig. 61 (A) shows the well-known "Oxford frame," illustrating halved
joints when the edge is rebated. Figs. 61 (B) and 61 (C) make clear the
construction of this type of joint. Alternative suggestions are shown for
the treatment of the corners, the simple inlay being black and white
(ebony and holly or boxwood). Frames of this type are made in various
widths and sizes and are used for pictures, mirrors, etc.
[Illustration: Fig. 62.--The Two Pieces of a Halved Joint.]
The tools used for making joints of the above class are: planes, the
gauge, tenon or other saw, chisels, try square, and in some cases a
joiner's bevel to obtain and mark the necessary angles, pencil and
marking knife.
Plane up the face side and face edge of the timber, gauge and plane to
both thickness and width; mark shoulders with pencil or marking knife;
gauge to the thickness of the required halving; saw waste portions away;
pare up with chisel to a good fit; glue or glue and screw, or use paint
as previously mentioned, and then level off the surfaces.
SETTING OUT THE HALVED JOINT.--Although at first sight the halved joint
may appear to be a very easy item of construction, it requires much care
and attention in marking out and sawing. Fig. 62 shows the two pieces
which form the joint separated, and it will be noticed that each piece of
wood has half its thickness cut away, so as to accommodate the other
piece. This type of joint is used where two pieces of wood cross each
other at right angles, or at an angle as shown in Fig. 51. The halving
joint is used also for joining two pieces of wood at their ends, as, for
instance, the corner of a frame, one half of this joint being shown at
Fig. 65 (B).
[Illustration: Fig. 63.--How the Timber is Marked.]
[Illustration: Fig. 64.--Marking the Joint with Try Square.]
To make the joint, the timber should be carefully planed to its exact
width and thickness. The two pieces may then be placed upon the bench (as
shown at Fig. 63) or fixed in the vice.
Find the centre of the timber, C, Fig. 63, and set out half the width of
the wood on each side of the dotted centre line. Thus, suppose the wood
(W) to be 2 ins. wide, then set 1 in. on each side of the centre line.
Take a square as at Fig. 64, and with a sharp penknife blade score or cut
a line all round each piece of timber.
[Illustration: Fig. 65.--Using the Marking Gauge.]
Next take up a marking gauge, and set the marking point to half the
thickness of the wood. The distance may be measured, and its exactness
tested, by pricking a small hole from each side of the wood with the
marking gauge and carefully noting that the pricked holes coincide. The
gauge mark is clearly shown in the various illustrations. Now, take a
pencil and scribble or mark "waste" on the parts you intend to cut away.
This will save trouble later on, especially if you are making several
joints at once. Take your sharp penknife or marking knife blade, and cut
fairly deeply into the marked line on the portion you are going to pare
away.
[Illustration: Fig. 66.--Chiselling away Wood up to Gauge Line.]
[Illustration: Fig. 67.--How work is held when Sawing Shoulder.]
Fix the wood firmly in your vice, or against your cutting board or bench
stop, as may be more convenient to you, and with a sharp chisel cut away
the wood up to the marked line, as at Fig. 66. The channel in the sketch
is exaggerated, so as to show the method clearly. The object of using a
penknife or marking knife to mark your work, instead of using a pencil,
will be obvious. Owing to the knife having scored about 1/16 in. deep
across the fibres of the wood, the timber will come away cleanly when the
chisel is used, as at Fig. 66. The small channel thus made will form a
guide in which to start your tenon or dovetail saw; it prevents the saw
cutting on the wrong side of the marked line and thus making the halving
too wide.
[Illustration: Fig. 68.--Paring away Waste with Chisel.]
[Illustration: Fig. 69.--Showing an Oblique Halved Joint.]
SAWING.--Lay the work on the cutting board as at Fig. 67; or, if you
prefer, put the work in the vice. Carefully saw down the work until you
_just touch_ the gauge line. Do not press heavily with the saw; use it
lightly; the weight of the back iron which is fixed on the saw will
ensure the saw feeding into the work quite fast enough. If the saw is
newly sharpened it will, in fact, be an advantage to slightly ease the
weight of the saw from off the wood, owing to the keenness of its edge.
If the halving is a very wide one, additional cuts may be sawn between
the outside marks, and these will greatly facilitate the removal of the
waste wood when paring it away. For sawing the joint reference may be
made to the chapter on Dovetailing.
[Illustration: Fig. 70.--Sawing the Cheek of a Halving Joint.]
PARING away the waste material with a chisel is the next step, and this
is shown at Fig. 68. The work may be chiselled either in a vertical or a
horizontal position. The horizontal position is the easiest for the
amateur who has a vice or handscrew, because he may hold the work
securely with a mechanical device and so avoid the unnecessary risk to
his fingers.
Take the chisel and cut away A, Fig. 68; now turn the chisel and cut
away B; after which keep the chisel horizontal and cut off "the top of
the hill," as it were, C. Repeat the three operations until you gradually
pare the wood away exactly to the gauge line. When chiselling, if you
find a tendency for the work to chip or crumble at the back edge owing to
the forward pressure of the chisel, turn your wood round and begin to cut
from the other edge, allowing the chisel to finish paring at the centre.
JOINTS OTHER THAN A RIGHT ANGLE.--If the halving joint is at an angle
similar to the sketch shown at Fig. 69, great care will have to be
exercised in the use of the chisel, owing to the change in the direction
of the grain of the wood. The arrow marks in this sketch distinctly
indicate the direction in which the chiselling must be done so as to give
a smooth result. This change of direction for cutting also applies to the
bottom of the halving joint.
CUTTING JOINT AT END OF TIMBER (Fig. 70).--Should the halving joint be
used at the end of a piece of wood, as at Fig. 30, the waste material may
be roughly sawn away and the flat surface trimmed up with a chisel.
To saw out this type of halving joint, proceed to work the shoulder line
as already described; then place the piece of wood obliquely in the vice
as shown (Fig. 70) and proceed to saw down the vertical line, carefully
watching the gauge line to see that you saw on the _waste_ side of the
lines. Then turn the piece of timber with its opposite edge towards you,
and again use the saw as illustrated. You will this time only have to
watch the gauge mark on the edge of the wood, because the saw will
readily follow in the saw kerf already made. Now place the wood
vertically in the vice, and keeping the saw in a horizontal position, saw
down to the shoulder line.
Halving joints properly made and fitted should knock together with the
weight of the clenched fist; the use of a heavy mallet or hammer will
deface the work.
[Illustration: Fig. 71.--Joints used in the erection of a Queen Post Roof
Truss.]
THE BRIDLE JOINT
A bridle joint is often defined as the reverse of a mortise and tenon,
and is chiefly used in the carpentry and joinery trades. The name
probably originated from the fact that it bears some resemblance to the
manner in which a bit slips into the horse's mouth and is fastened to the
bridle. There are fewer varieties of the bridle joint than of the halved
or the mortise and tenon; and this being the case we may take the
opportunity of giving a few detailed directions, with explanatory
illustrations, on the setting out and the making.
[Illustration: Fig. 72.--Simple Bridle Joint.]
Fig. 72 shows a bridle joint in what is perhaps its simplest form, the
separate pieces being given at the left and the completed joint at the
right. A joint of this type may be applied in nearly all cases where a
halved or a mortise and tenon joint could be used. Bridle joints have an
advantage as regards appearance over the mortise and tenoned variety in
cases such as Fig. 73, which shows an occasional table leg fitted to the
circular top framing. The bridle joint here allows the grain of the leg
to run through to the top, and gives a better and more workmanlike
appearance to the completed article.
[Illustration: Fig. 73.--Table Leg Bridle-jointed to Rail.]
Fig. 74 is a "Mitred bridle joint," the part _a_ showing the upright
portion separated. This is a most useful joint for positions similar to
that shown in the small glass frame, Fig. 75. The wood framing in this
case is only 1-3/8 in. in width, and if a mortise were used it would have
to be exceptionally small. The shaped rail at the bottom of this frame
again shows the application of the bridle joint.
Fig. 76 shows an "Oblique bridle joint," used in many instances as a
brace, or strut, to prevent framing from racking. (See also Figs. 31 and
32.)
Fig. 77 is a "Stopped bridle joint," used in positions where the top or
bottom edge of the work meets the eye, and where, if the rail were
allowed to run through, the end grain would appear unsightly.
[Illustration: Fig. 74.--Mitre Bridle Joint.]
[Illustration: Fig. 75.--Mirror Frame with Bridle Joints.]
Fig. 78 is a so-called bridle-joint at the corner of a frame. This is
also called an "Open slot mortise and tenon joint," a good strong,
serviceable joint which can be used instead of the closed mortise and
tenon type, its advantage being that less labour is required in the
making. (See also Fig. 169.)
Fig. 79 is an "Oblique angle bridle joint," used in similar positions to
the above, but when the two pieces meet at an acute angle at the end of a
frame.
Fig. 80 shows the application of the bridle joint to a roof truss. Two
sketches are shown at the joining of the tie beam and the principal
rafter. The joint _a_ is the type generally used. (See also Fig. 71 for
the joints in a queen post roof.)
[Illustration: Fig. 76.--Oblique Bridle Joint.]
[Illustration: Fig. 77.--Stopped Bridle Joint.]
[Illustration: Fig. 78.--Bridle Joint at Corner of Frame.]
[Illustration: Fig. 79.--Oblique Angle Bridle Joint.]
[Illustration: Fig. 80.--Application of Bridle Joint to Roof Truss.]
SETTING OUT AND MARKING.--It is a safe rule, when setting out a bridle
joint, to divide the thickness of the timber into three equal parts. This
will leave the timber on each side of the tongue equal to the thickness
of the tongue, thus giving uniform strength to the joint. The bridle
joint is chiefly used for connecting the internal parts of wooden frames.
It is stronger than the halving joint, and, owing to its peculiar
construction, requires little in the way of pegs, screws or nails to
secure it in position. Fig. 81 illustrates the joint, both open and
closed.
To understand the method of setting out and marking, glance at the
sketch, Fig. 81. It is not necessary that the bridle piece A be the same
width as the cross piece B; but it must be remembered when setting out
the joint with the marking knife or pencil that the width marked W on
piece B must be equal to the width W on the piece A. The timber should be
fairly accurately sawn or planed to the same thickness, and all edges
should be square and true.
The wood is placed upon the bench, and the joint marked out by using a
marking knife or penknife blade and the try square. A knife blade is much
better than a pencil, as the sharp edge severs the fibres of the wood and
gives a finer line than the pencil. It is not always necessary to exactly
square and trim the end of piece A; it may with advantage in many cases
be left at least 1/4 in. longer than necessary and levelled off with the
saw, plane and chisel after the joint is put together. (See Method of
Cutting in Fig. 92, page 47.)
When the piece A has to have a bridle joint fitted at each end, it is
customary to cut the timber about 3/8 in. longer than necessary, and mark
the shoulder lines C to the exact length, after which the joints are cut.
This leaves the ends standing over the horizontal rails, and, after
fixing the complete frame together, the small projecting ends are
levelled off flush with the cross rails.
GAUGING.--After squaring all the shoulder lines round the timber with the
knife and try square, the mortise gauge should be set so as to strike the
two gauge lines marked G, Figs. 83 and 84, at one operation. If the
worker does not possess a mortise gauge the lines may be marked at two
distinct operations with the aid of the marking gauge (Fig. 82). The
gauge should be adjusted so as to mark the wood into thirds, and the
stock of the gauge (the portion of the gauge containing the thumb screw
in Fig. 82) must be used from the face side of the timber when gauging up
the whole of the pieces forming a frame. The face mark on the work is
indicated by a glorified comma, and the edge mark is shown by X, as in
the various illustrations. Fig. 82 shows the method of holding the gauge
in the right hand whilst gauging the lines on the work.
[Illustration: Fig. 81.--Bridle Joint, open and closed.]
[Illustration: Fig. 82.--Gauging the Timber.]
The joint, when marked out, will appear as at Figs. 83 and 84, and the
portions which are to be cut away may be shaded with a pencil as
indicated; this will prevent mistakes arising whilst cutting the work,
especially by one who is not thoroughly familiar with the joint.
The distance A B, in Fig. 84, must not be less than the distance A B in
Fig. 83.
[Illustration: Fig. 83., Fig. 84. The Two Parts of the Joint
Marked.]
BORING AWAY WASTE.--Examine Fig. 84; the shaded portion in the centre has
to be cut away, and it will greatly facilitate the removal of this waste
piece by boring a hole with a twist bit at the position shown. The twist
bit should be about 1/8 in. less in diameter than the width between the
gauge lines G. The easiest method of boring out this hole is shown at
Fig. 85, which gives the correct position of the worker.
[Illustration: Fig. 85.--Vertical Boring previous to Chiselling.]
SAWING.--The wood should be put in the vice as Fig. 86. Taking up a saw,
with the index finger on the side of the handle, commence sawing, and
proceed until you come to the position indicated by the dotted hand and
saw A; this will leave a saw kerf or cut running diagonally from the
shoulder line to corner of the wood. Release the vice and refix the wood
so that it leans in exactly the opposite direction to Fig. 86; then
reverse your own position and repeat the sawing, so as to cut another
diagonal saw cut from the shoulder line to the corner. Fix the wood
upright, as shown at Fig. 87, and saw as shown, when you will find that
the saw has no tendency to run out of the guide cuts already formed by
the method used at Fig. 86. Remember, when commencing to saw at Fig. 86,
that it is necessary to saw inside the gauge line; otherwise the joint
will be too slack, owing to the amount of sawdust removed by the
thickness of the saw blade. The index finger on the side of the saw,
pointing in the direction of the saw cut, will greatly help the worker
to saw in a straight line, as it is natural to point with this finger to
any object that is to be aimed at.
[Illustration: Fig. 86.--How the Saw is held for the first Cut.]
Cut down the other line in a similar manner, and then with a chisel of
suitable width carefully chop away the waste material. The wood may be
placed edge way upon the bench, or in the vice, and the chisel should be
held vertically. The hole which has been bored with the twist bit will
allow the chips which are cut away to offer little or no resistance to
the chisel blade. The chiselling should not all be done from one side, or
a chipped under-edge will be the result; it is better to chisel the work
until half-way through and then turn the other edge of the wood uppermost
and again begin to chisel from the top. This method will finish the
cutting in the centre of the work and prevent burred and ragged or
chipped edges at the shoulder.
[Illustration: Fig. 87.--Third, or Horizontal Cut.]
[Illustration: Fig. 88.--Chiselling Operation.]
CUTTING THE SHOULDERS.--With regard to working the piece B, Fig. 81,
place the wood against the bench stop or in the vice, and taking up a
3/4-in. chisel carefully cut away a small channel, as shown at Fig. 88;
treat the other shoulder lines in a similar manner. If the marking knife
or penknife blade has been used with a fair amount of pressure so as to
score the fibres of the wood, this small channel, which is to form a
guide for the saw, will quickly and easily be cut. Next place the wood in
the vice or on the cutting board as shown at Fig. 89, and begin by sawing
lightly at the back edge as shown. When the saw has entered the wood 1/4
in. gradually bring the handle down from position A to position B (dotted
lines) whilst the saw is in motion. Continue sawing until just on the
gauge line; then treat the other shoulder lines in a similar manner.
[Illustration: Fig. 89.--Sawing the Shoulders.]
CHISELLING AWAY WASTE.--Fix your wood firmly in any suitable manner, vice
or otherwise, and, holding your chisel tilted as at Fig. 90, pare away
the blacked portion 1; then pare away the blacked portion 2; after which
hold the chisel flat and by gradual operations pare away the dotted lines
3, until you come down to the gauge line; then repeat the method of
cutting on the opposite side of the wood. If any difficulty be
experienced by chipped or ragged edges whilst chiselling, it can easily
be overcome by chiselling alternately from the outside of the wood, so
that the finish of the chisel cut takes place in the centre of the work.
Some prefer to chisel away the waste by placing the wood on its edge and
using the chisel vertically instead of horizontally. The same methods (1,
2 and 3) hold good in this case.
[Illustration: Fig. 90.--Chiselling away Waste.]
JOINTS OTHER THAN AT 90°.--The two pieces forming a bridle joint are not
always at right angles, as at Fig. 81; in many instances it is necessary
that the joint be at other than 90 degrees. The work, however, is treated
in a similar manner, with the exception that an adjustable joiner's bevel
is used instead of a try square to mark out the shoulder lines, and that
a change of direction in the grain of the wood will occur when chiselling
out the work. Fig. 91 indicates the change in the grain of the wood, and
the adjustable joiner's bevel is also shown.
[Illustration: Fig. 91.--Bridle Joint at Angle other than Right Angle.]
[Illustration: Fig. 92.--Sawing off Waste from Bridle Joint. (See
reference on page 39.)]
THE TONGUED AND GROOVED JOINT
The tongued and grooved joint is used in one form or another throughout
the whole of the woodworking trades, covering, as it does, a great
variety of work from the laying of flooring boards to the construction of
dressers, bookcases and other cabinet work.
FLOORING and match boarding generally have the tongues worked on the
solid board, and examples of a few of the various types are shown as
follows:--
[Illustration: Fig. 93.--Tongued and Grooved Flooring Board.]
[Illustration: Fig. 94., Fig. 95. Method of Nailing Hardwood
Floors.]
Fig. 93 shows the end view of the ordinary 7/8-in. "Tongued and Grooved
Flooring board," as used in the construction of floors for mills,
workshops and cottage property. This type of flooring is nailed to the
joists in the ordinary manner, no attempt being made to conceal the nails
used.
Fig. 94 is a section of flooring which is generally made of hardwood,
such as maple, oak, or jarrah. It is used in positions such as ballroom
and skating rink floors, etc., the tongue and groove being worked in such
a manner that the joint covers the nails as shown. Each nail is driven
into its position at one edge of the board, the groove holding the next
board and hiding the nail (Fig. 95).
[Illustration: Fig. 96.--Tongued and Grooved Matchboarding, with Bead on
One Side.]
[Illustration: Fig. 97.--Tongued and Grooved Matchboarding, with Bead at
Each Side.]
[Illustration: Fig. 98.--Matchboarding, Tongued, Grooved and Vee'd.]
Fig. 96 shows an example of matchboarding known as "Tongued, Grooved and
Beaded" on one side only, and Fig. 97 shows a similar type tongued,
grooved and beaded on both sides. This variety of matchboarding is known
in the trade as "T. G. and B." It is used for nailing on framing to form
partitions for rooms, offices, etc., for panelling corridors, etc., and
for making framed and ledged doors, building tool houses, cycle sheds and
other outhouses.
Fig. 98 is an example of matchboarding that is tongued, grooved and vee'd
on one side, and Fig. 99 shows tongued, grooved and vee'd both sides.
These are used for similar purposes to Figs. 96 and 97, and many prefer
the V matchboarding variety because it is more easily painted than the
beaded variety.
The object of working a bead or beads on matchboarding is to break the
jointing of the various pieces and to aim at ornamental effect; also to
prevent unsightliness should the timber shrink slightly. When a moderate
amount of shrinkage takes place, as is nearly always the case, the joint
at the side of the bead appears to the casual observer to be the fillet
or channel worked at the side of the bead. If the tongues are not painted
before the work is put together, the shrinkage will cause the raw wood to
show and thus make the joint too much in evidence.
[Illustration: Fig. 99.--Matchboarding Vee'd Both Sides.]
[Illustration: Fig. 100.--Double-tongued Matchboarding.]
[Illustration: Fig. 101.--Double-dovetailed, Tongued and Grooved.]
Fig. 100 shows a "Double tongued and grooved" joint used in the wholesale
cabinet factories. It is preferred for the jointing of cabinet stock, and
the amateur can make a similar joint by working two grooves and inserting
loose tongues.
Fig. 101 is the end view of a "Double-dovetailed, tongued and grooved"
joint, and Fig. 102 is a sketch of a similar joint having only one
dovetailed tongue.
From a constructional point of view Fig. 101 is far and away the best
joint that has yet been produced. Unfortunately, however, there is not at
the present time any hand tool that will economically produce it, owing
probably to the fact that the joint is the subject of a patent. The
dovetail tongue tapers slightly throughout its entire length, gripping
the joint on the principle of the wedge and squeezing the glue into the
pores of the wood.
[Illustration: Fig. 102.--Joint with Single Dovetail Tongue and Groove.]