The beautiful bronze and silver jewellery, and implements of war of the
early Viking period, found in Norway, Sweden and Denmark, display no
trace of plant forms in their ornamentation, the latter consisting
wholly of interlacing animal forms, chiefly the dragon. The viking ship
found at Sandifiord in 1880, although destitute of ornament, shows
traces of the “Bronze Dragon Prow,” referred to in the early
Scandinavian Sagas. At the commencement of the 12th century, plant forms
are found mingled with the dragons, and figure sculpture became
important in treating of the myths of the gods; Frey, Woden, Thor and
Fyr, of the pagan period, being influenced by the newer cult in
religion. This is shown by the Sigurd Overlap.
Hreiômar had three sons, Otter, Fafni and Regan. Otter was killed one
day by Loki, one of the three Scandinavian gods--Loki, Hœni and
Woden--these being seized by Hreiômar, who would only release them when
the skin of Otter should be covered with gold. Thereupon Loki seized the
dwarf Andwan, who was made to give up his treasure of gold, and a ring
of magical properties, carrying with it a curse, that the treasure
should be the death of those who held it. Loki then returned and covered
the skin of Otter with the gold (fig. 3), after which the gods were set
at liberty. Then Hreiômar was slain by his sons for the treasure. Fafni,
after seizing the latter, took the form of a dragon, and lay guarding
the plunder at Gnita Heath. Regan, his brother, in order to obtain the
treasure, prompted Sigurd, his foster son, to slay the dragon. Sigurd,
in testing his sword, broke it in twain, thereupon Regan made him a
magic sword, with which he lay in the trail of the dragon, and pierced
it through (figs. 1-4). Then Regan took out the heart of the dragon,
which Sigurd cut into slices and toasted while Regan slept. Sigurd,
burning his fingers, places them in his mouth, and tasted the blood of
Fafni, the dragon (fig. 1), and, lo! he heard the voice of birds saying
that Regan was plotting to kill him. Then Sigurd killed Regan, eat the
heart of Fafni, placed the treasure on the back of the noble horse
Grani, and departed, only to be slain for the gold by Gunnar, who for
this crime was cast into the pit of serpents (fig. 1).[A]
This myth explains much of the Scandinavian ornament, for in figs. 1 and
2 the story is told in a series of incidents remarkable for the
fertility of invention and dracontine ornamentation. Halton Cross, in
Lancashire, and a slab at Kirk Andreas, Isle of Man, illustrate the same
subjects, dating from the 11th century. In later times the dragon
becomes more pronounced in character, until in the 14th century it fills
the whole portal with the beautiful interlacing ornament (fig. 6).
[Illustration:
CELTIC ORNAMENT. Plate 13.
]
CELTIC ORNAMENT.
No period in the history of Art is more remarkable than the Celtic. The
carved stone architecture and crosses, the bronzes, enamels and
silversmith’s work, the splendid illuminated books and manuscripts with
capitals and borders, full of imagery and intricacy of detail, and the
clear and accurate writing of the text, are all indications of the
culture and love of ornament of the early Irish people. The incised
ornament upon the stone tumuli of the 3rd and 4th centuries B.C. show
simple forms such as chequers, chevrons, circles and spirals which are
used by almost all primitive people, yet even at this early stage the
Celts show a remarkable preference for the spiral and interlacing forms.
The bronze shield (fig. 6), with its spirals and bosses of enamel
enriched with the northern “Fylfot” is a typical example of the 2nd or
3rd century, A.D. Then comes the trumpet pattern or divergent spiral,
which, seen in its infancy on the bronze shield, reached a great degree
of elaboration in the 8th and 9th centuries (figs. 2 to 7), being
typical of Celtic work up to the middle of the 11th century when all
trace of this spiral is lost. The interlacing bird and animal forms used
from the 8th to the 14th centuries are doubtless derived from Byzantine
and Lombardic sources. The serpent or dragon, which is such a marked
feature from the 7th to the 15th century must have been borrowed from
the north, as Ireland had no traditions of dragons, and it is to
Scandinavia, with its legend of Fafni, that we must look for the origin
of the dracontine treatment. It is this Zormorpic character that
distinguishes the Celtic from all other styles of ornament except
Scandinavian.
[Illustration]
[Illustration]
The illustrations given here from the Lismore crosier are typical
examples of this Celtic dracontine treatment. The early or Pagan period
is noted for its bronze work, cast and wrought, and enriched with
Champlevé enamels. The fine chalice of Ardagh (plate 34) and the Tara
Brooch (7th century) are splendid examples of the Christian period
dating from St. Patrick, A.D. 440-460. The beautiful Book of Kells, A.D.
650-690, the Book of Armagh, A.D. 807, the Book of Durrow, A.D. 750
(Trinity College, Dublin), and the Book of Durham, A.D. 689-721, written
by Eadfrith and illuminated by Ethelwald, are a tribute to the vitality,
assimilation of ideas, and the culture and wonderful craftsmanship of
the early Irish people.
NORMAN AND GOTHIC ARCHITECTURE.
English Gothic Architecture has been broadly divided into periods for
the purpose of classifying the styles, the following being the most
generally accepted.
By SHARPE.[B]
A.D.
Romanesque {Saxon 1066.
{Norman 1066-1145.
{Transitional 1145-1190.
Gothic {Lancet 1190-1245.
{Curvilinear 1245-1360.
{Rectilinear 1360-1550.
By RICKMAN.[C]
A.D.
Norman 1066-1189.
Early English 1189-1307.
Decorated 1307-1379.
Perpendicular 1379-1483.
Tudor 1483-1546.
French Classification by DE CAUMONT.
{Primordiale 5th to 10th century.
Romanesque {Secondaire 10th to 12th “
{Tertiaire 12th “
{Primitive 13th century.
Pointed {Secondaire or Rayonnant 14th “
{Tertiaire or Flamboyant 15th “
Most of our magnificent cathedrals were founded A.D. 1066-1170 by Norman
bishops, some upon the old Saxon foundations, such as Canterbury and
York, or near the original Saxon buildings as at Winchester, or upon new
sites such as Norwich and Peterborough, and were without exception more
magnificent erections than those of the anterior period, portions of the
older style still existing in many cathedrals, showing the fusion of
Roman and Byzantine architecture with the more personal and vigorous art
of the Celtic, Saxon, and Scandinavian peoples.
The plan, given on next page, of Lincoln Cathedral shows no trace of the
apsidial arrangement so universal in Norman and French cathedrals, and
is therefore considered a typical English cathedral. Each vertical
division in the nave, the choir, and transept is termed a bay. On plate
14 is an illustration of four typical bays of English cathedrals,
showing the development of style from the 12th to the 15th century. The
general characteristic of each bay is given separately, but obviously it
can only be approximate, as the building of each cathedral was
influenced by local considerations, each period necessarily overlapping
its predecessor, thus forming a transitional style. For instance, in the
choir of Ripon Cathedral, the aisle and clerestory have semi-circular
Norman windows and the nave arcading has pointed arches. In the
Triforium and Clerestory arcading, round arches are seen side by side
with the pointed arch.
The PIERS (sometimes termed columns) of these bays have distinctive
features which are characteristic of each period of the Gothic
development. Sketch plans are here given showing the changes that took
place in the shape of the pier from 1066 to 1500. The same general
characteristics are observed in the arch mouldings and string courses.
[Illustration]
CHARACTERISTICS OF THE NORMAN PERIOD.
NAVE ARCADING. The universal use of the round arch, cylindrical or
rectangular piers with semi-circular shafts attached to each face.
Capitals cubical and cushion shaped. Arch mouldings enriched with
concentric rows of Chevron and Billet ornament.
[Illustration]
TRIFORIUM. In early work, of one arch. In later work, two or four small
arches carried on single shafts under one large semi-circular arch.
CLEARSTORY. One window with an open arcading in front, of three arches,
the centre one larger and often stilted. This arcade forms a narrow
gallery in the thickness of the Clearstory wall. The roof of the nave,
of wood, flat and panelled, roof of the aisles, semi-circular quadra
partite vaulting.
An arcading of semi-circular arches was usually placed upon the wall,
under the aisle windows.
Early windows are narrow, flush with the external wall, and deeply
splayed on the inside. Later windows are recessed externally, with jamb
shafts and capitals supporting an enriched moulded arch. A few
semi-circular rose windows still remain, of which a fine example is to
be found in Barfrestone Church, Kent.
EARLY ENGLISH OR LANCET PERIOD.
The Lancet or pointed arch universal.
CAPITALS, of three lobed foliage and circular abacus. The pier arch
mouldings, alternate rounds and hollows deeply cut and enriched with the
characteristic dog’s tooth ornament. A hood moulding which terminates in
bosses of foliage or sculptured heads invariably surrounds the arch
mouldings. This moulded hood when used externally is termed a
“Dripstone,” and when used horizonally over a square headed window a
“Label.”
The TRIFORIUM has a single or double arch, which covers the smaller or
subordinate arches, the spandrels being enriched with a sunk or pierced
trefoil or quatrefoil. The Triforium piers are solid, having delicate
shafts attached to them, carrying arch mouldings of three orders, and
enriched with the _Dog’s tooth_ ornament or trefoil foliage.
The CLEARSTORY lancet windows are in triplets, with an arcading on the
inner face of the wall. The vaulting shaft occasionally springs from the
floor, but more usually from a corbel above the nave capitals, and
finishes under the clearstory string with an enriched capital, from
which springs the simple vaulting usually quadrapartite or hexapartite
in form. Early windows in small churches were arranged in couplets and
at the east end, usually in triplets, with grisaille stained glass
similar to the example given on the next page from Salisbury Cathedral.
The annexed example from the east end of Rievaulx Abbey shows a finely
proportioned window and its arrangement.
[Illustration]
Figure sculpture, beautiful and refined in treatment, was frequently
used upon external walls. The figures of Saints and Bishops were placed
singly under triangular pediments and cusped arches, of which there are
fine examples at Wells, Lichfield, Exeter, and Salisbury (fig. 5, plate
14). Splendid examples of circular rose windows are to be seen in the
north and south transepts of Lincoln Cathedral, also at York, but they
are comparatively rare in England, while France possesses over 100 of
the finest and most important examples of this type of ecclesiastical
adornment. They are to be seen in the Cathedrals of Notre Dame, Rouen,
Chartres, and Rheims.
[Illustration]
DECORATED OR GEOMETRIC PERIOD.
In this, the piers have engaged shafts with capitals having plain
mouldings or enriched with finely carved foliage of the oak, maple, or
mallow. The pier arches have mouldings of three orders, also enriched,
usually with the characteristic ball flower, or foliage similar to that
upon the capitals.
The TRIFORIUM consists of double arches, with subordinate cusped arches,
adorned with Geometric tracery.
The inner arcading of the Clearstory is absent, the one large window
being divided by mullions and geometrical tracery, or by equilateral
triangles enriched with circular and bar tracery (fig. 3, plate 14).
Above the pier capitals an enriched corbel is usually placed from which
springs the vaulting shafts, terminating with a richly carved capital
under the Clearstory string.
The aisle arcading, as a rule, is very beautiful, having geometric
tracery and finely proportioned mouldings, the aisle windows with
mullions and bold geometric tracery. The circular rose windows of the
transepts are typical of this period.
PERPENDICULAR AND TUDOR.
The PIERS of this style are lofty and enriched with shallow mouldings
carried round the pier arch, where capitals are introduced, they
frequently resemble a band round the pier at the springing of the arch,
or occasionally they are octagonal in form, and decorated with an
angular treatment of the vine. In some instances, the upper part of the
plain octagonal capital is relieved with an embattlement. The latter is
also frequently used as a cresting for the elaborate perpendicular
screens, or for relieving the clearstory strings.
The TRIFORIUM is absent in this period, the bay consisting of two
horizontal divisions only. The CLEARSTORY, owing to the suppression of
the Triforium becomes of more importance. The windows are large and
often in pairs, with vertical mullions extending to the arch mouldings
of the window head. The aisle windows are similar, and when lofty have
horizontal transoms, on which the battlement ornament is displayed. The
aisle arcading being also suppressed, all plain wall space was covered
with perpendicular surface tracery. Enrichment of this type was used in
the greatest profusion upon walls, parapets, buttresses, and arches,
also upon the jambs and soffits of doorways. This, together with the use
of the four-centred arch, forms the characteristic features of the
Perpendicular or Tudor period. English cathedrals show a marked contrast
in scale to contemporary French buildings. The English nave and choir is
less in height and width but greater in length than French cathedrals.
For instance, Westminster is the highest of our English cathedrals, with
its nave and choir 103 ft. from floor to roof, 30 ft. wide, and 505 feet
in length. York is next with 101 ft. from floor to roof, 45 ft. wide,
and 486 ft. in length. Salisbury is 84 ft. from floor to roof, 32 ft.
wide, and 450 ft. in length, and Canterbury 80 ft. from floor to roof,
39 ft. wide, and 514 ft. in length. Lincoln with 82 ft. and Peterborough
with 81 ft. are the only other examples reaching 80 ft. in height; York
with 45 ft. being the only one reaching above 40 ft. in width of nave.
The measurements of contemporary French cathedrals on the other hand,
being as follows:--Chartres, 106 ft. from floor to roof, 46 ft. wide,
and 415 ft. in length; Notre Dame, 112 ft. from floor to roof, 46 ft.
wide, and 410 ft. in length; Rheims, 123 ft. from floor to roof, 41 ft.
wide, and 485 ft. in length, while that at Beauvais reaches the great
height of 153 ft. in the nave, 45 ft. in width, and only 263 ft. in
length.
The remarkable growth of the Gothic style during the 13th and 14th
centuries was contemporary in England, France, Flanders, Germany, and in
a less degree in Italy. One of the most beautiful churches in Italy, is,
S. Maria della Spina, at Pisa, with its rich crocketed spires and
canopies, features which were repeated a little later at the tomb of the
famous _Scaligers_ at Verona. At Venice, the Gothic is differentiated by
the use of the ogee arch with cusps and pierced quatrefoils. It was in
France and England where Gothic architecture reached its culmination;
the abbeys and cathedrals, with pinnacles, spires, and towers, enriched
with the most vigorous and beautiful sculpture; the arcadings and
canopies with crockets, finials, and cusps, vibrating with interest and
details, and the splendid windows filled with glorious coloured glass,
are all tributes to the religious zeal and splendid craftsmanship of the
middle ages.
On the opposite page are illustrations showing the modifications that
took place in the evolution of church architecture from the 12th to the
15th century. The triforium in the Norman period was fundamental, but in
the Perpendicular period this feature was absent. The change of style
may also be observed in the windows of each bay, from the simple Norman
one (fig. 1) to the vertical mullioned 15th century window, figs. 4 and
8.
[Illustration:
THE TRIFORIUM & CLEARSTORY. Plate 14.
]
[Illustration:
NORMAN DETAILS. Plate 15.
]
NORMAN DETAILS.
Norman architecture was distinguished by the use of the traditional
semi-circular arch, superseded by the pointed arch of the early Gothic
period. These semi-circular arches in the earlier dates were decorated
with rudely executed carvings, cut or worked with the axe. Later Norman
work is very rich, the mouldings being well carved with enrichments of
the Chevron, the Cable Pallet, Star, Fret or Key Patterns; the lozenge
and the beading or pearling. Characteristic features of this period also
are the beak-head (fig. 5) and the corbel-table, which was a series of
heads of men or animals, from which spring small arches supporting the
parapet. Many rich examples of Norman surface ornament are still extant;
at Christchurch, Hants, a beautiful intersecting arcading of
semi-circular arches occurs, the enrichment above being a scale or
imbricated pattern; at St. Peter’s, Northampton, a very rich example of
surface ornamentation may be seen (fig 6).
Floral forms are but rarely used in Norman ornament; instances are known
of the use of the rose and the fir-apple, but they are the exception and
not the rule.
Early doorways usually have a square head recessed under semi-circular
arch mouldings, decorated with the Chevron, Key, or Beak-head. The
semi-circular Tympanum over the door was plain or enriched with rude
sculpture in low relief. Later doors show a great profusion of ornament
in the archivolt and arch mouldings, which are often carried down the
jamb mouldings. The recessed columns are also enriched with the Chevron,
or diagonal lines of pearling (fig. 1), and have sculptured capitals
showing a classical tendency in the arrangement of acanthus foliage and
the volute. Fine examples of this period may be seen in the west front
of Lincoln Cathedral (fig. 1), the Galilee porch at Durham, and the west
door of Iffley Church, Oxfordshire.
The Norman capitals are usually cushion-shaped, with a square abacus,
enriched with the Chevron, star pattern, or the anthemion (fig. 9). The
capital itself was decorated with the anthemion, or with rude volutes or
segments of circles.
The architecture of this period in France, differing from contemporary
work in England, shows a strong Roman influence, hence its
name--Romanesque. St. Trophine at Arles is a fine example of this style,
beautiful in its proportions and vigorous in detail. The west front of
Angouleme Cathedral, with its profusion of semi-circular arcading,
displays more affinity to contemporary work in England. In the two
French capitals (figs. 9 and 10) a characteristic treatment of animals
and birds may be seen, showing a strong vitality in the ornamental art
of that period.
[Illustration:
EARLY GOTHIC DETAILS. Plate 16.
]
EARLY GOTHIC DETAILS.
The NORMAN style was succeeded by the pointed, or GOTHIC style,
remarkable for its variety, its beauty of proportion, and the singular
grace and vigour of its ornament. Showing no traditions, beyond Sicilian
and Arabian influence, it grew rapidly, and reached a high degree of
perfection in France and England. The massive and barbaric character of
the Norman style gave place to the light clustered shafts and
well-proportioned mouldings of the early English Gothic, with its
capitals characterised by a circular abacus, and the typical three-lobed
foliage growing upwards from the necking of the shafts, thence spreading
out in beautiful curves and spirals under the abacus. This tendency to
the spiral line is peculiar to the early Gothic, and differentiates it
from the Decorated and Perpendicular Period. The diagrams of the three
crockets here given show the distinctive character of English Gothic
ornament.
[Illustration: A]
[Illustration: B]
[Illustration: C]
A. Early Gothic, three lobed leaves arranged in spiral lines. B.
Decorated Gothic, with natural types of foliage, such as the oak and
maple, with a flowing indulating line. C. Perpendicular Gothic, showing
the vine and leaves as elements, and arranged in a square and angular
manner. The same features and characteristics are observed in the
borders here given.
[Illustration]
[Illustration]
[Illustration]
The beautiful carved spandril from the stone church, Kent (fig. 1), is
remarkable for the vigour and flexibility of curve, its recurring forms
of ornamentation, and admirable spacing, typical of much of our early
English foliage.
The type of foliage in early English stained glass is somewhat similar
to contemporary carved work, but showing more of the
[Illustration:
DECORATED AND PERPENDICULAR
GOTHIC DETAILS. Plate 17.
]
profile of the leaf, and it has a geometric or radiating arrangement in
addition to the spiral forms of foliage.
Early French work (figs. 7 and 8), with its square abacus, differs from
the early English, in having less of the spiral arrangement, and a
rounder type of leaf, together with the absence of the mid rib, which is
so characteristic of contemporary early English Gothic. The plain
moulded capitals so prevalent in this country are rarely found in
France.
[Illustration]
DECORATED & PERPENDICULAR GOTHIC DETAILS.
Decorated Gothic is remarkable for its geometric tracery, its natural
types of foliage, and the undulating character of line and form in its
ornamental details. The foliage of the oak, the vine, the maple, the
rose, and the ivy were introduced in much luxuriance and profusion,
being carved with great delicacy and accuracy. Lacking the dignity and
architectonic qualities of the early Gothic foliage, it surpassed it in
brilliancy and inventiveness of detail. The Capitals, enriched with
adaptations from nature, carved with admirable precision, were simply
attached round the bell, giving variety and charm of modelling, but
lacking that architectonic unity which was so characteristic of early
work.
Diaper work, crockets and finials, introduced in the early English, were
now treated with exceeding richness, and used in great profusion. The
ball flower so characteristic of the Decorated period replaced the
equally characteristic tooth enrichment of the preceeding style.
French Contemporary Work has similar characteristics, but displays more
reserve and affinity for architectural forms.
This brilliant Decorated period reached its culminating point within
half a century and then rapidly gave place to the Perpendicular Style,
with its distinctive vertical bar tracery of windows and surface
panelling, and the prevalent use of the four centred arch--of octagonal
capitals enriched with the angular treatment of the vine,--of heraldic
shields and arms, and of the four-leaved flower; all typical of the
period.
[Illustration:
RENASCENCE ORNAMENT. Plate 18.
]
RENASCENCE ORNAMENT.
The arts of Rome and Byzantium lingered in Italy until the 12th century,
losing their vitality and vigour, except at Venice, where the Byzantine
style reached a culminating point in the glorious buildings at Murano
and of St. Mark’s.